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Notes
0. *Research for this article was funded by the Estonian Science Foundation (ETF), project grant no. 5845. The authors would like to thank Professor David D. Laitin (Stanford University) for his useful comments on earlier versions of this article.
1. In this paper, the term “Russian-speaking population of Estonia” with respect to all ethnic groups means not only those people with a Russian ethnic or linguistic origin but also Ukrainians, Byelorussians and other ethnicities whose mother tongue or everyday language is Russian. There are about 406,700 individuals—29.7% of the population of Estonia—whose mother tongue is Russian, among them about 351,200 ethnic Russians (Population and Housing Census 2000, http://www.stat.ee/files/eva2003/RV200102.pdf; INTERNET (accessed 16 June 2006)). The National Minorities Cultural Autonomy Act and numerous other strategic programmes have facilitated the activities of minorities' societies in the Republic of Estonia and boosted the national self-esteem of the Ukrainians, Byelorussians and other minorities. In this study the analysed group was determined on the basis of language rather than ethnicity because the number of non-ethnic Russians in the sample was too small for a separate analysis. Based on the results of previous empirical studies, it was not practicable to leave them out of the analysis. Migrants to Estonia had already experienced the Soviet civic assimilation several generations previously and therefore about half of the Ukrainians and Byelorussians in Estonia consider the Russian language as their mother tongue. A significant proportion of Estonian Republic legislation is exclusionary in terms of language, not ethnicity, which brings into focus linguistic distinctiveness as a possible basis for collective identity. Indeed, integration-monitoring and other studies have shown that in Estonia language is an important factor for interpreting minority–majority relationship and collective self-designations. Thus, in the context of this study, it was necessary to use a sample representing the whole community of Russian-speaking Estonians.
2. Kolstø, Russians in the Former Soviet Republics, 1995; idem, Political Construction Sites; Laitin, Identity in Formation; Kirch and Laitin, Citation1994, Changing Identities in Estonia; Hallik, “Mitmerahvuslike ühiskondade integratsionistrateegiad ja Eesti kohanemine etniliste uusvähemustega”; Subbotina, “Russkije v estonii”; Zhuryari-Ossipova, “The Criteria of Good Neighborhood versus Russia's Policy Protecting Diaspora in Estonia”; Smith, “Russia, Estonia and Ethno-Politics.”
3. Linz and Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation; Chinn and Kaiser, Russians as the New Minority; Aasland, “Russians outside Russia”; Melvin, Russians beyond Russia; Pilkington, Migration, Displacement and Identity in Post-Soviet Russia; Kolstø, 1995; idem, Political Construction Sites; Danilova and Yadov, “Social Identification in Post-Soviet Russia”; Lebedeva, “Russkije v stranah bilzhnego zarubezhja”; Brady, “Categorically Wrong?”; Poppe and Hagendoorn, “Types of Identification among Russians in the ‘Near Abroad.’”
4. Kirch and Laitin, Citation1994, Changing Identities in Estonia; Kirch et al., “Vene noorte etnilise ja kultuurilise identiteedi muutused” 1997; Hallik, “Mitmerahvuslike ühiskondade integratsionistrateegiad ja Eesti kohanemine etniliste uusvähemustega”; Laitin, Identity in Formation; Smith and Wilson, “Rethinking Russia's Post-Soviet Diaspora”; Smith, “Russia, Estonia and Ethno-Politics”; Vihalemm, “Formation of Collective Identity”; Vihalemm, “On the Perspectives of Identity Formation”.
5. Sztompka, “Cultural Trauma: The Other Face of Social Change” 176.
6. Beck and Beck-Gernsheim, Individualization, xxii.
7. Kõuts, “Riikluse tõlgendusmallid eesti ajakirjanduses enamuse-vähemuse suhete taustal.”
8. Hallik, “Mitmerahvuslike ühiskondade integratsionistrateegiad ja Eesti kohanemine etniliste uusvähemustega”; Laitin, Identity in Formation.
9. Kirch and Laitin, Citation1994, Changing Identities in Estonia; Kirch et al., “Vene noorte etnilise ja kultuurilise identiteedi muutused” 1997; Jakobson, “Role of Estonian Russian-Language Media in Integration of Russian Minority into Estonian Society and Forming its ‘Collective Identities’”; Smith and Wilson, “Rethinking Russia's Post-Soviet Diaspora”; Vihalemm, “Formation of Collective Identity”; Vihalemm, “On the Perspectives of Identity Formation”.
10. Kennedy, Cultural Formations of Post-Communism, 188–89.
11. Smith, “Russia, Estonia and Ethno-Politics”; Laitin, “Three Models of Integration and the Estonian/Russian Reality.”
12. Vihalemm et al., “Eesti Kujunev keeleruum”.
13. Kalmus and Vihalemm, “Distinct Mental Structures in Transitional Culture.”
14. Castells, The Information Age.
15. “Integration in Estonian Society 2000–2007.”
16. Ibid.: Introduction.
17. Ibid.
18. Kõuts, “Riikluse tōlgendusmallid Eesti ajakirjanduses”.
19. Kosmarskaya, “Russkije Diaspory.”
20. Vihalemm, “Identity Formation in the Open Media Space.”
21. Kennedy, Cultural Formations of Post-Communism; Vogt, Between Utopia and Disillusionment.
22. Appadurai, Modernity at Large, 36.
23. Melvin, Russians beyond Russia.
24. Kolstø, Political Construction Sites; Melvin, Russians beyond Russia.
25. Bhabha, “DissemiNation.”
26. Kosmarskaya, “Russkije Diaspory.”
27. Castells, The Information Age, 6–7.
28. See, for example, Lauristin and Vihalemm, “Recent Historical Developments in Estonia,” 74–75; Vihalemm, “Group Identity Formation Processes among Russian-Speaking Settlers of Estonia,” 18–39; idem, “Estonian Language Competence, Performance and Beliefs on Acquisition among the Russian-Speaking Inhabitants of Estonia, 1989–1995,” 69–85.
29. Source: focus group interviews by Triin Vihalemm within the PHARE Estonian Language Teaching Programme, June 2004.
30. Laitin, Identity in Formation, 23–25.
31. Vihalemm, “Group Identity Formation Processes”; Vihalemm and Masso, “Динамика идентичности русских Эстонии в период постсоветских трансформаций.”
32. Appadurai, Modernity at Large.
33. Schopflin, “Estonians Need the Russian Elite.”
34. Jenkins, Social Identity.
35. Abrams and Hogg, Social Identity Theory; Hopkins and Reicher, “The Construction of Social Categories”; Brady, “Categorically Wrong?”; Haslam et al., “Social Identity, Self-Categorization, and Work Motivation.”
36. Giesen, Kollektive Identität.
37. Hall, “Cultural Identity and Diaspora.”
38. Masso, “Venelased Eestis.”
39. Jakobson, “Role of Estonian Russian-Language Media.”
40. Ibid.
41. Danilova and Yadov, “Social Identification in Post-Soviet Russia”; Kosmarskaya, “Russkije Diaspory.”
42. Kolstø, Political Construction Sites.
43. Poppe and Hagendoorn, “Types of Identification among Russians.”
44. Ibid.: Kosmarskaya, “Russkije Diaspory.”
45. Kosmarskaya, “Russkije Diaspory.”
46. Vihalemm and Masso, “Identity Dynamics of Russian-Speakers”; idem, “Динамика идентичности русских Эстонии в период постсоветских трансформаций.”
47. Kennedy, Cultural Formations of Post-Communism, 188.
48. Kosmarakaya, “Russkije Diaspory.”
49. Melvin, Russians beyond Russia.
50. Laitin, “Three Models of Integration and the Estonian/Russian Reality.”
