Abstract
The 1995 Dayton Peace Agreement in Bosnia and Herzegovina instituted ethnic quotas between Bosniaks, Serbs, and Croats: the three “constituent peoples.” This institutionalization of ethnicity, criticized by some contemporary authors, is often seen as a creation of the peace agreement. Interestingly, several scholars deem such proportional representation a legacy from socialist times. But the existing literature lacks a historical perspective on the question of ethnic quotas. In addressing this issue, this paper reminds one of the existence of ethnic quotas, called the “national key,” during socialist times. A deeper analysis of the “national key” in the Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina and of the ethnic quotas in the last two decades shows, interestingly, more differences than continuity. The article concludes that few similarities and more differences can be observed between the two periods, especially regarding the legal aspects of the “national key,” in ideological justification and in the conceptions based on parity or proportional representation.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Isabelle Delpla, Adis Merdžanović, Jana Osterkamp, and Peter Vermeersch for their useful comments.
Notes
† This article is based on a paper presented at the Association for Study of Nationalities World Convention, Columbia University, 24–26 April 2014.
1. In this article, “national key,” “national representation,” and “ethnic quotas” are used as functional equivalents.
2. For example, Florian Bieber evokes the “pre-war Yugoslav legacy” without explaining in detail the functioning of the “national key” in the socialist time (Bieber Citation2004, 4, Citation2013, 313).
3. Until 1963, the republic was named the People's Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (NRBiH).
4. Branko Mikulić was from 1965 Secretary of the CKSKBiH and President of the Committee from 1969 to 1978.
5. Access to archival documents after 1974 is very difficult, if not impossible, to obtain.
6. Muslims (in the national sense) were officially renamed Bosniaks in 1993. See Pearson (Citation2011).
7. Šarac et al. (Citation1990, 29). According to the 1948 Yugoslav census, Serbs made up 44.28%, Croats 23.94%, and “Yugoslav – undetermined” (most of them were actually Muslims) 30.73% of the population of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
8. Komisija za ideološki rad CKSKBiH (Citation11.Citation1962): Aktuelni problemi u oblasti međunacionalnih odnosa, ABH CKSKBiH 1962 k. 37 D44-03, 1. The share of the “Yugoslav – undetermined” (of whom most were Muslims) was 31.1%, the Serbs made up 44.39%, and the “others” 1.3%.
9. The amendment XVIII to the Constitution of the SRBiH in 1972 called for a proportional representation of the nations and nationalities in elected bodies, but the discussions thereafter show that this was more a theoretical aim than policy that was implemented.
10. Komisija za unapređivanje međurepubličke saradnje i razvoj međunacionalnih odnosa (Citation13.Citation01.Citation1968): Predlog smjernica za rad komunista na sprovodjenju aktuelnih zadataka na unapredjivanju medjunacionalnih odnosa i medjurepubličke saradnje, ABH CKSKBiH 1968 k. 18 88/1, 10.
11. The “social key” is not a historical term, but my proposal to describe the policy aiming at social representativeness.
12. Komisija za statutarna pitanja SKBiH (Citation10.Citation1972): Analiza o kretanju članstva Saveza komunista Bosne i Hercegovine za period 1969 - prvo polugodište 1972. godine, AJ, 507-SKJ, VII BiH-k.4/7.
13. Komisija za statutarna pitanja SKBiH (Citation10.Citation1972): Analiza o kretanju članstva Saveza komunista Bosne i Hercegovine za period 1969 - prvo polugodište 1972. godine, AJ, 507-SKJ, VII BiH-k.4/7, 9–10.
14. Komisija za statutarna pitanja SKBiH (Citation10.Citation1972): Analiza o kretanju članstva Saveza komunista Bosne i Hercegovine za period 1969 - prvo polugodište 1972. godine, AJ, 507-SKJ, VII BiH-k.4/7, 21.
15. Republički zavod za statistiku Sarajevo: Statistički godišnjak Bosne i Hercegovine 1972, ABH, 21.
19. Komisija za statutarna pitanja SKBiH (Citation10.Citation1972): Analiza o kretanju članstva Saveza komunista Bosne i Hercegovine za period 1969—prvo polugodište 1972. godine, AJ, 507-SKJ, VII BiH-k.4/7, 22.
20. Komisija za statutarna pitanja SKBiH (Citation10.Citation1972): Analiza o kretanju članstva Saveza komunista Bosne i Hercegovine za period 1969—prvo polugodište 1972. godine, AJ, 507-SKJ, VII BiH-k.4/7, 23.
21. Komisija za statutarna pitanja SKBiH (Citation10.Citation1972): Analiza o kretanju članstva Saveza komunista Bosne i Hercegovine za period 1969—prvo polugodište 1972. godine, AJ, 507-SKJ, VII BiH-k.4/7, 23.
22. Komisija za statutarna pitanja SKBiH (Citation10.Citation1972): Analiza o kretanju članstva Saveza komunista Bosne i Hercegovine za period 1969—prvo polugodište 1972. godine, AJ, 507-SKJ, VII BiH-k.4/7, 24.
23. Centralni komitet Saveza komunista BiH (Citation10.Citation03.Citation1966): Teze za savjetovanje sa sekretarima opštinskih komiteta o kadrovskim priprema za predstojeći izbor opštinskih i preduzetnih komiteta SK, ABH CKSKBiH Citation1966 k. 25 F6-br.29/02/2, 8.
25. Centralni komitet Saveza komunista BiH (Citation13/Citation04/Citation1967): Magnetofonski snimak Dvanaeste sjednice Centralnog komiteta SKBiH, AJ, 507-SKJ, II BiH-k.5/2–1, 5.
26. Opštinska konferencija Saveza komunista Bihać (Citation21/Citation03/Citation1967): Zapažanja, mišljenja i kritike komunista OOSK Gornje Prekounje Bihać, o zagrebačkoj deklaraciji o hrvatskom jeziku, ABH CKSKBiH Citation1967 k. XXI-P, 1.
27. Mikulić, Branko (Citation21/Citation09/Citation1973): Izlaganje na proširenoj sjednici Predsjedništva i Sekretarijata OK SK Brčko, AFBiH MB 1972–1973 k.19 Izlaganja 117/73, 10–11.
28. Mikulić, Branko (Citation21/Citation02/Citation1972): Izlaganje na proširenoj sjednici Predsjedništva i Sekretarijata OK SK Prijedor, AFBiH MB 1972–1973 k.18 Izlaganja 79/72, 5.
29. Komisija za međunacionalne odnose i međurepubličku saradnju Predsjedništva RK SSRN BiH (Citation01.Citation1973): Prijedlog izmjena i dopuna programa rada komisije za međunacionalne odnose i međurepubličku saradnju za period do polonvine 1973. godine, ABH SSRN Komisija za međunacionalne odnose i međurepubličku saradnju k. 1973 118-1/7, 3–4.
30. Salim Ćerić’s proposal was communicated in the following document: Komisija CKSKBiH za rad na daljem jačanju i razvijanju međunacionalnih odnosa i međurepubličke saradnje (26.04.1971): Neki problemi zaštite budućnosti naroda koji ne žive u svojoj nacionalnoj državi ili predstojeća nacionalna politika u SRBiH, ABH SSRN 1971 118-21/84 1770/71.
34. Mikulić, Branko: Bilješke, AFBiH MB 1970–1971 k. 10 Bilješke 131/71, 18.
35. Glavni odbor SSRN BiH (Citation1961): Informacija o sastavu opštinskih, sreskih i glavnog odbora SSRN BiH i njihovih komisija, ABH SSRN Izvršni odbor glavnog odbora 1960/61 k. 7, 2–3.
36. Glavni odbor SSRN BiH (Citation1961): Informacija o sastavu opštinskih, sreskih i glavnog odbora SSRN BiH i njihovih komisija, ABH SSRN Izvršni odbor glavnog odbora 1960/61 k. 7, 5–8.
37. Glavni odbor SSRN BiH (Citation1961): Informacija o sastavu opštinskih, sreskih i glavnog odbora SSRN BiH i njihovih komisija, ABH SSRN Izvršni odbor glavnog odbora 1960/61 k. 7, 13.
38. Glavni odbor SSRN BiH (Citation1961): Informacija o sastavu opštinskih, sreskih i glavnog odbora SSRN BiH i njihovih komisija, ABH SSRN Izvršni odbor glavnog odbora 1960/61 k. 7, 15.
39. Izvršni komitet CKSKBiH (Citation30/Citation05/Citation1966): Magnetofonski snimak sa sjednice Izvršnog komiteta održane 30. maja 1966. g., ABH CKSKBiH k. N.N., 51.
43. Komisija za rad Saveza komunista na daljem jačanju i razvijanju medjunacionalnih odnos i medjurepubličke saradnje (Citation14.Citation10.Citation1971): Nacrt zaključaka treće konferencije SKBiH, ABH CKSKBiH 1971 k. 7 04/8-1414/71, 9.
45. Komisija za unapređivanje međurepubličke saradnje i razvoj međunacionalnih odnosa (Citation5/Citation06/Citation1967): Međunacionalni odnosi u sistemu obrazovanja i vaspitanja omladine, ABH CKSKBiH 1967 k.14a 1063/67, 1.
46. Centralni komitet Saveza komunista BiH (Citation1962): Analiza o medjunacionalnim odnosima na području dobojskog sreza, ABH CKSKBiH 1962 k. 37 592/62, 20.
48. Centralni komitet Saveza komunista BiH (Citation06.Citation1962): Informacija o nekim aktuelnim idejnim problemima međunacionalnih odnosa i uticaja iz instranstva na nekim opštinama zeničkog sreza, ABH CKSKBiH 1962 k.37 D48-03, 2.
49. Centralni komitet Saveza komunista BiH (Citation06.Citation1962): Informacija o nekim aktuelnim idejnim problemima međunacionalnih odnosa i uticaja iz instranstva na nekim opštinama zeničkog sreza, ABH CKSKBiH 1962 k.37 D48-03, 15–17.
50. The political system which is described in this article is the one resulting from the 2002 amendments imposed by the High Representative, which proclaimed Bosniaks, Serbs, and Croats constituent and equal peoples on the whole territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Although the country experienced several reforms, the principle of “ethnic quotas” has never been questioned and has remained an important element of the political system.
51. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is one of the two entities and should not be confused with the central state called simply “Bosnia and Herzegovina.”
52. Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Art. IV, par. 1 and 2.
53. This was especially the case until the electoral legislation reform of 2008; since then, as already mentioned, the “Others” have been better represented in the different organs.
54. This issue has been on the political agenda since the “Sejdić-Finci” decree of the European Court of Human Rights in 2009. This decision is named after two “Others” who accused Bosnia and Herzegovina of ethnic discrimination since they could not, as a Roma and a Jew, be elected to the State Presidency. Until now, the Bosnian-Herzegovinian politicians could not reach a compromise to implement the Court's decision.
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