Fortifications and the European Military Balance before 1914

Abstract

This article analyses the evolution of permanent fortifications in Europe between 1870 and 1914. Despite the introduction in the 1880s of high explosive shells, intensive construction continued until the eve of war. Fortifications figured prominently in armaments budgets and in offensive as well as defensive strategic planning, while their design changed radically. Nonetheless, the pattern of development worked against the Central Powers. Austria-Hungary concentrated against Italy at the expense of the Balkans and Galicia; Germany concentrated on Alsace-Lorraine, neglecting the east until 1912. Whereas France modernised its eastern fortresses, Belgium did little, enticing Germany into the envelopment strategy that would draw Britain into the First World War.

Key Words:

• Fortifications
• Europe
• 1870–1914

Acknowledgements

My thanks are due to Christopher Duffy, Marvin Fried, Paul Hederer, Michael Hemmersdorfer, Bruce Menning, Nicholas Murray, Charles Sorrie and two anonymous reviewers for advice and assistance in preparing this article.

Notes

¹Richard F. Hamilton and Holger H. Herwig (eds), War Planning 1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge UP 2010) for the most recent survey. On armaments, David G. Herrmann, The Arming of Europe and the Making of the First World War (Princeton: Princeton UP 1996); David Stevenson, Armaments and The Coming of War: Europe, 1904–1914 (Oxford: Oxford UP 1996).

² Encyclopaedia Britannica (11th ed., London: Cambridge UP 1910–11), Vol. X, ‘Fortification and Siegecraft’, 680. On field fortifications, Nicholas A. Murray, ‘The Theory and Practice of Field Fortification from 1877–1914’, DPhil thesis, Oxford University 2007.

³Christopher Duffy, Fire and Stone: The Science of Fortress Warfare 1660–1860 (Newton Abbot: David & Charles 1975), 13–16; Christopher Duffy, The Fortress in the Age of Vauban and Frederick the Great 1660–1789 (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul 1985), 153–5, 291–3.

⁴Quentin Hughes, Military Architecture: The Art of Defence from Earliest Times to the Atlantic Wall (Liphook: Beaufort 1991), 161ff; Ian Hogg, Fortress: A History of Military Defence (London: Purnell 1975), 73ff.

⁵Hughes, Military Architecture, 192ff.

⁶Henri Ortholan, Le Général Séré de Rivières. Le Vauban de la Revanche (Paris: Bernard Giovenangeli 2003), 499–500.

⁷ Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed., Vol. X, 696.

⁸Murray, ‘Field Fortification’, passim.

⁹Kurt Mörz de Paula, Der Österreichisch-Ungarische Befestigungsbau 1820–1914 (Vienna, Österreichische Militärgeschichte special issue 2006), 100, 146; Philippe Truttmann, La Barrière de fer. L'Architecture du Général Séré de Rivières (1872–1914) (Thionville: Gérard Klopp 2000), 50.

¹⁰Hamilton and Herwig, War Planning, 211, 217.

¹¹Herrmann, Arming of Europe, 35.

¹²John Gooch, Army, State, and Society in Italy, 1870–1915 (Basingstoke: Macmillan 1989), 115, 125–7. At this period £1 = 25.221 lire = 20.429 marks = 9.45 roubles = 25.22 French francs = 24.02 Austro-Hungarian crowns, cf. Robin Bidwell, Currency Conversion Tables: A Hundred Years of Change (London: Rex Collings 1970).

¹³E. Rombaldi (ed.), L'Esercito Italiano dall'Unità alla Grande Guerra (1861–1918) (Rome: Stato Maggiore dell'Esercito 1980), 254.

¹⁴Gooch, Army, State, and Society, 123.

¹⁵Rombaldi (ed.), L'Esercito Italiano, 254; F. Conrad von Hötzendorff, Aus Meiner Dienstzeit, 1906–1918 (5 vols: Vienna: Rikola 1921–1925), Vol. II, 64.

¹⁶[Vincennes,] S[ervice] H[istorique de l']A[rmée de Terre], 7N69, Colonel Jullian report, 18 June 1909.

¹⁷[Munich,] B[ayerisches] H[auptstaatsarchiv, Abteilung IV.] K[riegsarchiv.] Generalstab 489, GGS 4. Abteilung fortification reports, 2 Dec. 1907, 2 Dec. 1908, 5 Dec. 1911.

¹⁸Conrad, Aus Meiner Dienstzeit, Vol. II, 424; V[ienna:] A[rchiv der Republik.] K[riegsarchiv.], KMPräs 1913 (56-6/2), report on Italian Army, 25 Jan. 1913.

¹⁹VAK, Generalstab 1913 (41-1/1), CGS to Evidenzbureau, 15 Jan. 1913.

²⁰BHK, Generalstab 489, GGS 4. Abteilung fortification report, 15 Feb. 1913.

²¹BHK, Generalstab 196, report on Italian army in 1910 (n.d.); BHK, Generalstab 204 GGS 9. Abteilung annual report, 5 Dec. 1909.

²²VAK, Generalstab Operationsbüro 742, Conrad to Franz Joseph, 14 Jan. 1908; Conrad, Aus Meiner Dienstzeit, Vol. I, 201.

²³Rombaldi, L'Esercito Italiano, 261; Herrmann, Arming of Europe, 107.

²⁴VAK, Generalstab 1912 (45-1/13, 33), Schemua to War Minister, 30 May and 24 Oct. 1912.

²⁵Adam Wandruszka et al. (eds), Die Habsburgermonarchie, 1848–1948, Vol. V (Vienna: Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften 1987), 409.

²⁶Ibid, 414; Ferdinand Käs, ‘Versuch einer zusammangefaßten Darstellung der Tätigkeit der Österreichisch-Ungarischen Generalstabes in der Zeit von 1906 bis 1914 unter besonderer Berücksichtung der Aufmarschplänen und Mobilmachungen’, doctoral dissertation, Vienna University 1962, 96–8.

²⁷Conrad, Aus Meiner Dienstzeit, Vol. I, 430.

²⁸Mörz de Paula, Österreichisch-Ungarische Befestigungsbau, 26–7.

²⁹Conrad, Aus Meiner Dienstzeit, Vol. I, 430; Vienna, [H]aus-, [H]of-, und [St]aats [A]rchiv, 310 P.A. XL Interna, Auffenberg in Common Ministerial Council, 6 Dec. 1911.

³⁰Conrad, Aus Meiner Dienstzeit, Vol. I, 432

³¹Stevenson, Armaments, 6.

³²Wandruszka, Habsburgermonarchie, 414.

³³Hamilton and Herwig, War Planning, 42.

³⁴VAK, KM Präs 1910 (33-8), Conrad to Franz Joseph, 5 Feb. 1910.

³⁵VAK, KM Präs 1910 (76-51), Schönaich to Aehrenthal, 15 Jan. 1910.

³⁶Wandruszka, Habsburgermonarchie, 414.

³⁷VAK, KM Präs 1814 (56-6), annual reports on Serbia and Montenegro for 1913 (n.d.); VAK, KM Präs 1911 (76-83), Conrad to War Minister, 17 Mar. 1911.

³⁸Mörz de Paula, Österreichisch-Ungarische Befestigungsbau, 23; BHK, Generalstab 208, GGS 7. Abteilung, eastern annual report, 30 Nov. 1909.

³⁹Conrad, Aus Meiner Dienstzeit, Vol. IV, 536, 601–4

⁴⁰Hew Strachan, The First World War: Vol. I. To Arms (Oxford: Oxford UP 2001), 286.

⁴¹Hughes, Military Architecture, 176.

⁴²Franz Forstner, ‘Przemysl: Geschichte der bedeutendsten Festung Österreich-Ungarns’, doctoral dissertation, Vienna University 1985, 159, 195.

⁴³Ibid., 61.

⁴⁴Conrad, Aus Meiner Dienstzeit, Vol. I, 426.

⁴⁵VAK, KM Präs 1910 (33-8/5), Conrad to War Minister, 19 Sept. 1910.

⁴⁶Forstner, ‘Przemysl’, 156.

⁴⁷VAK, KM Präs 1908 (33-8/1), Schönaich to Conrad, 29 Sept. 1908.

⁴⁸VAK, KM Präs 1912 (37-9), Krobatin to Teleszky, 18 Oct. 1912; BHK, Generalstab 576, Moltke annual report, 14 Jan. 1914; VAK, Generalstab 1913 (45-1/4), Conrad to War Minister, 27 Dec. 1913.

⁴⁹Conrad, Aus Meiner Dienstzeit, Vol. I, 425; Vol. III, 522.

⁵⁰Ibid., Vol. I, 425; VAK, Generalstab 1912 (40-7), Generalartillerieinspektor to War Minister, 23 Dec. 1911.

⁵¹Conrad, Aus Meiner Dienstzeit, Vol. III, 522; VAK, Generalstab 1912 (45-1/39, 33), Auffenberg to Schemua, 28 July and Schemua to Auffenberg, 24 Oct. 1912.

⁵²William Fuller, Strategy and Power in Russia 1600–1914 (New York: Free Press 1992), 259.

⁵³Bruce Menning, Bayonets before Bullets: the Imperial Russian Army, 1861–1914 (Bloomington: Indiana UP 1992) 87–9; Fuller, Strategy and Power, 299.

⁵⁴Menning, Bayonets before Bullets, 29.

⁵⁵Ibid., 119.

⁵⁶SHA, 7N1535, ‘Places fortes’, Sept. 1910.

⁵⁷Vladimir Sukhomlinov, Erinnerungen (Berlin: Reimar Hobbing 1924), 218; SHA, 7N1478, Laguiche report, 16 Nov. 1912.

⁵⁸Stevenson, Armaments, 153–4.

⁵⁹Andrei Zaionchovski, Podgotovka Rossii k imperialisticheskoi voine (plani voini) (Moscow 1926), 148; BHK, Generalstab 208, Posadowsky despatch, 8 Apr. 1909.

⁶⁰BHK, Generalstab 208, GGS 7. Abteilung annual report, 30 Nov. 1909; Berlin, [P]olitisches [A]rchiv des [A]uswärtigen [A]mtes, R10450, Moltke to Bülow, 29 May 1909.

⁶¹Arkadii Sidorov, Finansovoe Polozhenie Rossii v Godi Pervoi Mirovoi Voiny (1914–1917) (Moscow: Akademiia nauk 1960), 54–55.

⁶²Norman Stone, The Eastern Front, 1914–1917 (New York: Scribner 1975), 31.

⁶³BHK, Generalstab 208, GGS 7. Abteilung annual report, 30 Nov. 1909.

⁶⁴Vladimir Kokovtsev, Out of My Past (Stanford: Stanford UP 1935), 233–5; Fuller, Strategy and Power, 432.

⁶⁵Fuller, Strategy and Power, 432.

⁶⁶SHA, 7N 1535, Wehrlin note, Apr. 1910, Matton reports, 15 Apr. and 6 July 1910, Etat-major de l'armée note, 1 Sept. 1910, ‘Places fortes’.

⁶⁷Kornelii Shatsillo, Russkoi imperializm i razvitie flota nakanune pervoi mirovoi voiny (1900–1914) (Moscow 1968), 65–9.

⁶⁸SHA, 7N1539, Warsaw Consul-general report, 1 Sept. 1913; SHA, 7N1535, Zhilinski in Duma, 24 June 1913; BHK, Generalstab 489, GGS 4. Abteilung fortification reports, 14 June and 15 Oct. 1913; BHK, Generalstab 576, Moltke annual report, 14 Jan. 1914.

⁶⁹VAK, Generalstab Operationsbüro 820, Evidenzbureau report, June 1913.

⁷⁰Fuller, Strategy and Power, 442ff.

⁷¹SHA, 7N1535, Information from Zhilinski for Joffre, Aug. 1913; SHA, 7N1538, note on transformation of Russian army, June 1913; BHK, Generalstab 489, GGS 4. Abteilung fortification report, 14 June 1913.

⁷²VAK, KM Präs 1910 (47–2), Spannocchi report, 29 Mar. 1910.

⁷³BHK, MKr 998, Moltke to Wenninger, 3 Dec. 1912; BHK, Generalstab 208, report on Russian heavy artillery, Mar. 1909.

⁷⁴Marie-France Sardain, Défenses et sièges de Paris 1814–1914 (Paris: Economica 2009), 61ff; Rudi Rolf and Peter Saal, Fortress Europe (Shrewsbury: Airlife 1986), 33.

⁷⁵Hogg, Fortress, 101.

⁷⁶Stéphane Gaber, La Lorraine fortifiée, 1870–1940: de Séré de Rivières à Maginot (Nancy: Presses universitaires de Nancy 1994), 13; cf. Ortholan, Séré de Rivières, 355–456.

⁷⁷Ibid., 493–5; Guy Pedroncini (ed.), Histoire militaire de la France. Tome III. De 1871 à 1940 (Paris: Presses universitaires de France 1992), 31.

⁷⁸Allan Mitchell, Victors and Vanquished: The German Influence on Army and Church in France after 1870 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press 1984), 52ff; Gaber, Lorraine fortifiée, 13ff; Truttmann, Barrière de fer, 25ff; SHA, 7N1787, Séré report presented 26 May 1876; also <www.fortiff.sere.fr>.

⁷⁹Ortholan, Séré de Rivières, 501.

⁸⁰SHA, 7N1804, EMA 3^rd Bureau classification note, Jan. 1899.

⁸¹Herrmann, Arming of Europe, 46, 53; Truttmann, Barrière de fer, 46.

⁸²Truttman, Barrière de fer, 32.

⁸³Ibid., 50.

⁸⁴SHA, 7N1806, Note (n.d.) on acceleration of fortification work.

⁸⁵ Bulletin des lois de la République française, 1914, vi, 7325.

⁸⁶Mitchell, Victors and Vanquished, 98–9.

⁸⁷BHK, Generalstab 489, GGS 4. Abteilung fortification reports, 30 Aug. and 4 Dec. 1906, 2 Dec. 1907.

⁸⁸Ibid., 2 Dec. 1908, 10 Dec. 1910, 5 Feb. 1911.

⁸⁹Pierre Rocolle, 2000 ans de fortification française, 2 vols. (Limoges/Paris: Charles-Levauzelle 1973), Vol. I, 299–301; SHA, 7N1806, dossier for cabinet du ministre, 18 July 1914; SHA, 7N1804, minutes of Haute commission des places fortes, 27 Nov. 1907, and note on fortress defensive organization, 19 Apr. 1908.

⁹⁰Ibid., 14 June, 15 Oct. 1913.

⁹¹BHK, Generalstab 196, Moltke on new French armaments bill, 21 Feb. 1913; BHK, Generalstab 167, Moltke on re-organisation following three-year law, Mar. 1914.

⁹²Herrmann, Arming of Europe, 182.

⁹³SHA, 7N 1806, ‘Place de Verdun’ (n.d.); cf. Clayton Donnell, The Fortifications of Verdun, 1874–1917 (Oxford: Osprey 2010), 14ff.

⁹⁴Truttmann, Barrière de fer, 54; Gaber, Lorraine fortifiée, 37.

⁹⁵SHA, 7N1806, Laffon de Ladébat report, 28 Dec. 1909.

⁹⁶SHA 1N11, Report to Conseil supérieur de guerre, 15 Oct. 1913.

⁹⁷Herrmann, Arming of Europe, 264; BHK, Generalstab 167, Moltke on re-organisation after three-year law, Mar. 1914.

⁹⁸SHA, 7N1806, Dossier for cabinet du ministre, 18 July 1914.

⁹⁹BHK, Generalstab 489, GGS 4. Abteilung fortification report, 10 Dec. 1910.

¹⁰⁰BHK, MKr 991, Moltke to Wenninger, 29 Nov. 1912.

¹⁰¹BHK, Generalstab 489, GGS 4. Abteilung fortification report, 15 Feb. 1913; BHK, MKr 992, Moltke to Wenninger, 8 Feb. 1914.

¹⁰²Ortholan, Séré de Rivières, 496–7.

¹⁰³SHA, 1N11, ‘Plan XVII: Bases du Plan’, 2 May 1913, CSG minutes, 18 Apr. 1913.

¹⁰⁴Julian Jackson, The Fall of France: The Nazi Invasion of 1940 (Oxford: Oxford UP 2003), 25–7.

¹⁰⁵Mitchell, Victors and Vanquished, 113–16.

¹⁰⁶Ortholan, Séré de Rivières, 502.

¹⁰⁷SHA, 7N1812, Dury, report on Belgian fortresses (n.d.).

¹⁰⁸Clayton Donnell, The Forts of the Meuse in World War I (Oxford: Osprey 2007), 9, 13, 17, 32, 33.

¹⁰⁹Ortholan, Séré de Rivières, 507.

¹¹⁰Donnell, Forts of the Meuse, 9, 13; Hogg, Fortress, 119.

¹¹¹SHA, 7N1812, Dury, report on Belgian fortresses (n.d.).

¹¹²John Keiger and David Stevenson (eds), British Documents on Foreign Affairs: Reports and Papers from the Confidential Print, Part I, Series F (Frederick, MD: University Publications of America 1987), Vol. V, 333–4, Bridges to Villiers, 19 Oct. 1911; BHK, Generalstab 224, GGS 4. Abteilung, report on Belgian and Dutch fortifications, 1908; and BHK, Generalstab 225, ‘Denkschrift Lüttich’, 1912.

¹¹³On preparatory measures in Agadir crisis, BHK, Generalstab 489, GGS 4. Abteilung fortification report, 5 Dec. 1911.

¹¹⁴David Stevenson, ‘Battlefield or Barrier? Rearmament and Military Planning in Belgium, 1902–1914’, International History Review 29/2 (Sept. 2007) 492–3.

¹¹⁵BHK, Generalstab 489, GGS 4. Abteilung fortification report, 30 Aug. 1906; Rolf and Saal, Fortress Europe, 27.

¹¹⁶BHK, Generalstab 489, GGS 4. Abteilung fortification report, 2 Dec. 1907, 2 Dec. 1908, 2 Dec. 1909, 10 Dec. 1910, 5 Feb. and 15 Oct. 1913.

¹¹⁷[Freiburg-im-Breisgau], B[undes] A[rchiv]-M[ilitär] A[rchiv], RH61/395, ‘Die Entwickelung [sic] des deutschen Festungssystems von 1871–1914’, p. 1.

¹¹⁸J.E. Kaufmann and H.W. Kaufmann, Fortress Third Reich: German Fortifications and Defense Systems in World War II (Cambridge, MA: Da Capo 2003), 6; Clayton Donnell, The German Fortress of Metz 1870–1944 (Oxford: Osprey 2008), 9

¹¹⁹Kaufmann and Kaufmann, Fortress Third Reich, 5.

¹²⁰Terence Zuber, Inventing the Schlieffen Plan: German War Planning, 1871–1914 (Oxford: Oxford UP 2002), 111.

¹²¹Kaufmann and Kaufman, Fortress Third Reich, 12–13.

¹²²Donnell, German Fortress of Metz, 13, 15ff, 27.

¹²³Ibid., 44ff.

¹²⁴Friedrich Freiherr von der Goltz, Colmar Freiherr von der Goltz, Denkwürdigkeiten (Berlin: E.S. Mittler und Sohn 1929), 195.

¹²⁵Ortholan, Séré de Rivières, 570; Jack Snyder, The Ideology of the Offensive: Military Decision Making and the Disasters of 1914 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press 1984), 131; Reichsarchiv Der Weltkrieg, 1914–1918, Band I, Die Grenzschlachten im Westen (Berlin: E.S. Mittler und Sohn 1925), 7.

¹²⁶Ibid., 146, 141.

¹²⁷Ibid., 140; cf. Wilhelm Dieckmann, ‘Der Schlieffenplan', transl. in Terence Zuber (ed.), German War Planning 1891–1914: Sources and Interpretations (Woodbridge: Boydell 2004), 52.

¹²⁸Ibid., 120.

¹²⁹Ibid., 118; Dieckmann, ‘Schlieffenplan’, in ibid., 57–8.

¹³⁰Ibid., 67, 70, 94ff.

¹³¹Zuber, German War Planning, 187–97; Hans Ehlert, Michael Epkenhans and Gerhard Groß (eds), Der Schlieffenplan: Analysen und Dokumente (Paderborn: Ferdinand Schöningh 2007); Eric Brose, The Kaiser's Army: The Politics of Military Technology in Germany during the Machine Age, 1870–1918 (Oxford: Oxford UP 2001), 77–84.

¹³²Pertev Dermihan, Generalfeldmarschall Colmar Freiherr von der Goltz: das Lebensbild eines großen Soldaten (Göttingen: Göttinger Verlagsanstalt 1960), 43.

¹³³Brose, 105–7; cf. Dieckmann, ‘Schlieffenplan’, in Zuber, 82–9.

¹³⁴Zuber, German War Planning, 203–4.

¹³⁵BHK, MKr 990, Moltke to Einem, 4 Sept. 1906.

¹³⁶Heinrich Klein, Von Geschoß zum Pfeuerpfeil: der Große Umbruch der Waffentechnik in Deutschland, 1900–1970: Eine Dokumentation (Neckargemünd: Kowinckel 1977), 24ff; Brose, Kaiser's Army, 167ff; Herrmann, Arming of Europe, 65, 158, 201.

¹³⁷Hamilton and Herwig, War Planning, 221.

¹³⁸Brose, Kaiser's Army, 169–72; cf. BA-MA, RH61/1928; N56/4. I am indebted to Paul Hederer for bringing this material to my attention.

¹³⁹BHK, MKr 5586, Wenninger report, 21 Nov. 1912.

¹⁴⁰Stevenson, ‘Battlefield or Barrier?’, 501.

¹⁴¹Ehlert et al., Schlieffenplan, 486.

¹⁴²BHK, MKr 43, Moltke memorandum, approved Wilhelm II 2 Aug. 1906; Albert Grabau, Das Festungsproblem in Deutschland und seine Auswirkung auf die strategische Lage von 1870–1914 (Berlin: Junker & Dünnhaupt, 1935), 173–4.

¹⁴³Grabau, Festungsproblem, 53–4.

¹⁴⁴BA-MA, MSG/2/17789, ‘Die deutsche Festungen vor und im 1. Weltkrieg’, (n.d.), 8.

¹⁴⁵Reichsarchiv, Der Weltkrieg, 1914–1918. Band II. Die Befreiung Ostpreußens (Berlin: E.S. Mittler und Sohn 1925), 39.

¹⁴⁶BA-MA, RH 61/395, ‘Die Entwickelung [sic] des deutschen Festungssystems von 1871–1914’, 9–14; BA-MA, N80/17, Generalleutnant Schultheis, biography of Mudra, pp. 28ff, (Mudra memorandum, 9 Nov. 1911).

¹⁴⁷BA-MA, RH 61/395, ‘Die Entwickelung’, 14–15; Schultheis, 36 (Moltke memorandum, 27 Nov. 1911).

¹⁴⁸Grabau, Festungswesen, 57–8.

¹⁴⁹Schultheis biography, 45–50; BHK, MKr 5586, Wenninger reports, 24 July 1912 and 8 Nov. 1913 detail the increase in fortress spending.

¹⁵⁰Hamilton and Herwig, War Planning, 63.

¹⁵¹BA-MA, RH 61/395, ‘Die Entwickelung’, 17.

¹⁵²BA-MA, MSG/2/17789, ‘Deutsche Festungen’, 8; Stuttgart, Haupstaatsarchiv, M1/2, Vol. 54, GGS intelligence reports, 31 July, 1 Aug. 1914; Ibid., Vol. 109, 27 July–4 Aug. 1914.

¹⁵³SHA, 7N1806, chronology, ‘Juillet 1914’.

¹⁵⁴Hughes, Military Architecture, 221,176.

¹⁵⁵Conrad, Aus Meiner Dienstzeit, Vol. I, 257; Gaber, Lorraine fortifiée, 13.

¹⁵⁶John Röhl, ‘An der Schwelle zum Weltkrieg: eine Dokumentation über den “Kriegsrat” vom 8. Dezember 1912’, Militärgeschichtliche Mitteilungen (1977), 77–134.

¹⁵⁷Michael Brown, et al. (eds), Offense, Defense, and War (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press 2004), xvii.

¹⁵⁸Cf. Robert Jervis, ‘Cooperation under the Security Dilemma’, World Politics 30/2 (Jan. 1978), 190–1, 199, 211.

¹⁵⁹Snyder, Ideology, Ch. 1.

¹⁶⁰Strachan, First World War, 241, 245, 357; Ortholan, Séré de Rivières, 518–28.

¹⁶¹Strachan, First World War, 357; Mörz de Paula, Österreichisch-Ungarische Befestigungsbau, 115; Stone, Eastern Front, 34, 174–5, 181, 186.

¹⁶²Erich Mathias and Rudolf Morsey (eds), Die Regierung des Prinzen Max von Baden (Düsseldorf: Droste 1962), 141.