Ethnonational identity, security and the implosion of Yugoslavia: the case of Montenegro and the relationship with Serbia

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Acknowledgement

The authors wish to express appreciation to research assistants Vani Subramanian and Ryan Eddy for their contributions to this article.

Notes

1. Vladimir K. Volkov, “The Balkan Quagmire: Clash of Civilizations,” in Sharyl Cross, Igor A. Zevelev, Victor A. Kremenyuk and Vagan Gevorgian, Global Security beyond the Millennium: American and Russian Perspectives (London: Macmillan Press, 1999), p. 201.

2. Samuel P. Huntington, “The Clash of Civilizations,” Foreign Affairs, Vol. 72, No. 3, pp. 22–49.

3. RFE/RL Report, 16 April 1999.

4. Raymond C. Taras and Rajat Ganguly, Understanding Ethnic Conflict: The International Dimension (New York: Longman, 1998), pp. 32–33.

5. Raymond C. Taras and Rajat Ganguly, Understanding Ethnic Conflict: The International Dimension (New York: Longman, 1998), pp. 32–33.

6. MN News, Montenegrin Information Internet Service, 3 February 2001, < wysiwyg://24/http://mnnews.net/index.php3 >.

7. Srdjan Darmanovic, “Montenegro: Dilemmas of a Small Republic,” Journal of Democracy, Vol. 14, No. 1, 2003, p. 135.

8. “Nostalgia for Old Name Lingers in Uneasy Union, New Title Vexes Yugoslavia's Remnants,” New York Times, 9 March 2003.

9. Darmanovic, “Montenegro,” p. 146.

10. Myron Weiner, “Peoples and States in a New Ethnic Order,” Third World Quarterly, Vol. 13, No. 2, 1992, p. 317.

11. Taras and Ganguly, Understanding Ethnic Conflict, pp. 31.

12. Peter J. Katzenstein, “Introduction: Alternative Perspectives on National Security,” in Peter J. Katzenstein, ed., The Culture of National Security: Norms and Identity in World Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), p. 9, cited in Constantine P. Danopoulos, “Church–State Relations, National Identity, and Security in Post-Cold War Greece,” paper prepared for the 4th International Symposium on Ethnic Identities. Globalization and Human Security: Identity Expressions in the Post-Cold War World, Xanthi, Greece, July 6–9 2002, p. 3.

13. Francis Fukuyama, “Against the New Pessimism,” Commentary, Vol. 97, No. 2 (February 1994), p. 25; Huntington, “The Clash of Civilizations.”

14. See Maria Todorova, “The Balkans: From Discovery to Invention,” Slavic Review, Vol. 35, No. 2, 1994, pp. 453–482; Volkov, “The Balkan Quagmire”; Victor Roudometof, “Nationalism, Globalization, Eastern Orthodoxy: Unthinking the ‘Clash of Civilizations in Southeastern Europe,’ European Journal of Social Theory, Vol. 2, No. 2, 1999, pp. 223–247; and Pavlos Hatzopoulos, “All that Is, Is Nationalist: Imagining the Balkans in the 1990s,” paper presented to the 43rd Annual International Studies Association Convention, New Orleans, March 2002.

15. Todorova, “The Balkans”; Volkov, The Balkan Quagmire, pp. 188–190; George F. Kennan, The Other Balkan Wars: A 1913 Carnegie Endowment Inquiry in Retrospect with a New Introduction and Reflections on the Present Conflict (Washington: Carnegie Endowment, 1993).

16. Hatzopoulos, “All that Is,” p. 7.

17. Roudometof, “Nationalism, Globalization, Eastern Orthodoxy,” p. 234.

18. Hatzopoulos, “All that Is,” p. 7.

19. Volkov, “The Balkan Quagmire,” pp. 195–196.

20. Roudometof, “Nationalism, Globalization, Eastern Orthodoxy,” p. 242.

21. Roudometof, “Nationalism, Globalization, Eastern Orthodoxy,” p. 242.

22. David Horowitz, “Structure and Strategy in Ethnic Conflict,” paper prepared for the Annual World Bank Conference on Development Economics, Washington, 20–21 April 1998.

23. Fredrik Barth, ed., Ethnic Groups and Boundaries (Boston: Little, Brown, 1969); and Edward H. Spicer, “Persistent Cultural Systems,” Science, Vol. 174, No. 4011, 1971, pp. 795–800.

24. Barth, Ethnic Groups and Boundaries, p. 14.

25. Barth, Ethnic Groups and Boundaries, p. 17.

26. Barth, Ethnic Groups and Boundaries, p. 17.

27. Barth, Ethnic Groups and Boundaries, p. 17.

28. Edward H. Spicer, “Persistent Cultural Systems,” p. 796.

29. Edward H. Spicer, “Persistent Cultural Systems,” p. 796.

30. Edward H. Spicer, “Persistent Cultural Systems,” p. 796.

31. Edward H. Spicer, “Persistent Cultural Systems,” p. 796.

32. Walker Connor, Ethnonationalism: The Quest for Understanding (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), pp. 195–209.

33. Huntington, “The Clash of Civilizations,” pp. 96.

34. See Daniele Conversi, “Nationalism, Boundaries, and Violence,” Millennium Journal of International Studies, Vol. 28, No. 3, 1999, pp. 553–584; and Daniele Conversi, “Reassessing Current Theories of Nationalism: Nationalism as Boundary Maintenance and Creation,” Nationalism and Ethnic Politics, Vol. 1, No. 1, 1995, pp. 73–85.

35. Conversi, “Reassessing Current Theories of Nationalism,” p. 82.

36. Conversi, “Reassessing Current Theories of Nationalism,” p. 82.

37. Conversi, “Reassessing Current Theories of Nationalism,” p. 80.

38. Conversi, “Reassessing Current Theories of Nationalism,” p. 80.

39. Gaguly and Taras, Ethnic Conflict, p. 9.

40. Anthony D. Smith, “The Ethnic Sources of Nationalism,” Survival, Vol. 35, No. 1, 1993, pp. 50–51, cited in Ganguly and Taras, Ethnic Conflict…

41. Anthony D. Smith, “The Ethnic Sources of Nationalism,” Survival, Vol. 35, No. 1, 1993, pp. 50–51, cited in Ganguly and Taras, Ethnic Conflict… and for additional illustrations of the primordialist and instrumentalist perspectives see Taras and Ganguly, Understanding Ethnic Conflict, pp. 6–7.

42. Horowitz, “Structure and Strategy in Ethnic Conflict.”

43. Conversi, “Reassessing Current Theories of Nationalism,” pp. 74.

44. Smith, “The Ethnic Sources of Nationalism.”

45. Conversi, “Reassessing Current Theories of Nationalism,” p. 74.

46. Milton Takei, “Collective Memory as the Key to National and Ethnic Identity: The Case of Cambodia,” Nationalism and Ethnic Politics, Vol. 4, No. 3, 1998, pp. 59–78.

47. Milton Takei, “Collective Memory as the Key to National and Ethnic Identity: The Case of Cambodia,” Nationalism and Ethnic Politics, Vol. 4, No. 3, 1998, pp. 59–60.

48. Ali A. Mazuri, “African Archives and the Oral Tradition,” Courier (UNESCO), February 1985, p. 14, cited in Takei, “Collective Memory as the Key,” p. 64.

49. Spicer, “Persistent Cultural Systems,” p. 796.

50. Takei, “Collective Memory as the Key,” p. 65.

51. Takei, pp. 67–69.

52. See “Montenegro, Another Kosovo in the Making?” Seattle Times, 12 July 2000, < http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/news/nation-world/htm198/mont12_20000712.html >.

53. Andrei Simic, “Montenegro: Beyond the Myth,” in Constantine P. Danopoulos and Kostas Messas, eds, Crisis in the Balkans: Views from the Participants (Boulder: Westview Press, 1997), pp. 114–115.

54. See Simic, “Montenegro”; and Christopher Boehm, Blood Revenge: The Anthropology of Feuding in Montenegro and Other Tribal Societies (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1984).

55. Guslar refers to the man who plays the traditional single string instrument requiring the use of a bow. Adorned in the traditional cap and costume, the guslar entertains with the primitive instrument by singing epic stories or poems reflecting Montenegrin History and battles especially with the Turks.

56. Petar Njegoš, The Mountain Wreath, trans. James W. Wiles (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1930); and Milovan Djilas, Njegoš, Poet, Prince, Bishop (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1962).

57. Djilas, Njegoš, Poet, Prince, Bishop, p. 442.

58. Djilas, Njegoš, Poet, Prince, Bishop, p. 442.

59. See David MacKenzie, The Serbs and Russian Panslavism 1875–1878 (New York: Cornell University Press, 1967), pp. 5–6; and Djilas, Njegoš, Poet, Prince, Bishop, p. 143.

60. Djilas, Njegoš, Poet, Prince, Bishop, p. 443.

61. Vera Stein Ehrlich, Family in Transition: A Study of 300 Yugoslav Villages (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966), pp. 381

62. Vera Stein Ehrlich, Family in Transition: A Study of 300 Yugoslav Villages (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966), pp. 381–382.

63. Boehm, Blood Revenge, pp. 3–5.

64. Simic, “Montenegro,” pp. 119.

65. Bostjan Videmsek, “Mihaijlo: Civil War Possible in Montenegro,” Ljubljana Delo, 15 January 2000, cited in Steven C. Calhoun, “Montenegro's Tribal Legacy,” Military Review, July–August 2000, p. 32.

66. For an excellent description of Montenegro's tribal configuration see Calhoun, “Montenegro's Tribal Legacy.” Also see Boehm, Blood Revenge, p. 42.

67. For further discussion of the traditional tribe divisions in contemporary politics, see Calhoun, “Montenegro's Tribal Legacy,” pp. 37–38 and Simic, “Montenegro,” pp. 124–131.

68. Mary Edith Durham, “Some Montenegrin Manners and Customs,” Journal of Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. 39, 1909, pp. 85–96; Mary Edith Durham, “Some South Slav as Shown in Serbian Ballads by Serbian Authors,” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. 47, 1917; Francis S. Stevenson, A History of Montenegro (London: Jarrold, 1912); Djilas, Njegoš, Poet, Prince, Bishop; Erlich, Family in Transition; and Boehm, Blood Revenge.

69. Boehm, Blood Revenge.

70. Boehm, Blood Revenge., p. 46.

71. Boehm, Blood Revenge., pp. 54–63.

72. Boehm, Blood Revenge., p. 47.

73. Cited in Calhoun, “Montenegro's Tribal Legacy,” p. 38.

74. Boehm, Blood Revenge, p. 54.

75. Erlich, Family in Transition.

76. Erlich, Family in Transition.

77. Stevenson, History of Montenegro, p. 11.

78. MacKenzie, The Serbs and Russian Panslavism, pp. 10–11.

79. Durham, “Some Montenegrin Manners and Customs,” p. 85.

80. For additional background on the history of the Montenegrin Orthodox Church see Simic, “Montenegro,” pp. 123–124; For discussion concerning recent perspectives of the “Montenegrin Orthodox Church leadership see Montenegrin Church and Religion in Montenegro,” September 2001 <http://www.montenegro.org/religion.html > and “Church Rifts Echo Montenegro's Political Divisions,” Podgorica, 29 September 2000, <http://www.mediaclub.cg.yu/eng/articles/2000/september/30.htm >.

81. For additional background on the history of the Montenegrin Orthodox Church see Simic, “Montenegro,” pp. 123–124; For discussion concerning recent perspectives of the “Montenegrin Orthodox Church leadership see Montenegrin Church and Religion in Montenegro,” September 2001 <http://www.montenegro.org/religion.html > and “Church Rifts Echo Montenegro's Political Divisions,” Podgorica, 29 September 2000, <http://www.mediaclub.cg.yu/eng/articles/2000/september/30.htm >.

82. Veseljko Koprivica, “Brotherly Love,” Podgorica Weekly Monitor, 10 November 1999, <http://archive.tol.cz/nov99/somuch.html >.

83. “Church Rifts Echo Montenegro's Political Divisions.”

84. “Church Rifts Echo Montenegro's Political Divisions.”

85. For an excellent discussion of the relationship between language and ethnicity in contemporary Yugoslavia, see Bozidar Jaksic, “Nationalism and Language: A Balkan Experience,” 1997, <wysiwyg://16/http://users.volja.net/romag/pub/Nationalism-and-Language.html >.

86. Simic, “Montenegro,” p. 121.

87. Simic, “Montenegro,” p. 121.

88. Cited in Danopoulos, “Church–State Relations,” pp. 5.

89. See discussion of Weber's perspective in John Stone, “Race, Ethnicity, and the Weberian Legacy,” American Behavioral Scientist, Vol. 38, No. 3, 1995, p. 396.

90. Taras and Ganguly, Understanding Ethnic Conflict, p. 10.

91. Conversi, “Nationalism, Boundaries, and Violence,” pp. 555–556.

92. Conversi, “Nationalism, Boundaries, and Violence,” pp. 555–556.

93. Conversi, “Nationalism, Boundaries, and Violence,” pp. 555–556.

94. Danopoulos, “Church–State Relations.”

95. Ernest Geller, Nationalism (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1997), pp. 9–22.

96. James D. Fearon, “Ethnic War as a Commitment Problem,” paper presented to the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, September 1994.

97. Horowitz, “Structure and Strategy in Ethnic Conflict.”

98. Horowitz, “Structure and Strategy in Ethnic Conflict.”

99. Danopoulos, “Church–State Relations,” p. 5.

100. Conversi, “Nationalism, Boundaries, Violence,” p. 582.

101. C. Hedges, “Montenegro Election Upset Threatens Milosevic's Hold,” New York Times, 21 October 1997.

102. Darmanovic, “Montenegro Dilemmas of a Small Republic,” p. 149.

103. “The Herald Tribune: Powell, Sending Balkans as Message, Shuns Montenegrin Leader,” MN News Online, 4 February 2001; and “The New York Times: In Test of Troubles Waters, Powell Rebuffs Montenegrin,” MN News Online, 4 February 2001.

104. “Serbia, Montenegro Sign Accord,” Associated Press, 14 March 2002.

105. U.S. State Department, 1 April 2003.

106. “Serbia-Montenegro Set up Council for European Integration,” Serbian Government, 4 August 2003, <http://www.serbia.sr.gov.yu/news/2003-08/04/330372.html >.