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Abstract
This article analyses the steps taken by the Russian government, with the aid of a powerful local clan, the so-called Kadyrovtsy, to subdue the Chechen insurgency. It highlights the strategy used by Russia, under whose patronage former anti-Russian guerrilla fighters were transformed into paramilitary allies of the Russian government; later these former insurgents were incorporated into the regular Russian army and other state security forces. The article also identifies problems that are connected with the activities of the Kadyrovtsy in Chechnya and Russia, and the spillover into the diaspora; it also contextualises the issues faced by the contemporary Chechen ruling clan and the geopolitics of the Caucasus within the research framework of paramilitarism and counterinsurgency.
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Notes
1 Irina Mukhina, ‘Islamic Terrorism and the Question of National Liberation, or Problems of Contemporary Chechen Terrorism’, Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 28/6 (Citation2005), 515–32.
2 John Collins, Military Strategy. Principles, Practices and Historical Perspectives (Dulles: Brassey 2002).
3 Andrew Scobell and Brad Hammitt, ‘Goons, Gunmen, and Gendarmerie: Toward a Reconceptualization of Paramilitary Formations’, Journal of Political and Military Sociology 26/2 (Citation1998), 213–27.
4 Julie Mazzei, Death Squads or Self-Defense Forces? How Paramilitary Groups Emerge and Challenge Democracy in Latin America (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press Citation2009), 217.
5 Miroslav Mareš, Paramilitarism in the Czech Republic (Paramilitarismus v České Republice) (Brno: Centrum Pro Studium Demokracie a Kultury 2012).
6 Aleksey Makarin, ‘Creation of Ramzan’ (Cтановление Рамзана), Politcom.ru, 26 Apr. 2008, <http://www.politcom.ru/6086.html>; also Sergey Markedonov, ‘Russian Expert on the Issues of the Caucasus Region Interviewed by Author’, Moscow, Nov. 2009 and Washington, DC, Apr. Citation2013; and Abdulla Istamulov, ‘Chechen Political Analyst’, interviewed by Author, Grozny, July 2012–Aug. 2013.
7 Novaya Gazeta, ‘Country – Special Forces’ (Страна-спецназ), 24 July 2011, <http://www.novayagazeta.ru/society/47063.html>.
8 Novaya Gazeta, ‘War for Chechen Oil’ (Война за чеченскую нефть), 29 Jan. 2009, <http://www.novayagazeta.ru/inquests/46335.html>; also SJ, ‘MP of the Chechen Parliament Who Wished to Remain Anonymous for Security Reasons’, interviewed by Author, Grozny, Feb. 2010.
9 SJ, ‘MP of the Chechen Parliament Who Wished to Remain Anonymous for Security Reasons’; also Josef Pazderka, ‘Czech Journalist and Former Czech TV Correspondent’, interviewed by Author, Moscow, Oct. 2009.
10 Novaya Gazeta, ‘Country’.
11 Sergey Markedonov, ‘Kadyrov has Completed a Campaign Against Vostok’ (Кадыров завершил поход на «Восток»), Politcom.ru, 14 May 2008, <http://politcom.ru/6169.html>; cf. Vladimir Svartsevich, ‘Chechenets S.-M. Kakiyev: Allah, I am Ready to Die for Russia!!’ (Чеченец С.-М. Какиев: Клянусь Аллахом, я готов умереть за Россию!), Argumenti i fakti, 17 Nov. 2004, <http://gazeta.aif.ru/online/aif/1255/14_01>.
12 Kavkazsky Uzel, ‘Kakiyev Said-Magomed Shamayevich’ (Какиев Саид-Магомед Шамаевич), 25 Apr. Citation2008, <https://www.kavkaz-uzel.ru/articles/137582>.
13 Aleksandr Zheglov and Sergei Mashkin, ‘Enemy to the Grave’ (Враг до гроба), Kommersant, 20 Nov. 2006, <http://www.kommersant.ru/doc/723010>.
14 Vadim Rechkalov ‘Musa Gazimagomadov: I Ended a Life’ (Муса ГАЗИМАГОМАДОВ: ‘Я закончил жизнь’), Izvestiya, 6 Apr. 2003, <http://izvestia.ru/news/275166>.
15 Alu Alkhanov, ‘In the Ministry of Interior Affairs in Chechnya a Special Regiment was Established’ (В МВД Чечни создается полк спецназначения), Memorial, 20 July Citation2004, <http://www.memo.ru/hr/hotpoints/caucas1/msg/2004/07/m28568.htm>; cf. Ksenia Solyanskaya, ‘By Umarova His Brat Started Talking’ (У Умарова заговорил брат), Gazeta.ru, 26 Jan. 2010, <http://www.gazeta.ru/politics/2010/01/25_a_3316345.shtml>.
16 Emil Souleimanov, The Endless War. The Russian–Chechen Conflict in Perspective (Berlin: Peter Lang Citation2007).
17 SJ, ‘MP of the Chechen Parliament Who Wished to Remain Anonymous for Security Reasons’; Istamulov, ‘Chechen Political Analyst’; ‘Inhabitants of the Chechen Republic’ interviewed by Author, Nov. Citation2009, Feb. 2010, July 2010, July–Aug. 2012, Aug. 2013.
18 See ‘Kadyrovtsy Mock Russia Fighters’ (Кадыровцы издеваются над русскими бойцами’), 12 Oct. 2009, <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=puKV1h9a0M4>.
19 Vyacheslav Ismaylov, ‘Russian Journalist and Military Expert of Novaya Gazeta’, interviewed by Author, Moscow, Dec. Citation2009; B.M. Chechen, ‘Police Officer Who Wished to Remain Anonymous’, interviewed by Author, Khasavyurt, July 2012.
20 Istamulov, ‘Chechen Political Analyst’.
21 Ismaylov, ‘Russian Journalist and Military Expert of Novaya Gazeta’.
22 Pavel Felgengauer, ‘Russian Military Journalist’, interviewed by Author, Moscow, Jan. 2012.
23 Novaya Gazeta, ‘Country’.
24 Even official Soviet statistics admitted that the Chechen–Ingush ASSR had the lowest rate of violent crime in the Soviet Union, and this was explained with reference to the practice of blood feuds, which was more effective in terms of preventing violent crime than a legal system based on the European traditions of statehood and the Roman law. However, this legal system was deformed by the Bolshevik ideology and political practice of the Soviet regime (cf. Souleimanov, The Endless War).
25 ‘Inhabitants of the Chechen Republic’.
26 Istamulov, ‘Chechen Political Analyst’.
27 Novaya Gazeta ‘Punitive Conspiracy’ (Карательный сговор), 28 Sep. Citation2006, <http://www.novayagazeta.ru/politics/29635.html>.
28 Taus Dzhabrailov, ‘Former Chechen Politician’, interviewed by Author, Moscow, Nov. 2009.
29 Kavkazsky Uzel, ‘In Chechnya Clashes Between Anti-Terrorist Center Staff and Ministry of Internal Affairs’ (В Чечне произошли стычки между сотрудниками антитеррористического центра и МВД), 19 Aug. Citation2005, <http://www.kavkaz-uzel.ru/articles/82570/>.
30 ‘Inhabitants of the Chechen Republic’.
31 Novaya Gazeta, ‘Country’.
32 Aleksey Malashenko, Ramzan Kadyrov. Russian Politician of Caucasian Nationality (Ramzan Kadyrov: rossiysky politik kavkazskoy natsionalnosti) (Moscow: Rosspen 2009).
33 Author’s uninterested observation in Grozny on 17 Nov. 2011.
34 Tatyana Gritsenko, ‘Gortsa Came On’ (Очередь ‘Горца’), Vremya Novostey, 20 Nov. 2006, <http://vremya.ru/2006/213/46/165933.html>.
35 Ibid.
36 Baysarov left for Moscow, and despite the accusations raised against him, he appeared publicly and complained that Kadyrov had started to hound him for political reasons. Baysarov nonetheless continued to take, euphemistically speaking, controversial steps, for which he was not prosecuted only thanks to FSB interventions. For instance, he blackmailed a casino on Novyy Arbat and other businesses. Rechkalov, ‘Musa Gazimagomadov’; cf. Chechen, ‘Police Officer Who Wished to Remain Anonymous’.
37 Ibid.
38 Ibid.
39 Tatyana Stanovaya, ‘Death of the Enemy’ (смерть врага), Politcom.ru, 25 Sep. Citation2008, <http://www.politcom.ru/6920.html>.
40 Ismaylov, ‘Russian Journalist and Military Expert of Novaya Gazeta’.
41 ‘Inhabitants of the Chechen Republic’.
42 Malashenko, Ramzan Kadyrov.
43 Sergey Markedenov ‘Chechnya: Between Two Separatisms’ (Чечня: между двумя сепаратизмами), Politcom.ru, 30 July Citation2007, <http://www.politcom.ru/4893.html>.
44 Makarin, ‘Creation of Ramzan’.
45 Novaya Gazeta, ‘Country’.
46 Memorial, ‘Contradictory Information abou Incident between People of Kadryov and Yamadayev in Chechnya’ (Информация об инциденте между людьми Кадырова и Ямадаева в Чечне противоречива), 15 Apr. Citation2008, <http://www.memo.ru/hr/hotpoints/caucas1/msg/2008/04/m131470.htm>.
47 Sergey Markedonov, ‘Chechen Factor and Georgia: New Realities and Old Problems’ (Чеченский фактор» и Грузия: новые реальности и старые проблемы), Politcom.ru, 21 Dec. 2007, <http://www.politcom.ru/5521.html>; ‘Inhabitants of the Chechen Republic’.
48 Muslim Ibragimov, ‘After Explosion in a Cafe in Capital of Chechnya Three Criminal Cases’ (По факту взрыва в кафе столицы Чечни возбуждено три уголовных дела), Kavkazsky Uzel, 10 June 2008, <http://www.kavkaz-uzel.ru/articles/139606/>.
49 Chechennews, ‘During a Battle in Khankala Wounded Lieutenant Colonel of the Russian Army Bislan Elimhanov’ (Во время боя в Ханкале ранен подполковник российской армии Бислан Элимханов), 9 Jan. Citation2011, <http://chechenews.com/developments/2092-1.html>; cf. Muslim Ibragimov, ‘In Chechnya No Results in Investigation of Attack Against Commander of the Batallion “West”’ (В Чечне поиски напавших на командира батальона ‘Запад’ результата не дали), Kavkazsky Uzel, 19 Sep. 2008, <http://www.kavkaz-uzel.ru/articles/141846/>.
50 Vladislav Trifonov, ‘In Khhankalski Shots Sounded Vienna’ (В ханкалинских выстрелах прозвучала Вена), Kommersant, 18 Jan. 2011, <http://www.kommersant.ru/pda/kommersant.html?id=1569398>.
51 Markedonov, ‘Kadyrov has Completed a Campaign Against Vostok’.
52 Ruslan Yamadaev was one of Ramzan Kadyrov’s greatest enemies. Versions have appeared, however, according to which the murder was committed precisely with the assumption that Kadyrov would be blamed. Ruslan, who died at age 46, was a retired colonel, Hero of the Russian Federation, former deputy of the State Duma, former brigadier general of the Ichkeria and former deputy of the Chechen commander-in-chief. He was shot in Moscow at 5:15 pm a few hundred meters from the seat of the government. Kadyrov claimed to be shocked by his death and speculated that the murder might have been committed by boeviki or Yamadaev’s business enemies, or that it was a blood feud (cf. Stanovaya, ‘Death of the Enemy’).
53 Sergey Markedonov, ‘Concilation in Gudermes’ (Примирение в Гудермесе), Politcom.ru, 24 Aug. 2010, <http://www.politcom.ru/10609.html>; Woiciech Goretski, ‘Kaukaz’, Nowa Europa Wschodnia, 6 (2010), XIV.
54 Novaya Gazeta, ‘Country’.
55 Ibid.
56 Author’s interview with Vyacheslav Ismailov, correspondent of Novaya Gazeta, Moscow, November 2009. Information was also provided by some Chechen observers who wished to remain anonymous.
57 Novaya Gazeta, ‘Murder in Vienna’ (Венское убийство), 4 Feb. 2009, <http://www.novayagazeta.ru/politics/46269.html>.
58 Ibid.
59 ‘Inhabitants of the Chechen Republic’.
60 Ibid.
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Tomáš Šmíd
Tomáš Šmíd is assistant professor of Security and Strategic Studies at Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic. He focuses on research into ethnic conflicts and terrorism, especially in Caucasus and Eastern Europe. He cooperated with the Organization for Cooperation and Security in Europe. He is the author of several studies, articles and books and the author of (with co-author Vladimír Vaďura) Ethnic Conflicts in Post-Communist Area (CDK, 2007, in Czech).
Miroslav Mareš
Miroslav Mareš is associate professor of Security and Strategic Studies at Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic. He focuses on research into political violence and terrorism, especially in East-Central Europe. He was the consultant for the Organization for Cooperation and Security in Europe. He is the author of many studies, articles and books and most recently the co-author (with Astrid Bötticher) of the book Extremismus: Theorien – Konzepte – Formen (Oldenbourg Verlag 2012, in German).