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Notes
*Research for this article was made possible by Fulbright-Hays DDRA Program, The International Exchanges Board, the Davis Center for Russian and Eurasian Studies and the Harvard Ukranian Research Institute. I benefited from presenting an earlier version of this piece to The Washington DC Russian History Seminar.
Fedoseyev, “Nationalism and Patriotism,” 3.
Brandenburger, “From Proletarian Internationalism”; Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire, 450.
I follow Gellner's standard definition of nationalism as a “political principle that holds that the political and the national unit should be congruent” (Gellner, Nations, 1).
Fedoseyev, “Nationalism and Patriotism”, 5.
Ibid.
The important exception is Peter Blitstein, who discusses the attempt to overcome the USSR's relative backwardness as “Soviet nation-building.” Blitstein, “Stalin's Nations.”
Hosking uses the hybrid term “Russian-Soviet patriotism” to refer to late Stalinist patriotic discourse, implicitly rejecting the party leaders' own use of the term “Soviet patriotism.” Hosking, Rulers and Victims, 226, 230–36; Brandenberger, National Bolshevism; Yekelchyk, “Stalinist Patriotism as Imperial Discourse”; Suny, “The Russian Empire,” 152; Brooks, Thank You, Comrade Stalin!, esp. Chapter 7.
Hellbeck, “Fashioning the Stalinist Soul.”
On the ongoing argument about a Great Retreat in the 1930s, see Hoffman, Stalinist Values.
Anderson, Imagined Communities, 219–21.
Smith, National Identity; Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism since 1780, 86–93. A notable application of “civic nationalism” to imperial Russia is Rabow-Edling, “The Decembrists.”
Unowsky, The Pomp and Politics of Patriotism; Sanborn, “Family, Fraternity, and Nation-Building.” The exception is Eriksen, “Place, Kinship,” which makes a bold case for the need to study “non-ethnic nations.” His insight that “rules of inclusion” and “founding myths” are important in creating the “metaphoric kin group” of the nation has informed what follows.
This definition is based on Anderson, Imagined Communities, 6–7.
Stauter-Halsted, The Nation in the Village.
A useful discussion of students and national movements is Gevers and Vos, “Student Movements.”
Cf. Kirschenbaum, “‘Our City, Our Hearths.’”
Roth-Ey, “Mass Media and the Remaking of Soviet Culture”; Kozlov, “Naming the Social Evil”; Bittner, The Many Lives.
See Reid, “Cold War.”
Lieven, “Russian Imperial and Soviet Identities,” 267; Bergman, “Valerii Chkalov.”
Fedoseyev, “Nationalism and Patriotism,” 5. The best analysis of the notion of the gift in state rhetoric is Brooks, Thank You, Comrade Stalin!
Cf. Zubkova, Poslevoennoe sovetskoe obschesto, 133–36.
“The Patriotism of Soviet Man.”
Brubaker, “Nationhood and the National Question,” 50. See also Suny, The Revenge of the Past, Chapter 3; Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire, 344–72; Yekelchyk, Stalin's Empire of Memory.
On the category of socialist nation, see Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire, 447–48.
Blitstein, “Nation-Building or Russification?”
Hosking, Rulers and Victims, 80.
Petrone, Life has become more Joyous. Notably, Petrone does not discuss the reception of the festivals at any length.
Cf. Fürst, “Prisoners of the Soviet Self?”
Weiner, “The Empires Pay a Visit,” 337.
“Overcome Isolation of Ideological Work.”
Priestland, “Soviet Democracy.”
Khrushchev, “Speech by Comrade,” 5.
RGASPI-m f. 1, op. 3, d. 889, ll. 343–44.
Clark, The Soviet Novel, Chapter 9.
This is from the stenographic report of the 1954 MGU Party Conference in TsAODM f. 478, op. 3, d. 13, ll. 7–8, 26 November 1954.
Interview with Mikhail Beletskii, Kyiv, July 2005.
Khrushchev, “O kul'te lichnosti,” 103–05.
The conflicting actions of the campaign are explored in Jones, “From the Secret Speech.”
See the list, dated 9 February 1956, in TsDAHOU f. 1, op. 24, d. 4255, ll. 14–17.
RGASPI-m f. 1, op. 46, d. 182, l. 20.
The students' aim was to pass the “appeal” at a meeting of the Komsomol leaders (aktiv) of the Mining Faculty. The institute's administrators quashed the plan. RGASPI-m f. 1, op. 46, d. 182, ll. 19–27.
In the end, four students were expelled from the institute. See the informational note “on measures taken with regard to facts of incorrect and anti-Soviet manifestations,” RGASPI-m f. 1, op. 46, d. 199, l. 172.
Khrushchev, An Account to the Party, 97–103, 128; Hill, “State and Ideology,” 46–60.
Pyzhikov, Khruschevskaia ottepel', 136, 246–51.
Taubman, Khrushchev, 375, also 73–92.
See the draft resolution of the VII All-Union Komsomol Central Committee (TsK VLKSM) plenary meeting, RGASPI-m f. 1, op. 32, d. 837, l. 4.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Grushin and Chikin, “Komsomolskaya Pravda's,” 5. For a detailed discussion of this specific 1961 poll about what youths thought about their generation, see Grushin, Chetyre zhizni Rossii, Chapter 3.
Tromly, Re-Imagining the Soviet Intelligentsia, Chapter 7.
One of many examples is Kara-Murza, “Sovok” vspominaet, 198–99.
Grushin and Chikin, “Komsomolskaya Pravda's,” 6.
On opposition from bureaucrats in Saratov University, see TsDNISO f. 652, op. 1, d. 3, l. 57.
Likhomanov, “Zhit' i rabotat',” 3.
Many students at Saratov University “openly opposed” the self-service experiment. TsDNISO f. 652, op. 1, d. 5, l. 84.
On the different forms of volunteer policing among youth in the period, see Fürst, “The Arrival of Spring?,” 476. On the societal anxiety sparked by the amnesties, see Dobson, “‘Show the Bandit-Enemy No Mercy!’”
Ronkin, Na smenu dekabriam, 70–71.
Ibid, 80–82, 91. On the tensions caused by institute-level Komsomol oversight of the volunteer detachments at the Moscow Energy Institute, see RGASPI-m f. 1, op. 5, d. 841, l. 6; TsDAHOU f. 7, op. 17, d. 570, l. 77.
TsAODM f. 6083, op. 1, d. 57, l. 34; Mitrokhin, Russkaia partia, 273–75; Gorlizki, “Policing Post-Stalin Society.”
Khrushchev, “Speech by Comrade N. S. Khrushchev,” 5.
This is from a February 1955 document produced for the ministry's ruling Collegium. GARF f. 9396, op. 1, d. 700, ll. 95–100; Froggat, “Renouncing Dogma,” 255–56.
Salmon, “Marketing Socialism,” 190.
Khrushchev, “Speech by Comrade N. S. Khrushchev,” 5.
See RGANI f. 5, op. 17, d. 535, ll. 139–45, 148, 156–57. On this mode of thinking more generally, see Gilburd, “Books and Borders.”
Bulganin, “Speech by Comrade N. A. Bulganin,” 11.
Khrushchev, “Speech by Comrade N. S. Khrushchev,” 5; Aksiutin, Khrushchevskaia ottepel', 108–22.
TsAODM f. 478, op. 3, d. 38, l. 2.
Kuznetsov, Istoria odnoi kompanii, 8–9, 21; Zubkova, Russia after the War, 191–201.
DAKO f. 9912, op. 1, d. 46, l. 15.
Courtship of Young Minds, 33–34.
The document (RGANI f. 4, op. 16, d. 1098, ll. 44–47) is published in Burtin, ed., “Studencheskoe brozhenie,” 10.
See the report of TsK VLKSM to TsK KPSS (Communist Party) on totals of the VI World Festival of Youth and Students, dated 30 August 1957. RGANI f. 5, op. 30, d. 233, l. 156.
See an October 1956 Party Committee resolution on preparations for the festival at MGU. TsAODM f. 478, op. 3, d. 52, ll. 5–6.
See the differing accounts of activists in TsAODM f. 5463, op. 1, d. 2, l. 45; ibid. f. 6083, op. 1, d. 7, l. 8; Plyushch, History's Carnival, 13. See also Roth-Ey, “‘Loose Girls’ on the Loose.”
Delegations to the festival from Western Europe and North America remained small as a result of the diplomatic backlash of the Hungarian Revolution the previous year. See the note from Komsomol head Aleksandr Shelepin to TsK KPSS secretary D. T. Shepilov, 12 December 1957 in RGANI f. 5, op. 30, d. 233, l. 95, also ll. 107–08, 155–60.
Ibid., l. 169.
RGANI f. 5, op. 30, d. 233, ll. 169–71, 182. See also the report from Minister of Culture N. A. Mikhailov to the Central Committee “on unhealthy tendencies in Polish art,” dated 14 August 1957; ibid., 129–32.
RGANI f. 5, op. 30, d. 233, l. 186; Reid, “The Exhibition Art of Socialist Countries,” 102; Babiracki, “Imperial Heresies.”
RGANI f. 5, op. 30, d. 233, l. 186.
Richmond, Cultural Exchange & the Cold War, 11–13.
Interview with Les' Taniuk, Kyiv, 2005.
For newspaper materials from interviews with participants, see Courtship of Young Minds, 28–36.
This question was posed in a July 1957 seminar for youths designated to work with the foreign delegations at the festival. RGANI f. 5, op. 30, d. 233, l. 101.
Khrushchev, “On the Program of the Communist Party,” 5–6; Magnusdottir, “‘Be Careful in America, Premier Khrushchev!,’” 121.
See O. V. Kuusinen's comments on the draft of the Party Program in Pyzhikov, Khrushchevskaia ottepel', 341–45.
Taubman, Khrushchev, 516–19.
Kulavig, Dissent in the years of Khrushchev, 125–53. In 1963, the KGB recorded almost 500 cases of people under 20 years of age attempting to flee the country. RGANI f. 2, op. 1, d. 626, ll. 101–10.
The note is located in the materials of the plenum at RGANI f. 2, op. 1, d. 621, l. 18.
On access to “capitalist” publications in the special catalogues of the libraries of Soviet institutes of higher learning, see RGANI f. 5, op. 35, d. 147, ll. 58–63.
RGANI f. 2, op. 1, d. 626, ll. 120–21.
Simon, Nationalism and Policy, 231–32.
Ibid., 266–67, 233–40, 283–85; Suny, The Revenge of the Past, 117–20.
See, for example, “Ideological Work”; “Raise the Level”; Bol'shaia Sovetskaia entsyklopedia, 2nd ed., 486–87.
Khrushchev, “O kul'te lichnosti,” 84.
From a March 1956 report sent from the secretary of the Kyiv City Committee KPU to TsK KPU (Communist Party of Ukraine). TsDAHOU f. 1, op. 24, d. 4256, l. 11; Kryzhaniskyj, “Victorious Feat,” 10.
“What did Admissions Examinations?”
This is from the head of the Propaganda and Agitation Division of TsK LKSM(U) (Ukrainian Republic Komsomol), dated 10 April 1956. TsDAHOU f. 7, op. 13, d. 1396, l. 27.
Stus, Lysty do syna, 13.
See the note from the Kyiv University rector and party secretary to republic party secretary O. I. Kyrychenko on the “politically harmful speeches” at the university. TsDAHOU f. 1, op. 24, d. 4492, ll. 7–8 (n.d., but clearly from early 1957).
This theme is explored in greater depth in the Tromly, “An Unlikely National.” Zhuk, Popular Culture,” 21–24. For the ambiguity of national symbols in postwar Ukraine, see Farmer, Ukrainian Nationalism.
Cf. Taniuk, Slovo, teatr, 522–23.
Kasianov, Nezhodni, 33–35; Weiner, “The Empires,” 372–77.
“U moyemu zhytti,” 162; “My obraly zhyttia,” 46–48.
Simon, Nationalism and Policy, 246.
Lane, Rites of Rulers, 48.
See the TsK VLKSM document destined for the Party Central Committee entitled “Suggestions on Improving Work with Student Youth.” RGASPI-m f. 1, op. 3, d. 916, ll. 2–4; “Report of Y.C.L.”
Gafurov, “Uspekhi national'noi politiki.”
Khrushchev, “On the Program of the Communist Party,” 4.
“Candidates for Deputies,” 22.
Bilinsky, “The Soviet Education Laws,” 138.
A skeptical view is Silver, “The Status of National”; Simon, Nationalism and Policy, 248.
Lewytzkyj, Politics and Society, 34–37.
See the note of the commission entrusted with drafting the education reforms, in RGANI f. 2, op. 1, d. 335, ll. 63–64.
For comparison of language use in Ukraine with other areas in the USSR, see Karklins, Ethnic Relations in the USSR, 39–40, 105, 108, 240–41.
Danyliuk and Bazhan, Opozytsiia v Ukraini, 23.
Cf. Shelest, Da ne sudimy budete, 156, 175.
Brudny, Reinventing Russia, 28–56, 76–80, 144–53.
Russian nationalist groups in the 1950s that were repressed by the KGB for “anti-Soviet propaganda and agitation” were mostly confined to the worker milieu, and had only tenuous connections to student life in the major Russian cities. Mitrokhin, Russkaia partia, 136–40, 169–77.
Brudny, Reinventing Russia, 73. See also the discussion of such ideological transformations in Mitrokhin, Russkaia partia, 187–90 (A. Ivanov-Skuratov), 210 (V. Soloukhin).
Kuniaev, Poeziia, sud'ba, Rossiia, 71–75.
Ibid., 110–22.
See Dedkov in Nash dom, 76–77.
Brudny, Reinventing Russia, 67–71.
Tumarkin, The Living & the Dead, 133–34. The political ideas of the so-called “Pavlov group” drew on the political line of the late Stalin period when the cohort had begun their political careers. Mitrokhin, Russkaia partia, 241–47.
For the broader context of this development, see Brudny, Reinventing Russia, Chapter 3.
Luryi, “Reminisces of a Soviet Lawyer,” 56.
On the organization's charter and program, see Borodin, “Vserossiiskii Sotsial-Khristianskii Soiuz,” 168–73.
Ibid., 169; Mitrokhin, Russkaia partia, 225. As it turned out, VSKhSON's activities were mostly limited to spreading banned literature.
Taubman, Khrushchev, 242.
Hudson Jr., “An Unimaginable Community.”
