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Notes
William Shakespeare, Macbeth, IV, i.
I am grateful to Thomas Emmert, Jasna Dragović‐Soso, Reneo Lukić, and Vjeran Pavlaković for their most helpful comments on an earlier draft of this article.
This approach is discussed in the context of a review of alternative explanations of the Yugoslav troubles in Davorin Rudolf, Rat koji nismo htjeli. Hrvatska 1991 (Zagreb: Nakladni zavod Globus, 1999), pp. 19–35.
Rodney Atkinson, “Yugoslavia and Its Enemies, 1903–1998,” ⟨www.1335.com/Serbia.html⟩ (accessed 28 August 2003), p. 1.
Gerard F. Powers, “Religion, Conflict and Prospects for Peace in Bosnia, Croatia and Yugoslavia,” Religion in Eastern Europe, Vol. 16, No. 5, 1996, p. 1.
For documentation of this claim, see Sabrina Petra Ramet, “Yugoslavia and the Two Germanys,” in Dirk Verheyen and Christian Søe, eds, The Germans and Their Neighbors (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993), p. 328.
Testimony of Aleksandar Vasiljević, Trial of Slobodan Milošević (TSM), International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), The Hague, 17 February 2003, p. 16263, ⟨www.un.org/icty/transe54/030217ED.htm⟩ (accessed 22 January 2004).
Testimony of Aleksandar Vasiljević, TSM‐ICTY, 18 February 2003, p. 16374, ⟨www.un.org/icty/transe54/030218ED.htm⟩ (accessed 22 January 2004).
Marko Attila Hoare, “Nothing Is left” [a review essay of six books], Bosnia Report, No. 36, 2003, p. 32.
Bogdan Denitch, Ethnic Nationalism: The Tragic Death of Yugoslavia (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994), p. 52.
Daniele Conversi, German‐Bashing and the Breakup of Yugoslavia (Seattle: Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies of the University of Washington, 1998), p. 8.
Beverly Crawford, “Explaining Defection from International Cooperation: Germany”s Unilateral Recognition of Croatia,” World Politics, Vol. 48, No. 4, 1996. For an alternative interpretation, see Sabrina P. Ramet and Letty Coffin, “German Foreign Policy toward the Yugoslav Successor States, 1991–1999,” Problems of Post‐communism, Vol. 48, No. 1, 2001, pp. 48–64.
Brendan Simms, Unfinest Hour: Britain and the Destruction of Bosnia (London: Penguin Books, 2001), p. xvii.
James Gow, Triumph of the Lack of Will: International Diplomacy and the Yugoslav War (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997).
Sabrina Petra Ramet, “The Yugoslav Crisis and the West: Avoiding ‘Vietnam’ and Blundering into ‘Abyssinia,’” East European Politics and Societies, Vol. 8, No. 1, 1994, pp. 189–219.
David Owen, Balkan Odyssey (London: Victor Gollancz, 1995): re U.S. opposition to his plan, pp. 100–109, 170, 189, 357, 366; re. recognition, p. 46.
Jasna Adler, “The Disintegration of Yugoslavia: Reflections on Its Causes in a Tentative Comparison with Austria‐Hungary,” in Reneo Lukić, ed., Rethinking the International Conflict in Communist and Post‐communist States: Essays in Honor of Miklós Molnár (Aldershot, England: Ashgate, 1998), p. 96, my emphasis.
Ibid., p. 96.
Gow, Triumph of the Lack of Will, p. 12.
Three examples: Dennison Rusinow, “To Be or Not to Be? Yugoslavia as Hamlet,” UFSI Field Staff Reports, 1990–1991, No. 18, 1991; V. P. Gagnon, Jr, “Yugoslavia: Prospects for Stability,” Foreign Affairs, Vol. 70, No. 3, 1991; and Svetozar Stojanović, interview (February 1991), published as “Optimistic about Yugoslavia: Interview with Svetozar Stojanović,” East European Reporter, Vol. 4, No. 4, 1991. See also Dennison Rusinow, “Yugoslavia: Balkan Breakup?” Foreign Policy, No. 83, 1991.
Milovan Djilas, comments, in Milovan Djilas, Emmet John Hughes, Lord Trevelyan, and Kei Wakaizumi, “A World Atlas for 2024,” Saturday Review—World, 24 August 1974, p. 25.
These early warnings were reported in Pedro Ramet, “Yugoslavia and the Threat of Internal and External Discontents,” Orbis, Vol. 28, No. 1, 1984, p. 109. For a comparison of the Yugoslav war with the war in Lebanon, see Florian Bieber, Bosnien‐Herzegowina und der Lebanon im Vergleich. Historische Entwicklung und Politisches System vor dem Bürgerkrieg (Sinzheim, Germany: Pro Universitate Verlag, 1999).
See Pedro Ramet, “Apocalypse Culture and Social Change in Yugoslavia,” in Pedro Ramet, ed., Yugoslavia in the 1980s (Boulder: Westview Press, 1985), pp. 6–11, 16–20.
Ramet, “Yugoslavia and the Threat,” p. 114.
John Major, in House of Commons Hansard Debates, 20 October 1992, ⟨www.publications.parliament.uk/cgi‐bin⟩ (accessed 29 January 2004), p. 1.
Jovan Cvijić, Geografski i kulturni položaj Srbije (Sarajevo, 1914), as summarized in Olivera Milosavljević, U tradiciji nacionalizma, ili stereotipi srpskih intelektualaca XX veka o ‘nama’ i ‘drugima’” (Belgrade: Helsinški odbor za ljudska prava u Srbiji, 2002), p. 35.
Dinko Tomašić, Personality and Culture in Eastern European Politics (New York: George W. Stewart, 1948), pp. 27–28; see also p. 10.
Ibid., p. 30.
Ibid., p. 31.
Ibid., p. 38.
Ibid., pp. 35, 218.
Sir Neville Henderson's 1929 report is quoted in Arnold Suppan, “Yugoslavism versus Serbian, Croatian, and Slovene Nationalism,” in Norman M. Naimark and Holly Case, eds, Yugoslavism and Its Historians: Understanding the Balkan Wars of the 1990s (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003), p. 128.
Branimir Anzulović, Heavenly Serbia: From Myth to Genocide (London: Hurst, 1999), p. 67 et passim.
Ibid., pp. 122–123. On this point, see also Milorad Tomanić, Srpska crkva u ratu i ratovi u njoj (Belgrade: Medijska knjižara krug, 2001), pp. 40–45, 56–59.
Anzulović, Heavenly Serbia, p. 2.
Ibid., p. 2.
Ibid., pp. 2–3.
Ibid., p. 180.
Ibid., pp. 8–9.
Lenard J. Cohen, Serpent in the Bosom: The Rise and Fall of Slobodan Milošević (Boulder: Westview Press, 2001), p. 398, my emphasis.
Ibid., p. 82.
Ibid., p. 81. For a fuller discussion of Cohen's Serpent, see Sabrina P. Ramet, “In Search of the ‘Real” Milošević: New Books about the Rise and Fall of Serbia’s Strongman,” Journal of Human Rightsi Vol. 2, No. 3, 2003, pp. 455–466.
Lenard J. Cohen, Broken Bonds: Yugoslavia's Disintegration and Balkan Politics in Transition, 2nd edn (Boulder: Westview Press, 1995).
Ibid., p. 21.
Ibid., p. 20.
Ibid., p. 246.
Ibid., p. 21.
Ibid., p. 365, my emphasis.
Ivo Banac, “The Fearful Asymmetry of War: The Causes and Consequences of Yugoslavia's Demise,” Daedalus, Vol. 121, No. 2, 1992, p. 143.
Ibid., p. 144.
Ivo Goldstein, Croatia: A History, trans. Nikolina Jovanović (London: Hurst, 1999), p. 93.
Noel Malcolm, Bosnia: A Short History (New York: New York University Press, 1994).
Mitja Velikonja, Religious Separation & Political Intolerance in Bosnia‐Herzegovina, trans. Rang'ichi Ng'inja (College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press, 2003), p. 15.
John Major, in House of Commons Hansard Debates, 23 June 1993, ⟨www.publications.parliament.uk/cgi‐bin⟩ (accessed 29 January 2004), p. 10.
Robert D. Kaplan, “Croatianism,” New Republic, 25 November 1991, p. 18, as quoted in Banac, “The Fearful Asymmetry,” p. 142.
Samuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996), p. 42.
Ibid., p. 138.
Samuel P. Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968).
Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations, p. 208.
Ibid., p. 260.
Erika Harris, Nationalism and Democratisation: Politics of Slovakia and Slovenia (Aldershot, England: Ashgate, 2002), p. 146.
Susan L. Woodward, Socialist Unemployment: The Political Economy of Yugoslavia, 1945–1990 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), pp. 352, 355, 359, 364.
Susan L. Woodward, “Reforming a Socialist State: Ideology and Public Finance in Yugoslavia,” World Politics, Vol. 41, No. 2, 1989, p. 304.
Woodward, Socialist Unemployment, p. xv.
Ibid., p. 339, 346–347.
All of these factors are mentioned by Cvijeto Job in his Yugoslavia's Ruin: The Bloody Lessons of Nationalism (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002), pp. 62–63.
Paul Lendvai, “Yugoslavia without Yugoslavs: The Roots of the Crisis,” trans. Lis Parcell, International Affairs, Vol. 67, No. 2, 1991, p. 255.
Paul Lendvai, “Jugoslawien ohne Jugoslawen. Die Wurzeln der Staatskrise,” in Angelika Volle and Wolfgang Wagner, eds, Der Krieg auf dem Balkan. Die Hilflosigkeit der Staatenwelt (Bonn: Verlag für Internationale Politik, 1994), pp. 30, 32.
Goldstein, Croatia, p. 188.
Reneo Lukić, The Wars of South Slavic Succession: Yugoslavia 1991–1993 (Geneva: Graduate Institute of International Studies, Programme for Strategic & International Security Studies, 1993), p. 8. See also Job, Yugoslavia's Ruin, p. 61.
Lukić, The Wars of South Slavic Succession, p. 9.
George Schöpflin, “Political Decay in One‐Party Systems in Eastern Europe: Yugoslav Patterns,” in Pedro Ramet, ed., Yugoslavia in the 1980s (Boulder: Westview Press, 1985), p. 309.
Ibid., p. 312.
John B. Allcock, Explaining Yugoslavia (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000), pp. 418–423, 428–429.
Steven L. Burg and Paul S. Shoup, The War in Bosnia‐Herzegovina: Ethnic Conflict and International Intervention (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1999), p. 4.
See Sabrina P. Ramet, Balkan Babel: The Disintegration of Yugoslavia from the Death of Tito to the Fall of Milošević, 4th edn (Boulder: Westview Press, 2002), pp. 4, 375–377; and Sabrina P. Ramet, The Three Yugoslavias: The Dual Challenge of State‐Building and Legitimation among the Yugoslavs, 1918–2004 (Bloomington and Washington, DC: Indiana University Press and the Wilson Center Press, forthcoming), especially Chapter 1.
Those whom I have judged to have been most co‐responsible with Milošević for pushing the country toward war are listed in my Balkan Babel, p. 71. See also pp. 7, 31.
Ramet, Balkan Babel, pp. 26–48.
Ibid., pp. 49–51.
Ibid., pp. 44–45.
James J. Sadkovich, The U.S. Media and Yugoslavia, 1991–1995 (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998), p. 88.
Cohen, Serpent in the Bosom, p. 385.
Roger D. Petersen, Understanding Ethnic Violence: Fear, Hatred, and Resentment in Twentieth‐Century Eastern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), p. 251.
Ivo Banac, ed., Eastern Europe in Revolution (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992); and Ivo Banac, “The Dissolution of Yugoslav Historiography,” in Sabrina Petra Ramet and Ljubiša S. Adamovich, eds, Beyond Yugoslavia: Politics, Economics, and Culture in a Shattered Community (Boulder: Westview Press, 1995), pp. 39–65.
Jasna Dragović‐Soso, “Saviours of the Nation”: Serbia's Intellectual Opposition and the Revival of Nationalism (London: Hurst, 2002).
Thomas A. Emmert, “A Crisis of Identity: Serbia at the End of the Century,” in Norman M. Naimark and Holly Case, eds, Yugoslavism and Its Historians: Understanding the Balkan Wars of the 1990s (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003), pp. 176–177.
Bariša Krekić, “An Island of Peace in a Turbulent World: Old Ragusans” Statesmanship as a Paradigm for the Modern Balkans,” in Norman M. Naimark and Holly Case, eds, Yugoslavism and Its Historians: Understanding the Balkan Wars of the 1990s (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003), p. 65.
Lukić, The Wars of South Slavic Succession, pp. 8, 9. See also Reneo Lukić, “Greater Serbia: A New Reality in the Balkans,” Nationalities Papers, Vol. 22, No. 1, 1994, pp. 49–70.
Branka Magaš, The Destruction of Yugoslavia: Tracking the Break‐up 1980–92 (London: Verso, 1993), pp. xiii, 241, 261.
Dennison Rusinow, “The Avoidable Catastrophe,” in Sabrina Petra Ramet and Ljubiša S. Adamovich, eds, Beyond Yugoslavia: Politics, Economics, and Culture in a Shattered Community (Boulder: Westview Press, 1995), pp. 14, 18, 32.
Louis Sell, Slobodan Milošević and the Destruction of Yugoslavia (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2002).
Vladimir Tismaneanu, Fantasies of Salvation: Democracy, Nationalism, and Myth in Post‐communist Europe (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998), p. 7.
Warren Zimmermann, Origins of a Catastrophe: Yugoslavia and Its Destroyers, rev. ed. (New York: Times Books, 1999), p. vii.
Ibid., p. vii.
Ibid., p. ix.
Ibid., p. 71.
Ibid., p. 146.
For documentation to support this claim, see Borisav Jović, Poslednji dani SFRJ. Izvodi iz dnevnika (Belgrade: Politika, 1995), p. 131 (entry of 26 March 1990).
John V. A. Fine, “Heretical Thoughts about the Postcommunist Transition in the Once and Future Yugoslavia,” in Norman M. Naimark and Holly Case, eds, Yugoslavism and Its Historians: Understanding the Balkan Wars of the 1990s (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003), pp. 179, 184.
Ibid., p. 181.
Ibid., p. 184.
Ibid., p. 259.
In early 1991, there were rumors flying around that Branko Mamula, the retired minister of defense, might seek to play the role of “Yugoslav Jaruzelski.” These rumors were fueled by statements given to Slobodna Dalmacija (published in the issue of 11 February 1991) by Tudjman's adviser Slaven Letica and by the Croatian defense minister, Martin Špegelj, and by an article written by Viktor Meier and published in Frankfurter Allgemeine at the beginning of February 1991. Branko Mamula, Slučaj Jugoslavija (Podgorica, Montenegro: CID, 2000), p. 185.
Regarding the involvement of Milošević and the Serbian secret police in the planning and organization of these “meetings,” see Adam LeBor, Milošević: A Biography (Polmont, Scotland: Bloomsbury, 2002), p. 107.
Mamula, Slučaj Jugoslavija, p. 197.
Quoted in Mark Thompson, Forging War: The Media in Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, rev. edn (Luton: University of Luton Press, 1999), p. 81.
For a (partial) list of Milošević's unconstitutional and illegal actions between 1989 and 1991 (never mind later), see Ramet, Balkan Babel, pp. 71–72. For further details, see Meier, Yugoslavia, passim.
Quoted in Sarah A. Kent, “Writing the Yugoslav Wars: English‐Language Books on Bosnia (1992–1996) and the Challenges of Analyzing Contemporary History,” American Historical Review, Vol. 102, No. 4, 1997, p. 1090.
LeBor, Milošević, pp. 9–10, 34, 254. See also p. 144.
Martin Špegelj, Sjećanja vojnika, ed. Ivo Žanić, 2nd edn (Zagreb: Znanje, 2001).
Mamula, Slučaj Jugoslavija, p. 118.
Ibid., p. 165.
Sell, Slobodan Milošević, p. 58.
Raif Dizdarević, Od smrti Tita do smrti Jugoslavije: Svjedočenja (Sarajevo: Svjedok, 1999), p. 212.
Ibid., p. 218, quoting himself.
Except for a few observations dealing with some events after that year, Dizdarević's account ends with 1989.
Ibid., p. 90.
Massimo Nava, Milosevic. La tragedia di un popolo (Milan: Rizzoli, 1999), pp. 43–44.
Testimony of Ante Marković, TSM‐ICTY, 23 October 2003), ⟨www.un.org/icty/transe54/031023ED.htm⟩ (accessed on 13 January 2004).
Ivo Banac, “The Dissolution of Yugoslav Historiography,” in Sabrina Petra Ramet and Ljubiša S. Adamovich, eds, Beyond Yugoslavia: Politics, Economics, and Culture in a Shattered Community (Boulder: Westview Press, 1995), pp. 39–65.
Dragović‐Soso, Saviours of the Nation, note 84.
See also Tim Judah, The Serbs: History, Myth and the Destruction of Yugoslavia (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997), pp. 158–160.
See also Svetlana Slapšak, “Serbische Alternativen. Was hat den Krieg in Jugoslawien verursacht?” trans. Thomas Bremer, in Alida Bremer, ed., Jugoslawische (Sch)erben. Probleme und Perspektiven (Osnabrück and Münster: fibre Verlag, 1993), pp. 165–187.
See Sabrina P. Ramet, Nationalism and Federalism in Yugoslavia, 1962–1991, 2nd edn (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992), pp. 109–115 et passim.
Rusinow, “The Avoidable Catastrophe,” note 89, p. 21.
Jack Snyder, From Voting to Violence: Democratization and Nationalist Conflict (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000), p. 29.
Ibid., pp. 36, 52–55, 59–60.
Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, “Political Identities and Electoral Sequences: Spain, the Soviet Union, and Yugoslavia,” Daedalus, Vol. 121, No. 2, 1992, p. 126.
Ibid., p. 132.
Harris, Nationalism and Democratisation, note 60, p. 56.
Ibid., pp. 61–62.
Petersen, Understanding Ethnic Violence, especially Chapter 1 and Introduction.
Ibid., pp. 32–33.
Ibid., p. 19.
Ibid., pp. 3–4.
Ibid., p. 25.
Ibid., p. 83, citing Michael Sells, The Bridge Betrayed: Religion and Genocide in Bosnia (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1998).
Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992).
Petersen, Understanding Ethnic Violence, p. 237.
Ibid., pp. 242–248.
Marie‐Janine Calic, Krieg und Frieden in Bosnien‐Hercegovina, rev. edn (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1996), p. 80.
Ibid., p. 123.
Ibid., p. 131.
Ibid., pp. 141–146.
Paolo Rumiz, Masken für ein Massaker. Der manipulierte Krieg: Spurensuche auf dem Balkan, trans. Friederike Hausmann and Gesa Schröder, rev. edn (Munich: Verlag Antje Kunstmann, 2000), pp. 101–102.
Ibid., p. 111.
See Sabrina P. Ramet, “Under the Holy Lime Tree: The Inculcation of Neurotic & Psychotic Syndromes as a Serbian Wartime Strategy, 1986–1995,” Polemos (Zagreb), Vol. 5, Nos 1–2, 2002, pp. 83–97.
Albert Bandura, “Moral Disengagement in the Perpetration of Inhumanities,” Personality and Social Psychology Review, Vol. 3, No. 3, 1999, pp. 193–209.
Samuel A. Guttman, “Robert Waelder and the Application of Psychoanalytic Principles to Social and Political Phenomena,” Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, Vol. 34, 1986, pp. 835–862.
Herbert C. Kelman, “Violence without Moral Restraint: Reflections on the Dehumanization of Victims and Victimizers,” Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 29, No. 4, 1973, pp. 25–61.
Roderick M. Kramer and David M. Messick, “Getting by with a Little Help from Our Enemies: Collective Paranoia and Its Role in Intergroup Relations,” in Constantine Sedikides, John Schopfler, and Chester A. Insko, eds, Intergroup Cognition and Intergroup Behavior (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1998), pp. 233–255.
Jo‐Ann Tsang, “Moral Rationalization and the Integration of Situational Factors and Psychological Processes in Immoral Behavior,” Review of General Psychology, Vol. 6, No. 1, 2002, pp. 25–50.
See, inter alia, David M. Bersoff, “Why Good People Sometimes Do Bad Things: Motivated Reasoning and Unethical Behavior,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, Vol. 25, No. 1, 1999, pp. 28–39; Mikloš Biro and Slavica Selaković‐Buršić, “Suicide, Aggression and War,” Archives of Suicide Research, Vol. 2, 1996, pp. 75–79; Carolyn L. Hafer, “Why We Reject Innocent Victims,” in Michael Ross and Dale T. Miller, eds, The Justice Motive in Everyday Life (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), pp. 109–126; Hartmann Hinterhuber, Milan Stern, Thomas Ross, and Georg Kemmler, “The Tragedy of Wars in Former Yugoslavia Seen through the Eyes of Refugees and Emigrants,” Psychiatria Danubina, Vol. 13, Nos 1–4, 2001, pp. 3–14; Anja Meulenbelt, “Sympathy for the Devil: Thinking about Victims and Perpetrators after Working in Serbia,” Women & Therapy, Vol. 22, No. 1, 1999, pp. 153–160; Richard Morrock, “The Genocidal Impulse: Why Nations Kill Other Nations,” Journal of Psychohistory, Vol. 27, No. 2, 1999, pp. 155–164; S. P. Rathee, P. K. Pardal, and T. R. John, “Diagnostic Value of SIS‐II among Sub‐groups of Psychotic and Neurotic Patients of Armed Forces,” SIS Journal of Projective Psychology & Mental Health, Vol. 9, No. 1, 2002, pp. 38–48; Robert J. Shoemaker, “The Phenomenon of Dehumanization,” Pennsylvania Psychiatric Quarterly, Vol. 8, No. 1, 1968, pp. 3–18; and Amoof R. Singh, K. R. Banerjee, and Supraksh Chaudhury, “Mental Health during War: An Experience and Lesson from the Past,” SIS Journal of Projective Psychology & Mental Health, Vol. 8, No. 2, 2001, pp. 135–140.
Misha Glenny, The Fall of Yugoslavia: The Third Balkan War (London: Penguin Books, 1992).
For a comprehensive study of the Serbian, Croatian, and Bosnian press prior to and during the war, see Thompson, Forging War, note 105.
After an exhaustive review of theories emphasizing economic factors, ethnic hatreds, nationalism, cultural differences, changes in international politics, the role of individual leaders, the pre‐modern character of the Yugoslav state, and structural–institutional factors, Dejan Jović has argued for the advantage of a multi‐factor analysis. See D. Jović, Jugoslavija—država koja je odumrla (Zagreb: Prometej, 2003), pp. 23–102.
