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Acknowledgements
I would like to express gratitude to the National Council for Eurasian and East European Research (NCEEER) for the travel support related to this study, and to the students and faculty who participated in the research. Thanks are also due to my colleague Galina Valyayeva for her transcription and translation services.
Notes
1. See these pronouncements by former President A. Akaev in Education for All. See also the National Report on Higher Education in the Republic of Kyrgyzstan.
2. United Nations Development Program (UNDP), The Influence of Civil Society on the Human Development Process in Kyrgyzstan; World Bank Education Statistics; UNESCO Institute for Statistics. In 1993, only 7.6% of university students paid for their higher education, while in 1995 this figure was 39.9%, and in 2001, 84.6%. See the National Report on Higher Education in the Republic of Kyrgyzstan.
3. UNESCO reports that only 14% of eligible secondary school graduates in Kyrgyzstan were enrolled in tertiary intuitions in 1991, while Turkmenistan and Tajikistan enrolled 22%, Uzbekistan 30%, and Kazakhstan 40%. For 2005, Kyrgyzstan had 41% enrolled, Kazakhstan 52%, and Tajikistan only 17%. No data were given for Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan.
4. Trow, Reflections on the Transition from Elite to Mass to Universal Access.
5. See the international regional economists' overview of trends and needs in the region in Mertaugh, “Education in Central Asia, with Particular Reference to the Kyrgyz Republic,” 153–80; and in Anderson et al., “Education in Central Asia during the Transition to a Market Economy,” 131–52. Classical analyses and perspectives are presented by Schultz, Investing in People; and by Becker, “The Age of Human Capital,” 292–94.
6. See Collins, The Credential Society. For a thorough analytical analysis of the transformation of American public universities toward more professional and technical fields over the twentieth century, see Brint et al., “From the Liberal Arts to the Practical Arts in American Colleges and Universities,” 151–80.
7. See Clark, “University Transformation,” 322–42; and Stromquist, Education in a Globalized World.
8. Gleason, The Central Asian States; idem, Markets and Politics.
9. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).
10. See Olcott, Central Asia's Second Chance; see also Slaughter, “Poor Kyrgyzstan,” 231–36. Contradicting statistics on unemployment among university graduates can be found in National Report on Higher Education in the Republic of Kyrgyzstan; and also in Update on State of Affairs in Higher Education in Kyrgyzstan.
11. UNDP, The Influence of Civil Society on the Human Development Process in Kyrgyzstan; and Update on State of Affairs in Higher Education in Kyrgyzstan.
12. See such discussions in the Open Society Institute (OSI), Educational Development in Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan; UNDP, Corruption in Kyrgyzstan; and USAID, The National Scholarship Test of the Kyrgyz Republic, 2003. See also the recent Kyrgyz critique of education quality in the Kyrgyz Republic by Bisembin, “The Declining Quality of Schooling in the Kyrgyz Republic.”
13. See Mertaugh, “Education in Central Asia, with Particular Reference to the Kyrgyz Republic,” for a critique of expanding higher education in the republic. For statistics on the increasing number of degree programs and disciplines, see the National Report on Higher Education in the Republic of Kyrgyzstan.
14. See these discussions in Dzhaparova, “On Whether Kyrgyzstan Should Join the Bologna Process,” 92–98; and in Merrill, “Internationalization of Higher Education in Kyrgyzstan,” 34–40.
15. For discussion of why and how universities were accessed during Soviet times, see Dobson, “Social Status and Inequality of Access to Higher Education in the USSR,” 232–53. See also European Commission, Implementation of the Implications of the Bologna Process in Kyrgyzstan.
16. See this discussion in Pitt and Pavlova, “Pedagogy in Transition,” 231–47. This view is also consistent with my personal conversations in-country during the past decade.
17. See DeYoung, “The Erosion of Vospitanye (Social Upbringing) in Post-Soviet Kyrgyzstan,” 239–56. See also Holmes et al., Russian Education.
18. Clark, “University Transformation,” 322–42. See also Kliebard, The Struggle for the American Curriculum, 1893–1958.
19. Holmes et al., Russian Education.
20. Reeves, “Cultivating ‘Citizens of a New Type,’” 365–86. See also UNDP, Corruption in Kyrgyzstan.
21. Aspirations for higher education were major themes in all four of the secondary school case studies presented in DeYoung et al., Surviving the Transition?
22. See this discussion in UNDP, Corruption in Kyrgyzstan. See also how the language of instruction debate is involved in how students and their parents think about university entrance in DeYoung, “Instructional Language, National Identity, and Higher Education in Rural Kyrgyzstan,” 14–19.