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Abstract
In this article, the author explores the inherent tension in the mixed political culture (i.e., parochial, subject, and participant) of postcolonial Macao under the reign of its first chief executive, Edmund Ho Hau Wah. The continuity of a parochial or subject political culture is reflected in the alliance between the government, pro-Beijing and probusiness elites, and traditional social organizations. Participant culture can be seen in the emergence of social movements and labor protests that challenge the government's capacity to govern effectively. The paradoxical and unaccountable system of the Macao administration and patrimonial rule, coupled with the failure of traditional social organizations in representing workers’ interests, has resulted in a growing labor movement. Demand overload, government's tardiness in tackling social problems (social inequality, discrimination, and the relative deprivation of workers), and administrative corruption have pushed workers’ grievances and tolerance to the limit, which has culminated in challenges to the legitimacy and governing capacity of the government, as shown in the “infamous” 2007 labor protest.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author would like to express appreciation to Professor Winberg Chai and the two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments and advice. The author is also grateful to the Dean's Advisory Committee on Research and the University of Macau's Research Grant Committee for supporting the research (Ref.: RG045/08-09S/HCS/FSH).
Notes
1. Gabriel A. Almond and Sidney Verba, The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963), 17.
2. Ibid., 19.
3. Herbert S. Yee, Liu Bolong, and Ngo Tak Wing, “Macau's Mass Political Culture,” Asian Journal of Public Administration 15, no. 2 (1993): 177–200.
4. Herbert S. Yee, Liu Bolong, and Ngo Tak Wing, The Political Culture of Macau Chinese [in Chinese] (Macau: Macau Foundation, 1993), 37–39.
5. Herbert S. Yee, Macau in Transition: From Colony to Autonomous Region (New York: Palgrave, 2001), 105.
6. Ibid., 106.
7. Cai Meiying and Cui Zhitao, “Research by Sustainable Research Centre Last Year Showed that Citizens Are Politically Apathetic Although They Believed Democracy Is Suitable for Macao” [in Chinese], Macao Daily News, February 11, 2009, A2.
8. Lou Sheng Hua, “Social Corporatism and Macao Governance Model” [in Chinese], Journal of Macao Polytechnic Institute 24, no. 4 (2006): 39–50.
9. Yee, Macau in Transition, 94, 98, 105.
10. Sonny S. H. Lo and Herbert S. Yee, “Legitimacy-Building in the Macau Special Administrative Region: Colonial Legacies and Reform Strategies,” Asian Journal of Political Science 13, no. 1 (2005): 51–79.
11. Legal Affairs Bureau, The Basic Law of the Macao Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China (Macao: Legal Affairs Bureau, 1993).
12. Sonny S. H. Lo, Political Change in Macao (New York: Routledge, 2008).
13. Huang Yingwei, “Macao Casino Overtakes Las Vegas as Asia's Gaming Revenue Exceeded a Billion” [in Chinese], Macao Daily News, February 11, 2009, A10.
14. Wong Siu Lun, Yeung Yue Man, Wan P. San, and Victor W. T. Zheng, eds. Macau Social Studies: Indicators from Quality of Life Research [in Chinese] (Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong, Asia-Pacific Research Centre, 2007).
15. Sonny S. H. Lo, Political Development in Macao (Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1995).
16. Cai and Cui, “Research by Sustainable Research Centre,” Macao Daily News, February 11, 2009, A2.
17. Giuseppe Di Palma, Apathy and Participation: Mass Politics in Western Societies (New York: Free Press, 1970), 4.
18. Yee, Macao in Transition, 107–127.
19. Russell J. Dalton, Citizen Politics: Public Opinions and Political Parties in Advanced Industrial Democracies, 2nd ed. (Chatham, NJ: Chatham House, 1996), 40.
20. Lou, “Social Corporatism,” 39–50.
21. Yee, Macau in Transition, 95.
22. George I. Balch, “Multiple Indicators in Survey Research: The Concept ‘Sense of Political Efficacy,’’’ Political Methodology 1 no. 1 (1974): 1–43; Stephen C. Craig, Richard G. Niemi, and Glenn E. Silver, “Political Efficacy and Trust: A Report on the NES Pilot Study Items,” Political Behavior 12, no. 3 (1990): 289–314; and Albert Bandura, Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control (New York: Freeman, 1997).
23. Herbert S. Yee and Lui Kwok Man, “Mass Political Culture” [in Chinese], in Macau Social Studies: Indicators from Quality of Life Research, ed. Wong Siu Lun, Yeung Yue Man, Wan Po San, and Victor W. T. Zhang (Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong, Asia-Pacific Research Centre, 2007), 312.
24. Ibid., 314.
25. Ibid., 316.
26. Ibid., 316–17.
27. Lo, Political Change in Macao, 80.
28. Ibid., 81.
29. Ibid., 81.
30. Ibid., 43.
31. Edmund Hau Wah Ho, “Policy Address for the Fiscal Year 2005 of the Macao Special Administrative Region (MSAR) of the People's Republic of China,” Macao SARG Portal, November 16, 2004, http://portal.gov.mo/web/guest/info_detail?infoid=881 (accessed March 16, 2007); “Policy Address for the Fiscal Year 2006 of the Macao Special Administrative Region (MSAR) of the People's Republic of China,” Macao SARG Portal, November 15, 2005, http://portal.gov.mo/web/guest/info_detail?infoid=2301 (accessed April 28, 2007); and “Policy Address for the Fiscal Year 2007 of the Macao Special Administrative Region (MSAR) of the People's Republic of China,” Macao SARG Portal, November 16, 2006, http://portal.gov.mo/web/guest/info_detail?infoid=2545 (accessed May 3, 2007).
32. “3,000 Motorists Drove Slowly to Express Their Wishes” [in Chinese], Macao Daily News, October 1, 2007, A1; and “5,000 Participated in Democratic Handover Demonstration. Diverse Claims, but Orderly” [in Chinese], Macao Daily News, December 21, 2007, B5.
33. Sidney Tarrow, Power in Movement: Social Movements, Collection Action, and Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 4.
34. Rudd Koopmans, “The Dynamic of Protest Waves: West Germany, 1965–1989,” American Sociological Review 58, no. 5 (1993), 637.
35. See Henri Tajfel and John Turner, “An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict,” in Organizational Identity: A Reader, ed. Mary Jo Hatch and Majken Schultz (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 56–65.
36. “Workers’ Right and Mutual Aid Association Temporarily Stopped Demonstration and Sought to Communicate with the Authorities Before Taking Further Action” [in Chinese], Jornal Va Kio, July 11, 2000, D3.
37. “Serious Unemployment Problems, Macao Government Put to Test” [in Chinese], Jornal San Wa Ou, May 23, 2000.
38. Ibid.
39. “Will Abolishing Foreign Labor Solve All the Problems” [in Chinese], Jornal Va Kio, June 19, 2000, D2.
40. “Serious Unemployment Problems,” Jornal San Wa Ou, May 23, 2000.
41. Ibid.
42. “The Worst of the Four Demonstrations as Trouble Makers Caused Protest To Lose Its Meaning” [in Chinese], Jornal Va Kio, July 3, 2000, D2.
43. Ibid.
44. “Police Fired Tear Gas Canisters to Disperse Unruly Protesters” [in Chinese], Jornal Va Kio, July 3, 2000, D1.
45. “Au Kam San Pointed Out that No One Party Gained in the July 2 Demonstration: The Irrational Behavior of Protesters Invited Criticisms and the Police's Exaggeration of the Situation Stained the Image of the Macao SAR Government” [in Chinese], Jornal Va Kio, July 3, 2000, D3.
46. “Police Fired Tear Gas Canisters,” Jornal Va Kio, D1; and “The Worst of the Four Demonstrations,” Jornal Va Kio, D2.
47. “Chief Executive: Will Not Tighten on Application for Protest in Spite of the Recent Riot, which Is a Price to Pay for a More Democratic Society” [in Chinese], Macao Daily News, July 4, 2000, 2; “In View of the Recent Riot, Legislators Anabela Xavier Sales Ritchie and Iong Weng Ian Urged Protesters to Abide by the Laws” [in Chinese], Macao Daily News, July 7, 2000, A3; “Police Fired Tear Gas Canisters,” Jornal Va Kio, D1; “The Worst of the Four Demonstrations,” Jornal Va Kio, D2; “Legislators Anabela Xavier Sales Ritchie and Iong Weng Ian Urged the Authorities to Educate the Public on the Regulations and Laws Governing Protest, Given that Many May Be Aware of Their Rights but Not the Regulations or Laws Governing their Behavior” [in Chinese], Jornal Va Kio, July 7, 2000, D2.
48. “Chief Executive: Will Not Tighten on Application,” Macao Daily News, July 4, 2000, 2.
49. “Chief Executive: Police Actions against Protesters Appropriate and Timely, Will Maintain an Open Mind to Societal Needs, Will Not Abolish the Foreign Labor Importation Policy with a ‘One Knife Cut’ Approach, Will Seek Out Investment Opportunities so as to Increase Employment Prospect,” [in Chinese], Jornal Va Kio, July 4, D1.
50. Ibid.
51. Ibid.
52. “The Government Will be Receptive to Criticisms and Suggestions. It Will Continue to Understand Public Needs through the Media” [in Chinese], Jornal San Wa Ou, July 5, 2000.
53. Ibid.
54. “Labor Affairs Bureau Chief Shuen Ka Hung: In Spite of the Weekend Protest, Labor Policy Will not Change nor Will There Be Any Special Arrangements” [in Chinese], Jornal Va Kio, June 17, 2000, D3.
55. “The Macao Chinese Chamber of Commerce Will Cooperate with the Kaifong Association in Creating 1000 Job Placements and in Working Out Measures to Encourage Spending” [in Chinese], Jornal Va Kio, June 20, 2000, D3.
56. “Raise The Quality Of Macao Labor Force. Scholars: Implement the Foreign Labor Importation Policy with Care” [in Chinese], Macao Daily News, May 5, 2001, A10.
57. “Workers in Hong Kong, Macao, and Taiwan Marched on May Day to Show the Seriousness of Unemployment Problems” [in Chinese], Macao Daily News, May 2, 2001, A10.
58. “Police Advised the Confederation of Macao Trade Union to Restrain Itself During the May Day Protest March: Seeking Compromise on the Changes to the Route for the March by about 500 Demonstrators” [in Chinese], Jornal Va Kio, April 24, 2001, 1.
59. “May Day Rallying Cry Makes Labor a Poll Issue,” South China Morning Post, May 5, 2001, comments.
60. “Confederation Of Macao Trade Union Demonstrated against the Government over its ‘Black Box Operation’: 200 Workers Submitted a Petition Letter to the Chief Executive's Office” [in Chinese], Jornal Va Kio, May 3, 2001, 3.
61. Richard Pinto, “A Sea of Complaints,” Macau Closer, June 2007, 15.
62. “Protest Boils Over In Macau,” South China Morning Post, May 2, 2006, EDT1; and “Four Men and Women Arrested and Sent to the Procuratorate Office. Police: Some People Instigated Others to Go against the Law” [in Chinese], Macao Daily News, May 3, 2006, B1.
63. Peter K. Eisinger, “The Conditions of Protest Behavior in American Cities,” American Political Science Review 67, no. 1 (1973), 27.
64. Fox Yi Hu, “Protesters, Police Clash in Macau Labor Rally,” South China Morning Post, May 2, 2006, EDT3.
65. Ibid.
66. Ibid.
67. Fox Yi Hu, “Macau Leader Vows To Settle Labor Disputes,” South China Morning Post, May 6, 2006, EDT2.
68. Ibid.
69. Fox Yi Hu, “Top Macau Official Arrested in Graft Probe,” South China Morning Post, December 8, 2006, EDT1; “Tackling Graft must be Priority for Macau,” editorial, South China Morning Post, December 8, 2006, EDT26; and Robin Kwong, “Macau Chief Faces New Calls Over Graft Case,” South China Morning Post, December 20, 2006, EDT2.
70. “Summary of the Chief Executive's Answers at the Legislative Council Hearing” [in Chinese], Jornal Do Cidadao, April 14, 2007, P2.
71. Fox Yi Hu and Martin Wong, “Shot Fired at Macau Rally,” South China Morning Post, May 2, 2007, EDT1. On the different figures of turnout, see table A8.
72. Fox Yi Hu, “D-Day for Democracy,” South China Morning Post, May 6, 2007, EDT11.
73. Ibid.
74. Fox and Wong, “Shot Fired at Macau Rally,” EDT1; Fox, “D-Day for Democracy,” EDT11; and “Protest March Led to Conflict between Police and Citizens, Disrupted Social Order, and Negatively Affected Citizens’ Lives: Women Association Urged Lesson Learning and Avoid Repetition” [in Chinese], Macao Daily News, May 4, 2007, C5.
75. “Protest March Led to Conflict between Police and Citizens,” Macao Daily News, C5; and “1.38mm Bullet Head Retrieved from the Body of a Passer-By: Ten Men and Women Suspected of Assaulting Police Sent to the Procuratorate Office” [in Chinese], Jornal Va Kio, May 3, 2007, 11.
76. Jimmy Cheung, “Corruption and Police Response Bruise Macau's Image,” South China Morning Post, June 8, 2007, EDT3.
77. Ibid.
78. Albert Wong and Fox Yi Hu, “EU Worried by New Face of Macau,” South China Morning Post, August 16, 2007, EDT2.
79. Ibid.; Fox Yi Hu, “Clashes Lay Bare a City's Anger,” South China Morning Post, May 3, 2007, EDT3.
80. Ibid.
81. Fox Yi Hu, “Macau Feels Secure, but Dislikes Graft and Traffic Jams, Survey Finds,” South China Morning Post, April 11, 2007, EDT3.
82. Eisinger, “The Conditions of Protest Behavior in American Cities,” 13–14.
83. Nick Crossley, Making Sense of Social Movements (Buckingham: Open University Press, 2002), 113.
84. Eisinger, “The Conditions of Protest Behavior in American Cities,” 13.
85. “Protest Disrupted Social Order, Police and the Authorities Overlooked It: Kwan Tsui Hang—State Clearly the Regulations Governing Protest and Maintain the Rule Of Law” [in Chinese], Macao Daily News, May 3, 2007, B6; “Voices of Support as well as Disapproval, Citizens Questioned Police Officer for Firing into the Air” [in Chinese], Macao Daily News, May 3, 2007, B8; “Tertiary Students: Protests That Go Against the Law Should not Be Permitted” [in Chinese], Macao Daily News, May 3, 2007, B9; “Protest March Led to Conflict between Police and Citizens,” Macao Daily News, C5; and Fox Yi Hu, “Protesters Reprimanded in Macau,” South China Morning Post, May 3, 2007, EDT1.
86. Ibid.
87. Fox, “D-Day for Democracy,” EDT11.
88. Fox Yi Hu, “Macau Labor Unrest Prompts Revision of Law,” South China Morning Post, June 20, 2007, EDT2.
89. David A. Synder and Charles Tilly, “Hardship and Collective Violence in France 1830–1960,” American Sociological Review 51, no.4 (1972): 520–23.
90. Crossley, Making Sense of Social Movements, 14.
91. Bert Klandermans, The Social Psychology of Protest (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1997), 38.
92. Ibid., 39.
93. Pinto, “A Sea of Complaints,” 12.
94. Ibid.
95. Ibid.
96. Ibid., 13–16.
97. Klandermans, The Social Psychology of Protest, 38.
98. On the comparison of one group with another, see Klandermans, The Social Psychology of Protest, 39; cf. W. G. Runciman, Relative Deprivation and Social Justice (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1966).
99. Klandermans, The Social Psychology of Protest, 38.
100. Ibid., 40; cf. Edward J. Walsh, “Democracy in the Shadows: Citizen Mobilization in the Wake of the Accident at Three Mile Island,” Social Problems 29 (1988): 1–21.
101. Ibid., 40.
102. See also William A. Gamson, Talking Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); and Nancy Whittier, Feminist Generations: The Persistence of the Radical Women's Movement (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995).
103. Fox, “D-Day for Democracy,” EDT11.
104. B. Guy Peters and J. Pierre, “Governance, Accountability and Democratic Legitimacy,” in Governance and Democracy: Comparing National, European and International Experiences, ed. Arthur Benz and Yannis Papadoupolos (London: Routledge, 2006), 31.
105. M. E. Hilderbrand and M. S. Grindle, “Building Sustainable Capacity in the Public Sector: What Can Be Done?” in Getting Good Government: Capacity Building in the Public Sector of Developing Countries, ed. Merilee S. Grindle (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press), 34.
106. Peters and Pierre, “Governance, Accountability and Democratic Legitimacy,” 33.
107. Ibid.
108. Ibid.
109. Ibid.
110. Ibid., 34.
111. “Summary of the Chief Executive's Answers,” Jornal Do Cidadao, P2.
112. “Macao Temporarily Suspended the Investment Residency Scheme. Declining Property Prices in Zhuhai and Macao” [in Chinese], Va Kio Daily, April 10, 2007, 14.
113. “Chief Executive's Three ‘Strokes’ to Appease Public Grievances: Build 20,000 Public Housing Units in 5 Years, Stop the Residency Investment Scheme, Social Security Age Lower to 60” [in Chinese], Macao Daily News, May 4, 2007, A8.
114. Pinto, “A Sea of Complaints,” 12.
115. Bhabani Sen Gupta, India: Problems of Governance (Delhi: Konark, 1996), 4.
116. Ibid.
117. “Grime and Punishment,” editorial, South China Morning Post, January 31, 2008, EDT14.