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Acknowledgements
This paper was first delivered in draft form as “Ramzan Kadyrov—The Chechen Face of Russia's ‘Beautiful’ South?” at the Association for the Study of Nationalities 2007 World Convention, Columbia University, New York, 12–14 April 2007. The author would like to thank his fellow-panellists (Emil Souleimanov, Jason Vaughan and Laurent Vinatier), chair (Steven Sabol), discussant (John Dunlop) and the audience for their constructive comments as well as the British Academy for providing the travel grant that facilitated his attendance at this conference. Thanks are also due to the two anonymous peer reviewers for their detailed comments, criticisms and suggestions.
Notes
1. The Russian president had acquired the right to nominate (to posts that were hitherto elective) heads of the territorial divisions of the Russian Federation through legislation promulgated in the wake of the Beslan school siege of September 2004; see Lynch, “The Enemy is at the Gate.”
2. “Chechenization” is understood here to mean the delegation of power (including countering separatist insurgents) from the federal centre in Moscow to approved officials in Chechnya who support Kremlin policies. The three procedural phases of Chechenization were a referendum (March 2003), a presidential election (October 2003) and parliamentary elections (November 2005).
3. Ramzan Kadyrov officially declared on 30 January 2008 that “one may talk about the war in the past tense,” claiming that no more than 60–70 rebels (or “satans” as he called them) remained in the hills. Mukhin, Ramzan.
4. On 5 July 2007, Lenta.ru quoted Ramzan Kadyrov as claiming that the decision to hold the Winter Olympic Games in Sochi was evidence of the “stability of the socio-political situation in cities of the Southern Federal District,” adding that the Games could “help solve some of the unemployment problems in Chechnya.”
5. (Fake dictator) Rechkalov, “O shansakh”; (Stalin) RFE/RL, “Anna Politkovskaya”; (bandit) former world chess champion and opposition leader Garry Kasparov in Kommersant, 26 September 2007, qtd. in Jamestown Foundation's Chechnya Weekly 8, no. 37, 27 September 2007. Kasparov stated: “I am ready to repeat it once again: a person who is proud that he started killing ‘federals’ at age 15 is a bandit, and he remains one even if President Putin pins a hero's star on him”; (traitor), see <http://old.kavkazcenter.com/eng/content/2004/08/15/3099.shtml> (accessed 18 March 2008).
6. The roles of both the late Shamil Basaev and Ramzan Kadyrov as quintessential Chechen “entrepreneurs of violence” are explored in Russell, Chechnya, 114–24. This term is used in preference to that of “spoiler,” introduced by Stephen Stedman in his “Spoiler Problems in Peace Processes”; see Brown et al., Nationalism and Ethnic Conflict, 366–414.
7. See, for example, his TV interview with Russia Today on 1 February 2008, <http://www.ramzan-kadyrov.ru/smi.php> (accessed 18 March 2008).
8. Kadyrov's rise to prominence coincided with the release of the feature film about Amin entitled The Last King of Scotland, leading commentators to call Ramzan “The Last King of Chechnya.” This was the name given, for example, to the Russia Profile Weekly Panel on 9 March 2007; see <http://65.120.76.252/russia/johnson/2007-57-35.cfm> (accessed 11 March 2007).
9. Kramer, “The Russian–Chechen Conflict,” 4–6; Leahy, “Chechnya's New President”; and Markedonov, “Chechenizatsiya.”
10. McFaul and Stoner-Weiss make this point vis-à-vis Angola's president, dos Santos; see McFaul and Stoner-Weiss, “The Myth,” 84.
11. The phrase is borrowed from Sukhov, “Chechensky.”
12. This concept generally replaced that of the “global war on terror” in US terminology from early 2006; see Cassidy, “The Long, Small War.”
13. Bremmer, The J Curve.
14. Ibid., 7.
15. Ibid., 68.
16. Quoted in Kaufmann, “Possible and Impossible Solutions to Ethnic Civil Wars,” 468.
17. Strachan, “Strategy.”
18. Douglas, “Waging the Inchoate War,” 393.
19. Gray, “Thinking Asymmetrically in Times of Terror,” 5.
20. Douglas, “Waging the Inchoate War.”
21. Kiras, “Terrorism,” 227.
22. Ibid., 210.
23. Quoted in Metz, “New Challenges and Old Concepts.”
24. Cassidy, “The Long, Small War,” 48.
25. The findings of the highly respected Levada Center polling organization indicate that these proportions hold true, with the exception of the months following the Dubrovka and Beslan hostage-taking tragedies, from February 2002 onwards (N = 1,600). The results may be found in English on <http://www.russiavotes.org/xlfiles/file170.xls?S776173303132=399228d428ca56e84d1ac99a2bca93aa> (accessed 19 March 2008).
26. In the wake of 9/11 Putin did allow General Viktor Kazantsev, Governor of the Southern Federal District and former commander of Russian forces in Chechnya, to meet Akhmed Zakaev, deputy prime minister of the Chechen separatist regime, briefly in Moscow. Although the talks came to nothing, by the summer of 2002, Zakaev had become a central figure in formulating peace plans for Chechnya with respected international public figures.
27. Dunlop, The 2002 Dubrovka, 108–09.
28. This factor is considered by al-Shishani, “From Grozny to Nalchik.”
29. There is a considerable body of literature on both the first and second Russo-Chechen conflicts. Among recommended titles on the first war, one might pick out Dunlop, Russia Confronts Chechnya; Gall and de Waal, Chechnya; and Lieven, Chechnya; and, on both conflicts, Evangelista, The Chechen Wars; Hughes, Chechnya; Russell, Chechnya; and Souleimanov, An Endless War. Among Russian sources available in English are Trenin and Malashenko, Russia's Restless Frontier; Politkovskaya, A Dirty War; and Tishkov, Chechnya. Sakwa's Chechnya is an edited collection of articles that includes American, British, Chechen and Russian contributors.
30. The fortuitous timing of this and other Chechen terrorist attacks has given rise to considerable debate as to whether elements in the Russian security services were directly involved in the planning of such events. See, for example, Dunlop, The 2002 Dubrovka.
31. Andreas Gross, PACE's rapporteur for Chechnya, insisted that any talk of independence should be off the agenda for the next 10–15 years. See Gross, “O nezavisimosti.”
32. This reaction is reported in Bidder, “Chechnya's Capital Rises from the Ashes.”
33. See Vatchagaev, “Weaknesses.”
34. Metz, “New Challenges and Old Concepts.”
35. For example, Kadyrov is the only leader in Russia, apart from Putin and Medvedev, to have been granted an international online conference (on 30 January 2008). See Artem Krechetnikov, “Kadyrov.”
36. Parallels are drawn between Chechnya's autonomy and that granted by the Russian tsar to Poland in 1815, which led to the Polish rebellion in 1830; Markedonov, “Chechenizatsiya.”
37. Sagramoso, “Violence and Conflict,” 705.
38. In Kiras, “Terrorism,” 212.
39. Osborn, “Ramzan.”
40. The seminal work on this category is by Linz and Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition.
41. Guliyev, “Post-Soviet Azerbaijan.”
42. Hadenius and Teorell, “Pathways from Authoritarianism.”
43. Ibid., 146.
44. A favourite epithet amongst Russian officers in Chechnya; see Osborn, “Ramzan.”
45. A reference to the much-ridiculed cult of Turkmenbashi—the late Saparmurat Niyazov; see Kuznetsov, “Chechenbashi.”
46. Markedonov, “Ramzan solntseliky.”
47. Hadenius and Teorell, “Pathways from Authoritarianism,” 150.
48. Ibid., 153.
49. Cole, “The Kurtz Factor.”
50. <http://chechnya.gov.ru/officials/president.html> (accessed 4 March 2007).
51. This depicts him in a dark suit and black shirt looking straight (some might add menacingly) at the viewer; <http://www.ramzan-kadyrov.ru> (accessed 16 July 2007).
52. See the picture of Kadyrov and Putin in Novaya gazeta, no. 41, 9 June 2005; Malashenko, “Lyudi.”
53. Abudaeva, “Kadyrov.”
54. This claim was made by Yulia Latynina on Ekho Moskvy on 15 July 2006, and reported by Dunlop, “Putin.” Kasparov, as quoted above (n. 5), claims that Kadyrov was 15 when he killed his first Russian.
55. <http://www.inopressa.ru/print/welt/2004/01/23/11:20:42/Chechnia> (accessed 23 January 2004).
56. “Chechnya's Deputy Prime Minister Intends to Kill Basayev before 9 May,” Caucasian Knot News, 29 April 2005.
57. Jamestown Foundation, “Kadyrov Wants to Chase Rebels Out.”
58. Lenta.ru, “V Moskve.”
59. Bigg, “Russia.”
60. See Regnum.ru, “Ramzan Kadyrov”; Arsanov, “Na post prezidenta.”
61. Walsh, “Land of the Warlords.”
62. Franchetti, “In the Torture Cell.”
63. Liss, “Chechnya's Gun-Toting Strongman.”
64. Van Evera, “Hypotheses on Nationalism and War,” 39.
65. Politkovskaya, “Akhmat Kadyrov.”
66. Politkovskaya, “Tsentrovoi.”
67. In the last article to be published prior to her death, Politkovskaya had accused the pro-Kremlin Chechen forces under Ramzan Kadyrov of employing extrajudicial killing and torture as a means of eliminating, neutralizing or intimidating opponents to their rule. See Politkovskaya, “Karatel'nyi sgovor.” Some believe that she was murdered because she was about to publish a full exposé of these crimes; indeed, the article did appear on 12 October 2006 in Novaya gazeta; see Politkovskaya, “Naznachaem.”
68. RFE/RL, “Anna Politkovskaya's Last Interview.”
69. Politkovskaya, “Akhmat Kadyrov.”
70. Kadyrov claims that such adulation is just the Chechen people's way of expressing “gratitude for what he has done for them”; Franchetti, Putin.
71. Reported on 12 February 2007 by BBC Russian.com, <http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/hi/russian/russia/newsid_6353000/6353669.stm> (accessed 17 February 2007).
72. Agentsvo natsional'nykh novostei, “Svet.”
73. Rechkalov, “Samurai.”
74. See his “Biography” on Lenta.ru, <http://lenta.ru/lib/14161090/full.htm> (accessed 16 February 2007).
75. For military honours, see his “Biography” on Lenta.ru; for boxing, see Rechkalov, “Chechensky tsiryul'nik”; for educational achievements, see Politkovskaya, “Tsentrovoi”; and Gazeta.ru, “Professor Ramzan Kadyrov.”
76. RFE/RL, “Chechnya.”
77. Osborn, “Ramzan Kadyrov.”
78. Politkovskaya, “Tsentrovoi.”
79. <http://www.compromat.ru/main/chechnya/a.htm> (accessed 7 February 2007).
80. In June 2005, Garry Kasparov, leader of the United Civil Forum, was prevented by Kadyrov's forces from meeting with villagers from Borozdinovskaya after the zachistka reportedly carried out in the Dagestani settlement by Suliman Yamadaev's Vostok forces. See Jamestown Foundation, “Yamadaev.”
81. Osborn, “Ramzan Kadyrov.”
82. <http://www.ramzan-kadyrov.ru/bio.php> (accessed 17 July 2007).
83. Rechkalov, “Pustiye stupeni.”
84. Sukhov, “Po pravu nasledovaniya.”
85. Not least his assertion that relations between Chechnya and Russia had always been good, and that “third parties” had sown seeds of conflict between them; Krechetnikov, “Kadyrov.”
86. These categories are explored in Cole, “The Kurtz Factor.”
87. Van Evera, “Hypotheses on Nationalism and War,” 30.
88. Souleimanov, “Russian Chechnya Policy.”
89. Insanova, “Geroi.”
90. Leahy, “Ramzan.”
91. Voronov, “Chtoby.”
92. Krutikov, “Chechnyu.”
93. Interfax-AVN, 20 February 2007, printed in Johnson's Russia List, #43, 21 February 2007.
94. Vadim Rechkalov, <http://www.compromat.ru/main/chechnya/vzakone.htm> (18 August 2005).
95. Estimates range between 12,000 and 35,000, with 15,000 being the most widely accepted figure; see Voronov, “Chtobi.”
96. NEWSru.com, “Pochti.”
97. Politkovskaya, “Vsya Chechnya.”
98. Malashenko, “Lyudi.”
99. “Chechnya Puts on Music Festival,” BBC, 7 November 2005, <http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4415322.stm> (accessed 20 March 2008).
100. “Boxer Tyson Welcomed in Chechnya,” BBC, 15 September 2005, <http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4250126.stm> (30 September 2006).
101. “First Beauty Queen Named in Chechnya,” Moscow News, 28 May 2006.
102. Reuters, “Chechnya Makes a Top-Flight Comeback.” 14 March 2008, <http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/wire?section=soccer&id=3294060> (accessed 20 March 2008).
103. RFE/RL, “Chechnya.”
104. Fuller, “Chechnya.”
105. It is reported that during the rock festival in Gudermes in November 2005, Kadyrov asked one of his ministers for $10,000 to give to one of the performing artists. The unfortunate official, not having such money to hand, was so terrified at his predicament that he suffered a heart attack and ended up in hospital!; Agenstvo natsional'nikh novostei, “Svet.”
106. Voronov, “Chtoby.”
107. Latynina, “Fugasnoe samoderzhaviye.”
108. See Osborn, “Can Grozny be Groovy?”
109. <http://www.caucasustimes.com/article.asp?id=13519> (accessed 16 March 2008).
110. Sergei Markedonov, “Podavlayushchee bol'shinstvo.”
111. <http://bd.fom.ru/report/map/projects/dominant/dom0709/domt0709_5/d070923> (accessed 20 March 2008). N = 1,500, margin of error >3.6%.
112. Leahy, “Kadyrov's Bluff.”
113. Leahy, “Preserving the Status Quo.”
114. Isaev, “Rossiiskiye voenniye.”
115. See “Multi-Level Explanations,” The Moscow Times, 20 February 2007.
116. Vernidub, “Pro-Moscow Chechen.”
117. Lenta.ru, “V Moskve.”
118. Zakaev is reported to have regarded Kadyrov's appointment as a “positive development” as he would “treat the rebels sympathetically”; IWPR, “Chechnya.”
119. Jamestown Foundation, “Kadyrov Bows Down.”
120. Sukhov, “Chechnyu.”
121. Russky dzhurnal, “Medvedev–Kadyrov.”
122. Medvedev made these statements in an interview with the Itogi journal on 18 February 2008.
123. Bremmer, The J Curve, 125–45.
124. Ibid., 140.
125. Dunlop, The 2002 Dubrovka, 108–09.
126. Izmailov, “Rossiya.”
127. According to Insanova (“Geroi”), Kadyrov's view is that “they bombed us, unleashed war, destroyed us—and now want to put all the blame on us! It shall not be.”
128. 17 March 2006, as reported by the Central Asia-Caucasus Analyst, <http://www.cacia nalyst.org/view_article.php?articleid=4125> (30 September 2006).
129. Rodin, “Chechnya.”
130. Sukhov, “Polevaya komandirovka.”
131. This critically important aspect of Kadyrov's rule will be examined in detail in a forthcoming paper by the author.
132. See Gakaev, “Chechnya,” 4.
133. See Aliev, “Kremlin's Pick.”
134. Makarkin, “Zadacha.”
135. Agenstvo natsional'nykh novostei, “Svet.”
136. I am grateful to Galina Yemelianova for bringing this aspect to my attention. See her “The Rise of Islam.”
137. Muratov, “Kratkaya istoriya.”
138. Markedonov, “Effektivnee borot'sya.”
139. Markedonov, “Fantomny separatizm.”
140. The phrase is used by Sergei Markedonov in his “Chechnya.”
141. Sukhov, “Chechensky.”
142. See interview with Remizov, “Chechenskuyu vitrinu.”
143. Sokolov, “Kavkaz.”
144. The Economist, 24 February–2 March 2007.
145. Markedonov, “Terror zakonchilsya.”
146. For example, Mark Franchetti of The Sunday Times and Tony Wood, of the New Left Review and author of Chechnya: The Case for Independence; see especially, 167–75.
147. See Latynina, “Fugasnoe samoderzhaviye”; Olga Allenova, Kommersant correspondent, concludes “they love Ramzan Kadyrov in Chechnya,” Jamestown Foundation, “Kadyrov Bows Down”; Andreas Gross, of PACE, also notes that “positive changes have happened in the republic; we can see progress and the security situation is getting better”; <http://www.andigross.ch/html/site555.htm> (accessed 18 July 2007).
148. See “Boi v gorode” [Battle in the Town], Novoye vremya, no. 42, 23 October 2005, 6–13.
149. See, for example, the detailed specialist coverage of Beslan in Novaya gazeta; see <http://www.novayagazeta.ru/rassled2/beslan/karta.shtml> (accessed 25 September 2006).
150. Glikin, “Velikhoye pereseleniye kavkaztsev.”
151. Shlapentokh, “The Stavropol Riots.”
152. Voronov, “Chtoby.”
