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Notes
1. Said, Orientalism.
2. For perceptive discussions of these issues, see Berlin, “A Remarkable Decade”; Wheeler, Russia; and the articles in Slavic Review, 1964; and Malia, Russia under Western Eyes. See, in particular, Roberts, “Russia and the West,” an admirable attempt to provide a logical methodology for tackling this question. This subject does, of course, have an enormous bibliography, and can be addressed only briefly in this essay.
3. This has been pointed out by Marc Raeff, “Russia's Perception of her Relationship with the West.”
4. For recent examples, see Shlapentokh, “The Changing Russian View of the West”; Paramonov, “Historical Culture.”
5. Some Russian writers have been acutely aware of this distinction: see, for example, Annenkov, Literaturnye vospominaniia; Tynianov, “O slonenke.”
6. Anderson, Imagined Communities, 6.
7. On Western attitudes, see Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe; Cross, The Russian Theme in English Literature; Todorova, Imagining the Balkans.
8. Foucault, “The Order of Discourse,” 372.
9. Žižek, The Sublime Object of Ideology, 11.
10. The sources of this Westernizing “new thinking” are discussed extensively by Robert D. English, Russia and the Idea of the West, esp. 193–228.
11. For an ultra-nationalist attack on Siniavsky as a “Russophobe” and a comparison of his Progulki s Pushkinym with Salman Rushdie's Satanic Verses, see Shafarevich, “Fenomen emigratsii,” 5.
12. Grossman, Forever Flowing, 157. On the critical reaction to the publication of the works by Grossman, Voinovich and Vladimov in Russia, see Marsh, History and Literature in Contemporary Russia, 120–23, 204.
13. Leonov, Piramida, 608.
14. P'etsukh, “Zakoldovannaia strana,” 83.
15. Cited in Mandel'shtam, Hope against Hope, 13.
16. Discussed at length in Said, Orientalism.
17. See Korolev, “Golova Gogolia.”
18. See Mozhaev, “Muzhiki i baby.”
19. Other reasons for Western writers to focus on Russia include an interest in left-wing politics: see, for example, Tariq Ali and Howard Brenton's play “Moscow Gold” (1990). Other Western writers have simply become fascinated with Russian history: see, for example, Helen Dunmore, The Siege, and her interview with Robert McCrum, “The Siege is a Novel for Now.”
20. See, for example, Fallowell, One Hot Summer in Saint Petersburg; Guillaume, La Tour Ivanov; Shulze, 33 Moments of Happiness. The views of Russia and Russian writers of these authors are discussed in Anne Thomas, “The Portrayal of Russia and the Russians in Works by Three Contemporary Western Writers.”
21. See, for example, Erofeev, Muzhchiny, 81–82; Tolstaya, “Notes from Underground,” 4–5; idem, “Women's Lives,” 1–13. Tolstaya has, however, pointed out that some Western feminists are themselves guilty of colonial attitudes to Russian women.
22. P'etsukh, “Zakoldovannaia strana,” 75.
23. Tolstaya, “Women's Lives,” 6, 24–25.
24. Makanin, “Stol, pokrytyi suknom i s grafinom peseredine,” 29.
25. Pelevin, Generation P, 85.
26. Likhachev, The National Nature of Russian History, 18.
27. Pelevin, Generation P, 201, 77.
28. For another positive vision of what contemporary Russians can learn from Eastern spirituality, see Vladimir Khotinenko's film Musul'manin [The Muslim, 1995].
29. Granin, Vechera s Petrom Velikim; Viktor Aksenov, Volter'iantsy i volter'ianki.
30. See Brudny, Reinventing Russia, 259–65.
31. See Davies, Soviet History in the Yeltsin Era, 73–75.
32. The real threat this represented was demonstrated by the fact that Ziuganov stood as representative of the “nationalist–communist alliance” and won 40% of the vote.
33. Pilkington et al., Looking West?, 206–11.
34. Ibid., 226.
35. See Kichin, “Aristokrat,” 8.
36. See the discussion of the views of these two politicians in Remnick, Resurrection, 88–92, 295–316.
37. Solzhenitsyn, Sobranie sochinenii, Vol. 9, 290. Such views recall Sir Isaiah Berlin's remark (in “A Remarkable Decade,” 181) about the “combination of intellectual inadequacy and emotional superiority” evident in Russia's feelings about Europe.
38. P'etsukh, “Novaia moskovskaia filosofiia,” 112.
39. P'etsukh, “The Central-Ermolaevo War,” 237.
40. See P'etsukh, “Nagornaia propoved' i Rossiia,” 269–70.
41. P'etsukh, “Russkaia tema,” 3–7.
42. P'etsukh, “Zakoldovannaia strana,” 72.
43. An essay competition was announced in “Konkurs ‘Rossiiskoi gazety,’” 1. For further discussion, see Service, Russia, 183–85; Smith, Mythmaking in the New Russia, 158–72.
44. Pelevin, Generation P, 137–38.
45. Prokhanov had previously written works praising the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and lambasting Gorbachev.
46. Mamleev, “Rossiia—mezhdu vechnost'iu i liubov'iu,” 3.
47. Aksenov, “Nostalgiia ili shizofreniia.”
48. Aksyonov, Generations of Winter, 7, 9.
49. On Herzen's disillusionment with the West, see, in particular, Alexander Herzen, Letters from France and Italy, 1847–1851. Other Russian travellers (predominantly male), such as Fonvizin and Dostoevsky, were simply repelled by what they perceived as the egoism, materialism and spiritual emptiness of Western society. See Fonvizine, Lettres de France (1777–1778); Dostoevsky, Winter Notes on Summer Impressions.
50. Solzhenitsyn, “Ugodilo zernyshko promezh dvukh zhernovov,” 132. For articles agreeing with Solzhenitsyn, see, for example, Kozhinov, “Solzhenitsyn versus Solzhenitsyn,” 4; Kublanovsky, “Solzhenitsyn in Exile,” 4–6.
51. Khazanov, “Lotova zhena,” 10.
52. Den' (Citation1992).
53. Voinovich, “Fashisty i kommunisty v odnom stroiu,” 1.
54. Vernet, in Erofeev, Khoroshii Stalin, 17.
55. Erofeyev, Citation2004, 17.
56. Cited in Reynolds, “Translator's Introduction,” xviii.
57. Pushkin, Review of “Vtoroi tom ‘Istorii Russkogo naroda’ Polevogo,” Vol. 11, 127.
58. de Custine, La Russie en 1839, 233.
59. Sokurov, Interview with John Hartl, 2.
60. Chaadaev, “Philosophical Letters” and “Apology of a Madman,” 166–67.
61. Shevtsova, Putin's Russia, 169, 212.
62. Brodsky, “Letter from Russia.”
63. Prokhanov, “Poslednii soldat imperii.”
64. See Kishkovsky, “Russian Novelist Scoffs at Post-Soviet Leaders.”
65. For further discussion, see Marsh, Soviet Fiction since Stalin.
66. See Brandenberger, Stalinist Mass Culture and the Formation of Modern Russian National Identity.
67. Akunin, Azazel', 99–100; Akunin, The Winter Queen, 75.
68. For further discussion of this new fashion, see Finn, “In Russia, a Pop Culture Coup for the KGB,” CO1.
69. Gilichensky, “The Tip of the Iceberg (Russian Neo-Nazis in Israel).”
70. “Majority of Russians Fear Immigrants.” Citing an opinion poll held in April 2005 by the All-Russia Public Opinion Centre (VTsIOM) which showed that 63% of the 1,500 Russians polled believed “the presence of immigrants increases the level of crime and corruption.”
71. Ulitskaia, Kazus Kukotskogo, 454.
72. Feifer, “Emergent Marketing.”
73. Krupin, “Stalinskaia dacha,” 70–71.
74. Ibid., 71.
75. Pelevin, Generation P, 258.
76. Pilkington et al., Looking West?, 220.
77. Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition.
78. Buck-Morss, Dreamworld and Catastrophe.
79. Barghoorn, “Some Russian Images of the West,” 576.
80. Gorbachev, “The Crimean Article,” 119.
81. The title of a conference organized by the Heinrich Böll Foundation in Germany, May 2005.
82. One example was Putin's speech to the Bashkortostan People's Assembly, 6 October 2001, when he asserted: “Russia is a unique country hosting a great variety of nations, nationalities, ethnic groups, cultures and epochs.” For an alternative view, comparing the Russian empire to other historical empires, see Lieven, Empire.
83. For further discussion see Pilkington et al., Looking West?, 222–26; Goscilo, “Russian Culture of the 1990s.”