A disputed land: Italy, the military inter-allied commission and the plebiscite of Sopron

Abstract

In the fall of 1918, after over four years of war, the cohesion of Austria-Hungary collapsed. In the aftermath of the Great War, Burgenland (Western Hungary) was part of a pattern of complex territorial issues, though it was actually the smallest disputed territory between Hungary and her successor states. The region became a disputed land after the Allied Supreme Council recommended the transfer of most of it to Austria. The internal crisis in Budapest, the Habsburg restoration attempts and the activities of many militia on the ground led to an extremely dangerous situation. Diplomatic and direct military involvement of the Powers eventually resolved the issue with an agreement providing for a plebiscite on the fate of Sopron and the other smaller towns of the region. At least until 1921 Western Hungary represented an element of destabilization in Europe, while its partition was a significant event in the evolution of relations between the two new states of Hungary and Austria, and a testing ground for European diplomacy. The purpose of this article is to highlight the role of Italy in these complex events and to elucidate the contribution of its military in the formulation of clearer political strategy.

Keywords:

• peace treaty
• Hungary
• minorities
• plebiscite
• First World War

Notes

1. The official name was “The Kingdoms and States represented in the Imperial Council” (Die im Reichsrat vertretenen Königreiche und Länder).

2. This new government was invited by the Charles IV to take part in the decision on the planned armistice with Italy, but they refused and left the responsibility for the end of the war solely on the Emperor and his government (Jelavich 1987).

3. The request was refused by the Entente.

4. For a better idea of the internal dynamics of the Bolshevik regime in Hungary (see Low 1963; Tőkés 1967; Carsten 1972; János and Slottman 1972; Imre and Szücs 1986; Fornaro 1987).

5. Romanelli's role was decisive at critical stages of the Communist regime, thanks to the many interventions of the Italian officer, which led inter alia to the salvation of the cadets of Ludovika sentenced to death for treason by Kun (see Romanelli 2002; Vagnini 2008, 3–28).

6. Archivio Ufficio Storico Stato Maggiore Esercito (AUSSME), Fondo E-8, Commissione Interalleata di Parigi, Busta 112, fasc. 5, Le Gènèral Franchet d'Esperey a M. le Prèsident du Conseil, Ministre de la Guerre, 4 April 1919. Copia.

7. AUSSME, Fondo E-8, Commissione Interalleata di Parigi, Busta 75, fasc. 1, Delegazione Italiana per la Pace – Sezione Militare, Promemoria sintetico sulle frontiere della Romania. Paris, 17 March 1919.

8. AUSSME, Fondo E-8, Commissione Interalleata di Parigi, Busta 143, fasc. 8, T. n. 8915. Paris, 18 June 1919.

9. As the National Army moved through the countryside and gathered thrust began a two-year campaign of anti-Communist reprisals also known as the White Terror.

10. According to the Hungarian census of 1910, apparently favorable to the Magyars, the population of this area was 285,609, including 26,225 Magyar-speaking citizens.

11. People's Law No. VI/1919 of 27 January 1919.

12. The five proposed districts, Transylvania, North Hungary, South Hungary, Central Hungary and West Hungary, as a matter of fact were partly at that time under enemy occupation and it would have been extremely difficult to realize any kind of autonomous policy there.

13. Mathyas Zsombor was the first and the last governor to take office.

14. Eventually, Dr Ernst Beer, as an expert on Burgenland was added to the Austrian delegation (see Macartney 1937, 51).

15. The Treaty stated that «La Hongrie renonce en faveur de l'Autriche à tous droits et titres sur les territoires de l'ancien royaume de Hongrie, situés au delà des frontières de la Hongrie» (see Trattati e Convenzioni fra il Regno d'Italia e gli altri Stati, Torino: Tipografia del Regio Ministero degli Affari Esteri, vol. XXVI, 140).

16. For the full text of the Treaty of Trianon see Treaty of Peace Between Allied and Associated Powers and Hungary and Protocol and Declaration Signed at Trianon. June 4 1920. London: His Majesty's Stationery Office, 11–15.

17. Art. 104 of the Treaty.

18. Also known as Commission of Generals, it was formed by General Carlo Antonio Ferrario (Italy), General Reginald Gorton (UK) and General Camille Hamelin (France) and 240 Allied officers and staff.

19. Initially the transfer was to be held on 29 August.

20. At first 26 officers, including 13 Italians, AUSSME, Fondo E-15, Commissioni Interalleate di controllo, Busta 93/1, Commission Militaire Interallies de Controle en Hongrie – la Prèsidence, Annexe au procés verbal no. 2. Budapest, 12 August 1921.

21. AUSSME, Fondo E-15, Commissioni Interalleate di controllo, Commission Militaire Interallie de Controle en Hongrie – La Présidence, annexe au procés verbal n. 254, Note de service. Budapest, 13 August 1921.

22. Italy's role in the question of Burgenland has received attention in earlier researches. Particularly Mária Ormos have discussed the border dispute between Austria and Hungary focusing on Italy.

23. They did not acquire systematic information about Burgenland in particular, but nevertheless, they had formed a general view on the region (see Vares 2008, 105).

24. Notably Pál Prónay, Iván Héjjas, István Friedrich and Gyula Osztenburg.

25. The bands included many officers and a large number of Székely as well.

26. On the activities of the Magyar bands in this period see also Documents on British Foreign Policy, 1918–1939 (DBFP), First Series, vol. XXII, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London 1946, 307.

27. DBFP, First Series, vol. XXII, 315.

28. DBFP, First Series, vol. XXII, 316 and 318.

29. DBFP, First Series, vol. XXII, 322.

30. Major Craig was also assigned to the battalion as liaison officer. AUSSME, E-15 Commissioni Interalleate di controllo, Busta 71/1, Commission de Generaux Alliés de Sopron, n. 122. Sopron, 2 October 1921.

31. A better overview of the Beneš’ proposal is in the British documents, DBFP, First Series, vol. XXII, 339 and 347.

32. DBFP, First Series, vol. XXII, 365 and 372.

33. Lajtabánság (Banat of Leitha) was proclaimed on 4 October 1921, at Felsőőr (Oberwart).

34. Schober actually agreed to the Italian invitation on 8 October. DBFP, First Series, vol. XXII, 379.

35. Archivio Storico del Ministero Affari Esteri, Affari Politici 1921–1931, Archivio conferenze, Busta 42, Verbale delle riunioni di Venezia, 2–16 (see also, British and Foreign State Papers, 1812–1934, vol. 114 (1921), London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1921, 624; de Martens 1939, Series III, vol. 19, 763).

36. Kroisbach/Rokos, Wolfs/Balfs, Kohlnof/Kophaza, Holling/Boz, Gross Zankendorf/Nagy Czenk, Harkau/Harka, Wondorf/Bahnfalva, Agendorf/Ágfalva.

37. DBFP, First Series, vol. XXII, 387.

38. DBFP, First Series, vol. XXII, 521.

39. AUSSME, E-15 Commissioni Interalleate di controllo, Busta 93/1, Commission de Generaux Allies – Hongrie Occidentale, n. 262T. Oedenburg (Sopron), 8 December 1921.

40. Later the Hungarian Parliament formally dethroned the Habsburgs.

41. Reports of the Royalist forces’ dispersal and the King's capitulation to the Government were greeted with relief by the Allied Powers, especially by the British officials. DBFP, First Series, vol. XXII, 417.

42. It became a priority at this stage to resolve the question of the exile of the King, as the Magyar government officially requested the Powers to decide his destination. The solution would be reached when the Portuguese authorities eventually agreed to welcome Charles to Madeira.

43. Each area was guarded by a detachment of 25 men. At that time the Allies had in Sopron a total of 450 men, of which about half were Italian.

44. AUSSME, Fondo E-15, Commissioni Interalleate di controllo, Busta 71/1, Commission de Generaux Alliés de Sopron, n. 435. Sopron, 9 December 1921.

45. Actually the check started only on December 4th because of the delay in the arrival of Austrian delegation. See also DBFP, First Series, vol. XXII, 385.

46. The electoral board was composed of 3 Allied officers and 2 Hungarian and Austrian delegates.

47. AUSSME, Fondo E-15, Commissioni Interalleate di controllo, Busta 83/5, A M.Kir. Kormány Képviselője a Soproni Szövetségközi Kantonai Bizottsággal, n. 60/994. Sopron, 1 December 1921.

48. AUSSME, Fondo E-15, Commissioni Interalleate di controllo, Busta 71/1, Commission Centrale du Plebiscite, Raport sur le deroulement des operations pour l'execution du plebiscite, pp. 2–3. Sopron, 19 December 1921. However, the lists of the smaller communities did not show any falsification.

49. AUSSME, Fondo E-15, Commissioni Interalleate di controllo, Busta 71/1, Commission des Generaux Allies – Hongrie Occidentale, n. 588, Rapport n. 6.

50. AUSSME, Fondo E-15, Commissioni Interalleate di controllo, Busta 71/1, Commission des Generaux Allies – Hongrie Occidentale, n. 427. Oedenburg (Sopron), 8 December 1921.

51. AUSSME, Fondo E-15, Commissioni Interalleate di controllo, Busta 71/1, n. 333. Sopron, 10 November 1921.

52. AUSSME, Fondo E-15, Commissioni Interalleate di controllo, Busta 71/1, n. 477. Oedenburg (Sopron), 14 December 1921.

53. AUSSME, Fondo E-15, Commissioni Interalleate di controllo, Busta 71/1, Commission des Generaux Allies – Hongrie Occidentale, n. 588, Rapport n. 6.

54. DBFP, First Series, vol. XXII, 564.

55. Six constituencies of Sopron and two villages had a majority for Hungary while only one ward of the city and six other villages chose Austria. See also DBFP, First Series, vol. XXII, 574.

56. On 27 December 1921 the Venice Protocol had been already ratified by the Austrian President. DBFP, First Series, vol. XXII, 590, Note 8.

57. Work on boundary demarcation would be continued throughout 1922. AUSSME, Fondo G-22, Scacchiere orientale, Busta 56/1, Commissione per la delimitazione della frontiera Austria-Ungheria; Busta 56/2, Carteggio sotto-commissione tecnica (1922).

58. The first elections for the parliament of Burgenland took place only on 18 July 1922.

59. These activities are well documented in the Archives of the Italian Army General Staff. See the several reports drafted by the Allied officers in Sopron. AUSSME, Fondo E-15, Commissioni Interalleate di controllo, Busta 71/1.