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Abstract
This paper considers how the Alash movement, the Kazakh national movement led by Russian-educated Kazakh intellectuals in the Russian Empire at the beginning of the twentieth century, redefined Kazakh ethnicity into the Kazakh nation. Aimed at modernizing Kazakh society by declaring itself a nation, the movement used the myth of common descent. It is not surprising, then, that the movement took on the name of Alash, a mythical figure believed to have been the father of all three Kazakh zhuz (tribal confederations). This paper examines the discourse around Kazakhness and its distinction from its Muslim neighbors with respect to five factors; the “true” myth of common descent of Kazakhs, Kazakh history as one of common fate, a nomadic way of life, the weak links to Islam among Kazakhs, and, finally, the legitimization of the Alash leaders as the legitimate speakers for the Kazakh nation. This analysis, in turn, may provide a better understanding of the ways in which social and intellectual movements can redefine belonging, depending on historical circumstances and opportunities and constraints in the social sphere.
Notes
1. Asyq is a game played with bones by Kazakhs. It may be compared to marbles.
2. “Bashqurd, biz syqyldy zhalqau, bar satatyn zherinen ayirilip otyr. Muny taghy muzhyq alghan. Türkistanda zher, balalar asyghyndai auisady: zher faydasyn zhergilikti zhurt körip otyrghan zhoq, mädeni därezhesi artyq qular körip otyr” (Bokeikhanov [Citation1917] Citation2013, 58; author's translation).
3.
Kazak ve Başkurtların arazi meselelerine ait teklif olunan kararnamelere karşı Kazan’lılar “Bu Kazak ve Başkurtlara has bir meseledir” diye itiraz ettiklerinden ve umumiyetle Kazan’lı mümessiller Rusya İslamlârı Konferansını bir dinî mesele, müftülük, şeyhülislâmlık ve maarif meseleleri konuşulacak bir toplantı addettiklerinden […]. (Togan Citation1969, 156; author's translation)
4.
Die Blätter denunzierten die Baschkiren als Faulpelze und Trunkenbolde, denen jegliche Einstellung zu Land und Ackerbau fehle und die deshalb unüberlegt ihr Land verkauften, das wenige Geld rasch durchbrächten und in den Städten verelendeten. Dieses Negativbild der Baschkiren sollte sich in den folgenden Jahren fest etablieren. (Noack Citation2000, 398–399; author's translation)
5. The tripartite zhuz or “horde” system in the Kazakh Steppe was linked to tribal confederation, loosely based on territory and khans who ruled the zhuz, albeit very loosely based, as local leadership was more important.
6. It is worth considering whether Bokeikhanov's statement was an attempt at legitimizing Kazakh nationhood based on ethnicity for the imperial audience, as his article was published in Constitutional Democratic (Cadet) publication on the different nationalities in the Russian Empire in 1910.
7. “Bul sözder – bizding burynghy kärilerden estigen sözder. Munan artyq bilushiler bolsa, bilgenin ishine saqtamas, khalyqqa zhazyp bildirer dep ümit etemiz” (Bätishuly [Citation1911] Citation1995, 57; author's translation).
8.
[…] [N]o one in Moghulistán dared to oppose [Ahmad Khan]. He made several successful inroads on the Kálmák, and put a number of them to death […] The Kálmák stood in great awe of him, and used to call him Álácha Khán; Álácha, in Moghul, means kushánda [the slayer], that is to say, “the slaying Khán.” This title adhered to him. His own people used to call him Álácha Khán. He is now spoken of by the Moghuls as Sultán Ahmad Khán, but all the neighboring peoples call him “Álácha.” (Dughlat [Citation1898] Citation2009, 122)
9. The original article's author used the pseudonym Türik Balasy, which Zhusyp Sultankhan Aqqululy (Citation2009) has attributed to Bokeikhanov (Aqqululy Citation2009 in Bokeikhanov Citation2009a, 21).
10. “Alash Alash bolghanda; Alash khan bolghanda” (Bokeikhanov [Citation1913] Citation2009b, 77; author's translation).
11. For a detailed account of the Bulghar issue and the Soviet science of ethnogenesis among the Tatars and Bashkirs, see Frank (Citation1998) and Uyama (Citation2002).
12. This is a part of oral history and there are ongoing contentions regarding the Turkic tribes that belong to the Alty Alash.
13.
Türkistan öz aldy avtonomiia bolar. Bizding qazaqtyng Türkistangha qosylghanz ong degen piker bar. Biz Türkistanmen dindes, tuisqanbyz. Avtonomiia bolu – öz aldy memleket bolu. Memleket bolyp is atqaru ongay emes. Bizding qazaq is atqaratyn azamatqa zhutap otyrghan bolsa, bizding zhalpy qazaq qaranghy bolsa, Türkistan khalqynyng qaranghylyghy häm sheber adamnyng zhoqtyghy bizden on ese artyq. Qazaq Türkistanmen bir avtonomiia bolsa, avtonomiia arbasyna tüye men esekti par zhekken bolady. Bul arbagha minip, biz qayda baramyz? (Bokeikhanov [Citation1917] Citation2013, 56; author's translation)
14. “Bizding qazaq ultynyng avtonomiiasy endi turmys khalda tuisqan avtonomiiasy bolar emes, zherge bailauly avtonomiia bolmaq” (Bokeikhanov [Citation1917] Citation2013, 56; author's translation).