![Sample our Humanities journals, sign in here to start your FREE access for 14 days]({"type":"image" , "src" : "/sda/5939/TOC-Subject-Sample-2021-Humanities.jpg"})
ABSTRACT
Relying extensively on the sprawling and infrequently examined Records of the Post Office Department within the National Archives, this article examines the service’s efforts during World War I to extend its authority over the foreign-language press, its development of a surveillance system to constrain this medium, and the subsequent breakdown of the linguistic machinery it repeatedly cobbled together outside of New York to inspect the content of these publications. The first two of these themes have received only superficial treatment by scholars; the latter subject remains completely unexplored. Although the department’s hierarchy projected for the public a highly positive image of the orderly vetting of these texts, postal subordinates responsible for this scrutiny railed against their bosses’ detachment and miserliness and their exasperating insistence that contingents of volunteer translators could be recruited and entrusted to decipher compositions in approximately fifty different tongues, including languages as distinct as Esperanto, Ruthenian, Sioux, and Japanese.
Disclosure Statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes
1. James Startt, Woodrow Wilson, the Great War and the Fourth Estate (College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press, 2017), 120-22; A. Scott Berg, Wilson (New York, NY: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 2013), 450; Roy Talbert Jr., Negative Intelligence: The Army and the American Left, 1917-1941 (Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi, 1991), 38-45; Joan M. Jensen, The Price of Vigilance (New York, NY: Rand McNally, 1968), 91.
2. United States Statutes at Large, 65th Cong., 1st sess., 1917, 40, pt. 1:217-31.
3. Congressional Record, 65th Cong., 1st sess., 1917, 55, pt. 7:7023; United States Statutes at Large, 65th Cong., 1st sess., 1917, 40, pt. 1:230-31, 425-26, 2nd sess., 1918, 40, pt. 1:553-54; Craig D. Galli, “Radicals and Immigrants: Senator William H. King’s Response to Nativism, 1917-1924” (master’s thesis, Brigham Young University, 1984), 24-30; Zechariah Chafee, Jr., Free Speech in the United States (New York, NY: Atheneum, 1969), 39-41.
4. H. C. Peterson and Gilbert C. Fite, Opponents of War, 1917-1918 (Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 1957), 95; “Aliens, Anarchists, and Plotters—Postal Censorship in War and Peace, 1917-1922” (Washington, DC: National Archives, 1992?).
5. “War Service Record,” March 7, 1921, Box 1, File “Excluding Publications from the Mail,” Entry 47, Records of the Post Office Department, Record Group 28, National Archives, Washington, DC (hereinafter cited as RG 28). Scholars for many decades have remarked on the sparse use of the expansive wartime entries within the Records of the Post Office Department (RG 28). These entries include “Records of the Censorship Board, 1917-18” (entry 17); “General Records, 1905-21” (entry 36); “Records Relating to the Espionage Act, World War I, 1917-21” (entry 40); “Office Files of William H. Lamar, 1912-22” (entry 47), as well as other subsections. See, for instance, Peter Conolly-Smith, “‘Reading between the Lines’: The Bureau of Investigation, the United States Post Office, and Domestic Surveillance during World War I,” Social Justice 36, no. 1 (2009): 21 and Donald Johnson, The Challenge to American Freedoms: World War I and the Rise of the American Civil Liberties Union (Lexington, KY: University of Kentucky Press, 1963), 208-09.
6. A. S. Burleson (hereinafter cited as Burleson) to Postmasters of the First, Second, and Third Classes, June 16, 1917, Box 36, File 47594, Entry 40, Records of the Post Office Department, RG 28; Post Office Department Annual Report for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1917 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1918), 99; United States Post Office Department Telephone Directory (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1920), 5.
7. New York Times, March 4, 2019; Alex Leidholdt, “A Bitter Row on a Backwater Newspaper Row: The Curious Case of the Moravian Falls, North Carolina, Press Phenomenon” 93, no. 2 (April 2016): 173-75.
8. New York Times, Jan. 16, 1918; Washington Post, Jan. 16, 1918; Masses Pub. Co. v Patten, 246 F. 24 (Circuit Court of Appeals, Second Circuit 1917); Jeffersonian Pub. Co. v West, 245 F. 585 (District Court, S.d. Ga. 1917); United States ex rel. Milwaukee Social Democrat Pub. Co. v Burleson, 258 F. 282 (49 App. D.C. 26 1919); Zechariah Chafee, Jr., Free Speech in the United States (New York, NY: Atheneum, 1969), 298-305; “War Service Record,” March 7, 1921, Box 1, File “Excluding Publications from the Mail,” Entry 47, RG 28.
9. Zechariah Chafee, Jr., Free Speech in the United States (New York, NY: Atheneum, 1969), 298-302; Message of the President of the United States Transmitting the Annual Report of the Postmaster General for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1911, and the Report of the Commission on Second-Class Mail Matter (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1912), 13; Postal Laws and Regulations of the United States of America (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1913), 213-37; Alexander Trachtenberg, ed., The American Labor Year Book: 1919-1920, vol. 3 (New York, NY: Rand School of Social Science, 1920), 94-96; David Shannon, The Socialist Party of America: A History (New York, NY: Macmillan, 1955), 100-111. The department’s declaring a single edition nonmailable could result in the publication’s indefinite loss of its second-class privileges. “Mailable matter of the second class,” according to the Mail Classification Act of 1879, “must regularly be issued at stated intervals.” Burleson and Lamar judged material they deemed nonmailable as never having been issued (The Statutes at Large of the United States of America, 45th Cong., 3rd sess., 1879, 20, 359).
10. “War Service Record,” March 7, 1921, Box 1, File “Excluding Publications from the Mail,” Entry 47, RG 28; E. H. Babbitt, “The Foreign-Language Press in the United States,” Munsey’s Magazine, May 1919, 608; U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, Bicentennial Edition, Part 1 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1975): 8, 116, 118.
11. Congressional Record, 65th Cong., 1st sess., 1917, 55, pt. 7:7021-22.
12. Elore (New York), Aug. 14, 1917, Box 46, File 47619, Entry 40, RG 28.
13. Congressional Record, 65th Cong., 1st sess., 1917, 55, pt. 7:7419-20; Washington Post, Sept. 25, 1917.
14. Adrian Anderson, “Wilson’s Politician: Albert Sidney Burleson of Texas,” Southwestern Historical Quarterly 77, no. 3 (1975): 340-46; Theodore Owen, History of Alabama and Dictionary of Alabama Biography, vol. 4 (Chicago, IL: S. J. Clarke), 1004; “War Service Record,” March 7, 1921, Box 1, File “Excluding Publications from the Mail,” Entry 47, RG 28.
15. Thomas Patten (hereinafter cited as Patten) to William Lamar (hereinafter cited as Lamar), Aug. 20, 1917, W. E. Cochran and Samuel Wynne (hereinafter cited as Cochran and Wynne) to [George Sutton] (hereinafter cited as Sutton), March 18, 1918, both in Box 78, File 47748, Entry 40, RG 28; Alexander Leidholdt, “The Mysterious Mr. Maxwell and Room M-1: Clandestine Influences on American Postal Censorship during World War I,” American Journalism 36, no. 3 (summer 2019): 276-299.
16. Richmond Levering to L. A. Dewey, Aug. 24, 1917, Fold3, FBI Case Files: Old German Files, 1909-1921 (accessed June 10, 2017), available from <Ancestry.com>; Gary S. Messinger, British Propaganda and the State in the First World War (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1992), 144-161; J. Lee Thompson, Politicians, the Press, and Propaganda: Lord Northcliffe and the Great War, 1914-1919 (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1999), 36-41, 146-49; The 150th Anniversary and Beyond, 1912-1948, part 2, The History of The Times (New York, NY: Macmillan Company, 1952), 703.
17. Emmanuel Victor Voska and Will Irwin, Spy and Counterspy (New York, NY: Doubleday, Doran & Co., 1940), 19-41; Henry Wickham Steed, Through Thirty Years, 1892-1922: A Personal Narrative, vol. 2 (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Page & Company, 1924), 41-47; Arthur Willert, The Road to Safety: A Study in Anglo-American Relations (London, UK: Derek Verschoyle, 1952), 23-25; Richard Spence, “Englishmen in New York: The SIS American Station, 1915-21,” Intelligence and National Security 19, no. 3 (autumn 2004): 513; T. G. Masaryk, The Making of a State: Memories and Observations, 1914-1918, trans. Henry Wickham Steed (New York, NY: Frederick A. Stokes, 1927), 261; R. H. Van Deman (hereinafter cited as Van Deman) to Nicholas Biddle, Sept. 17, 1917, Van Deman to William H. Maxwell (hereinafter cited as Maxwell), Sept. 24, 1917, both in Box 2876, File 10153-57, Records of the War Department General and Special Staffs, Record Group 165, National Archives, College Park, MD (hereinafter cited as RG 165); Lamar to A. Bruce Bielaski (hereinafter cited as Bielaski), Sept. 17, 1917, Box 78, File 47748, Entry 40, RG 28; Lamar to Bielaski, Oct. 10, 1917, Fold3, FBI Case Files: Old German Files, 1909-1921 (accessed June 10, 2017), available from <Ancestry.com>; Richmond Times-Dispatch, Sept. 23, 1917.
18. Maxwell to Lamar, Oct. 1, 16, 1917, both in Box 127, File 49230, Entry 40, RG 28.
19. Maxwell to Lamar, Oct. 16, 1917, Box 127, File 49230, Entry 40, RG 28.
20. “Papers Submitted in Connection with Applications for Permits,” n.d., Box 168, File 50313, Entry 40, RG 28. For examples of the German-American, Irish-American, and labor press contending that Northcliffe pulled strings to thrust the United States into the war on the side of the Allies see, respectively: Tägliche Omaha Tribüne, June 25, 1917; Irish Standard (Minneapolis, MN), Dec. 29, 1917; and Labor World (Duluth and Superior, MN), Aug. 25, 1917. No journalist more vehemently alleged than New York German-American editor George Sylvester Viereck that Northcliffe manipulated American public opinion. See the following 1917 editions of Viereck’s—The American Weekly: Feb. 28, March 21, April 4, July 4, Aug. 15, Sept. 5, and The Fatherland, Feb. 7, 1917. A month prior to Congress’s declaration of war on Germany, Missouri senator William J. Stone denounced on the upper House’s floor “Lord Northcliffe’s American newspapers” (Congressional Record, 64th Cong., 2nd sess., 1917, 54, pt. 5:4884-4893). Due to the funding it received, eminent historian H. C. Peterson categorized the Bohemian National Alliance as a British organization (Propaganda for War: The Campaign against American Neutrality, 1914-1917 (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1937), 20).
21. Lamar to [John Thornton] (hereinafter cited as Thornton), Dec. 6, 1917, Box 168, File 50313, “Room M-1 New York Post Office,” March 11, 1918, Box 78, File 47748, both in Entry 40, “War Service Record,” March 7, 1921, Box 1, File “Excluding Publications from the Mail,” Entry 47, all in RG 28.
22. Babbitt, “The Foreign-Language Press,” 608-611; Subcommittee of the Committee on the Judiciary United States Senate, 65th Cong., 2nd sess., 1918, 610; “Supplementary Instructions for Volunteers Reading Foreign Language Papers for the Solicitor of the Post Office Department,” n.d., Lamar to Myrtis Jarrell, Oct. 31, 1917, both in Box 168, File 50313, Entry 40, RG 28; United States Post Office Department Telephone Directory (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1920), 5. For an example of a departmental summons to one of Dockery’s hearings and a transcript of its proceedings, see Alexander Dockery to Publisher, “The Eye Opener,” Sept. 27, 1917, “In the Matter of Charges against ‘The Eye Opener,’ Chicago, Illinois,” Oct. 6, 1917, both in Box 44, File 47618, Entry 40, RG 28. The most extensive file within the Post Office papers documenting interactions between the solicitor’s office and local post offices contains a surprising lack of correspondence focusing substantively on the daily supervision of foreign-language publications other than that between New York City and Washington. (Correspondence dated Aug. 2, 1917 through April 5, 1918, Box 132, File 49464, Entry 40, RG 28).
23. Obrana (New York), Oct. 5, 1917, Box 22, File 47507, Entry 40, RG 28.
24. Lamar to Patten, Oct. 26, 1917, Box 127, File 49230, Entry 40, RG 28.
25. N. W. Ayer & Son’s American Newspaper Annual & Directory (Philadelphia, PA: N. W. Ayer, 1917), 742-45.
26. “Annual Report of the Postmaster General for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1919” (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1919), 110; “Annual Report of the Chief Inspector to the Postmaster General, 1919, Box 3, File “1919,” Entry 235, RG 28; Lamar to Sutton, Oct. 12, 1917, [Sutton] to Inspector in Charge, n.d., Sutton to Post Office Inspectors in Charge, Oct. 20, 1917, all in Box 141, File 49532, Entry 40, RG 28.
27. E. I. Madeira to [Stephen Morse], Nov. 28, 1917, Box 141, File 49532, Entry 40, RG 28; Postal Laws and Regulations of the United States of America (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1913), 38.
28. “Weekly Report of Activities Undertaken by State Councils,” Box 784, Records of the Council of National Defense, Record Group 62, National Archives, College Park, MD; various documents located in Box 144, File 49834, E. F. Dorsey to Edward F. Gavagan, Jan. 4, 1918, Box 116, File 49006, both in Entry 40, RG 28.
29. Lamar to Charles Warren, Jan. 3, 1918, Box 144, file 49834, Entry 40, RG 28.
30. E. H. Babbitt (hereinafter cited as Babbitt) to J. Bond Smith (hereinafter cited as Smith), Sept. 6, 1918, Box 168, File 50313, Lamar to Charles Warren, Jan. 3, 1918, Box 144, file 49834, both in Entry 40, “List Permit Papers,” n.d., Box 03, File “List of Permit Papers,” Entry 47, all in RG 28; The Day (New York), Nov. 14, 1917.
31. “Papers Submitted in Connection with Applications for Permits,” n.d., Box 168, File 50313, Entry 40, RG 28.
32. “Supplementary Instructions for Volunteers Reading Foreign Language Papers for the Solicitor of the Post Office Department,” n.d., Box 168, File 50313, Entry 40, “War Service Record,” March 7, 1921, Box 1, File “Excluding Publications from the Mail,” Entry 47, both in RG 28.
33. “War Service Record,” March 7, 1921, Box 1, File “Excluding Publications from the Mail,” Entry 47, RG 28.
34. Smith to Lamar, Feb. 19, 1918, Box 153, File 50091, Entry 40, Burleson to “The Editor and Publisher, World Building,” Oct. 3, 1917, “The Mails as Affected by War Legislation,” n.d., both in Box 1, File “Excluding Publications from the Mail,” Entry 47, all in RG 28; Alexander Trachtenberg, ed., The American Labor Year Book: 1917-1918 (New York, NY: Rand School of Social Science, 1918), 50-53; National Office Review, January 1917; The Eye Opener (Chicago, IL), Feb. 16, 1918; Congressional Record, 65th Cong., 2nd sess., 1918, 56, pt. 12:132; Jack Ross, The Socialist Party of America: A Complete History (Lincoln, NE: Potomac Books, 2015), 182-84; David Shannon, The Socialist Party of America: A History (New York, NY: Macmillan, 1955), 93-97.
35. “Papers Submitted in Connection with Applications for Permits,” n.d., Box 168, File 50313, Entry 40, RG 28.
36. Joseph Sugar to Burleson, March 29, 1918, Box 47, File 47619, Entry 40, RG 28.
37. The Mails as Affected by War Legislation,” n.d., Box 1, File “Excluding Publications from the Mail,” Entry 47, RG 28.
38. “Supplementary Instructions for Volunteers Reading Foreign Language Papers for the Solicitor of the Post Office Department,” n.d., Box 168, File 50313, “Foreign Language Newspapers,” n.d., Box 32, File 47569, both in Entry 40, RG 28.
39. The Mails as Affected by War Legislation,” n.d., Box 1, File “Excluding Publications from the Mail,” Entry 47, RG 28; Dauphin v. Key, 1 MacArth. & M. 203 (Supreme Court of the District of Columbia 1880); Schenck v. United States, 249 U.S. 47 (U.S. Supreme Court 1919); Abrams v. United States, 250 U.S. 616, (U.S. Supreme Court 1919).
40. Jacob Beam (hereinafter cited as Beam) to Babbitt, Nov. 22, 1917, Lamar to Beam, Dec. 4, 1917, Lamar to Thornton, Dec. 6, 1917, Lamar to Morris Jastrow, Dec. 6, 1917, Thornton to Lamar, Dec. 19, 1917, all in Box 168, File 50313, Entry 40, RG 28; Philadelphia Inquirer, Feb. [9?], 1954; New York Times, June 23, 1921.
41. N. W. Ayer & Son’s American Newspaper Annual & Directory (Philadelphia, PA: N. W. Ayer, 1917), 851-860; Beam to Babbitt, Nov. 22, 1917, Box 168, File 50313, Entry 40, RG 28.
42. Lamar to Beam, Dec. 15, 1917, Box 168, File 50313, Entry 40, RG 28.
43. Babbitt to Lamar, Jan. 5, 1918, Box 168, File 50313, Entry 40, RG 28. The department’s “volunteer reading clubs” appear to have eventually included local chapters at the following colleges and universities: Amherst, Barnard, Brown, Chicago, Clark, Columbia, Cornell, Dartmouth, Harvard, Iowa, Lehigh, Massachusetts Agricultural, Michigan, Minnesota, New Hampshire State, Ohio State, Pennsylvania, Princeton, Smith, Vassar, Western Reserve, Williams, and Yale, as well as at Boston’s English High School (Smith to Chief Clerk, March 8, 1918, Box 20, File 50807, Babbitt to Lamar, Jan. 5, 1918, James Hulbert to John Hubbard, June 24, 1918, Smith to Minneapolis postmaster, Sept. 11, 1918, Smith to Cleveland postmaster, Sept. 11, 1918, all in Box 168, File 50313, all in Entry 40, RG 28).
44. William Murray to Lamar, Jan. 24, 1918, Box 168, File 50313, Entry 40, RG 28.
45. The Chicago Daily News Almanac and Yearbook for 1919 (Chicago, IL: Chicago Daily News, 1918), 937; Maxwell to Lamar, Dec. 22, 1917, Box 141, File 49522, Harris Williams to J. J. Southerland, Dec. 20, 1917, Box 32, File 47569, both in Entry 40, RG 28.
46. N. W. Ayer & Son’s American Newspaper Annual & Directory (Philadelphia, PA: N. W. Ayer, 1917), 190; Maxwell to Lamar, Dec. 22, 1917, Box 141, File 49522, Babbitt to Smith, n.d., Box 168, File 50313, both in Entry 40, RG 28.
47. Maxwell to Lamar, Dec. 22, 1917, Box 141, File 49522, Cochran and Wynne to Sutton, March 18, 1918, Box 78, File 47748, both in Entry 40, RG 28.
48. Smith to [Lamar], July 6, 1918, Box 142, File 49546, Entry 40, RG 28.
49. Babbitt to Smith, [October 1918?], Box 168, File 50313, Entry 40, RG 28.
50. Ibid.
51. Smith to Minneapolis postmaster, Smith to Cleveland postmaster, both Sept. 11, 1918, both in Box 168, File 50313, Entry 40, RG 40.
52. Smith to Minneapolis postmaster, Smith to Cleveland postmaster, both Sept. 11, 1918, both in Box 168, File 50313, Entry 40, RG 40.
53. “War Service Record,” March 7, 1921, Box 1, File “Excluding Publications from the Mail,” Entry 47, Record Group 28.
54. Ibid.
55. It is difficult to reconcile Babbitt’s count of the number of American foreign-language newspapers during World War I (2,000) with Lamar’s tally of the number of these publications seeking permits (2,000). One should regard Babbitt’s and Lamar’s totals as approximate. Chief Inspector George Sutton recounted that between the implementation of the Trading with the Enemy Act in early October 1917 and the ending of that fiscal year on June 30, 1918, his staff investigated 1,200 publications applying for permits, a rate of about 150 per month. Assuming that his force continued its work this regularly throughout the fighting in 1918, it scrutinized more than 1,800 foreign-language newspapers (Post Office Department Annual Report for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1917 [Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1918], 60).
56. N. W. Ayer & Son’s American Newspaper Annual and Directory (Philadelphia, PA: N. W. Ayer, 1916); N. W. Ayer & Son’s American Newspaper Annual & Directory (Philadelphia, PA: N. W. Ayer, 1917); N. W. Ayer & Son’s American Newspaper Annual & Directory (Philadelphia, PA: N. W. Ayer, 1918); The American Labor Year Book 1916 (New York, NY: Rand School of Social Science, 1916), 144-51; “IWW Newspapers,” “Anarchist Newspapers and Periodicals,” both in Mapping American Social Movements through the 20th Century. Aug. 25, 2019 from <depts.washington.edu/moves>. How many of these militant publications applied for permits remains an open question. The department approved applications for Boston’s Hairenik (Armenian) and Chicago’s Proletarec (Slovenian) and for Spravedlnost and Zajmy Lidu (both Bohemian) socialist newspapers. It subsequently withdrew the latter two publications’ permits (“List Permit Papers,” n.d., Box 03, File “List of Permit Papers,” Entry 47, RG 28).
57. Official Opinions of the Solicitor of the Post Office, ed. Horace Donnelly, vol. 6 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1928), 198. The enumeration and categorization of suspended periodicals within this paragraph and the one that follows should be regarded as approximations. Support for this section derives largely from cross-referencing the following inventories: “Periodicals, pamphlets, circulars, etc. … held to be non-mailable,” [February 1918?], Box 2893, File 10175-404, RG 165; “List of newspapers and publications which have been declared nonmailable by the Post Office Department,” [December 1918?], Box 188, File 50763, “List of newspapers and publications which have been declared nonmailable by the Post Office Department (supplemental to list prepared in this office 4-10-18,” [December 1918?], Box 206, File 50639, “List of publications declared nonmailable after May 16, 1918,” [October 1918?], Box 216, File 50994, all in Entry 40, RG 28.
58. “Periodicals, pamphlets, circulars, etc … . held to be non-mailable,” [February 1918?], Box 2893, File 10175-404, RG 165; “List of newspapers and publications which have been declared nonmailable by the Post Office Department,” [December 1918?], Box 188, File 50763, “List of newspapers and publications which have been declared nonmailable by the Post Office Department (supplemental to list prepared in this office 4-10-18,” [December 1918?], Box 206, File 50639, “List of publications declared nonmailable after May 16, 1918,” [October 1918?], Box 216, File 50994, all in Entry 40, RG 28.
59. N. W. Ayer & Son’s American Newspaper Annual & Directory (Philadelphia, PA: N. W. Ayer, 1917), 4; “List of publications whose second-class mailing privilege has been revoked,” Jan. 7, 1918, “List of publications whose second-class mailing privilege has been revoked,” [February 1918?], both in Box 2893, File 10175-404, RG 165; “List of publications whose second-class mailing privilege has been revoked,” [November 1918?], Box 44, File 47606, Entry 40, RG 28. Lamar’s power to revoke this preferred category of mailing privileges did not intimidate all leftist and radical publications. The department observed that a “great number of anarchistic and Bolshevistic publications have never filed for entry as second class matter” (“Publications … submitt[ing] applications for re-entry as second class matter,” n.d, Box 44, File 47606, Entry 40, RG 28).
60. Seven publications, including four in foreign languages, saw their privileges regranted during the war. None expressed militant views (“List of publications whose second-class mailing privilege has been revoked,” [November 1918?], Box 44, File 47606, Entry 40, RG 28).
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Alexander Stewart Leidholdt
Alexander Stewart Leidholdt is a professor in James Madison University’s School of Media Arts and Design. He is the author of Standing before the Shouting Mob: Lenoir Chambers and Virginia’s Massive Resistance to Public-School Integration, Editor for Justice: The Life of Louis I. Jaffé, and Battling Nell: The Life of Southern Journalist Cornelia Battle Lewis, 1893-1956.