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ABSTRACT
The Chinese military has embarked on a series of organizational and doctrinal reforms intended to better enable it to fight modern war. Prominent among these reforms is the growing emphasis on space to enable long-range precisions strikes and on counterspace to deny space capabilities to an adversary. The People’s Liberation Army (PLA) has officially designated space as a new domain and established an organization to command space forces. With this increased focus on space, the PLA may begin to develop a doctrine to govern the use of space in military operations. The higher priority given to space, especially space control, by the PLA coincides with similar actions by the US military, increasing the possibility of warfare in space and the risks of escalation.
Notes
1 ‘Full text of Hu Jintao’s report at 18th Party Congress,’ Xinhua, 17 November 2012, http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/special/18cpcnc/2012-11/17/c_131981259_10.htm
2 The other three baskets are command and control for joint operations, development of human capital, and defense R&D.
3 David Finkelstein, ‘Citation2015 Should be an Exciting Year for PLA-Watching’, Pathfinder Magazine 13/1 (Winter 2015), 10–11.
4 Finkelstein, ‘Citation2015 Should be an Exciting Year for PLA-Watching’, 11.
5 M. Taylor Fravel, ‘China’s New Military Strategy: Winning Informationized Local Wars’, China Brief 15/13, June 23 2015, http://www.jamestown.org/programs/chinabrief/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=44072&cHash=c403ff4a87712ec43d2a11cf576f3ec1#.VfL6nP_D8eg
6 China Academy of Military Science (AMS) Military Strategy Studies Department, Zhanlue xue [Science of Military Strategy], (Beijing: Military Science Press December 2013), 185.
7 AMS, Science of Military Strategy, 52.
8 AMS, Science of Military Strategy, 73.
9 Xu Nengwu and Huang Changyun, ‘Taikong weishe: meiguo zhanlue weishe tixi tiaozheng yu quanqiu zhanlue wendingxing’ [‘Space Deterrence: Changes in the U.S. Strategic Deterrence System and Global Strategic Stability’] Waijiao pinglun [Foreign Affairs Review] No. 5 (2014), 62; Xiao Lei, Qing Mu, and Wang Qu, ‘Shei zai tiaoqi taikong zhanzheng’ [Who Stirs Up a Space War?’] Juece yu xinxi [Decision & Information] 2/339 (2013), 18; Yang Caixia and Ai Dun, ‘Lun zhongguo fazhan fanweixing wuqi de hefaxing’ [‘On the Legality of the Development of ASATs for China’], Beijing hangkong hangtian daxue xuebao (shehui kexue ban)] [Journal of Journal of Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics (Social Sciences Edition)] 23/2 (Citation2010), 46, 47, 50.
10 See Jiang Lianju and Wang Liwen (eds.), Kongjian zuozhanxue jiaocheng [Textbook for the Study of Space Operations] (Beijing: Military Science Publishing House Citation2013), 14.
11 Jiang and Wang, Study of Space Operations, 1.
12 AMS, Science of Military Strategy, Citation2013 and Jiang and Wang, Study of Space Operations, 13.
13 AMS, Science of Military Strategy, 100.
14 AMS, Science of Military Strategy, 100.
15 AMS, Science of Military Strategy, 102.
16 AMS, Science of Military Strategy, 96.
17 Finkelstein, ‘Citation2015 Should be an Exciting Year for PLA-Watching’, 11.
18 Guo Yuandan, ‘Yao da haishang zhanzheng? Zhongguo ying zuo haishang junshi douzheng zhunbei’ [‘Want to Fight Naval War? China Should Prepare for Naval Conflict’], Huanqiuwang [Global Net], 26 May 2016, http://mil.huanqiu.com/strategysituation/2015-05/6526726_2.html
19 Peng Guangqian and Yao Youzhi, Zhanlue xue [The Science of Strategy] (Beijing: Military Sciences Press Citation2001), 358.
20 Kevin McCauley, ‘System of System Operational Capability: Key Supporting Concepts for Future Joint Operations’, China Brief 12/19(5 October 2012), http://www.jamestown.org/single/?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=39932#.VenjnWeFOh1
21 McCauley, ‘System of System Operational Capability’.
22 McCauley, ‘System of System Operational Capability’.
23 AMS, Science of Military Strategy, 127–29.
24 Jiang and Wang, Study of Space Operations, 6.
25 See, for example, ‘Fenfei zai xinshijide tiankong: zhongyang junwei weiyuan, kongjun silingyuan xu qiliang benbao jizhe wen’ [‘Flying with Force and Vigor in the Sky of the New Century—Central Military Commission Member and PLA Air Force Commander Xu Qiliang Answers Reporter’s Questions in an Interview’], Jiefang junbao [PLA Daily], 1 November 2009, http://mil.news.sina.com.cn/2009-11-02/0625572165.html.
26 Jiang and Wang, Study of Space Operations, 44.
27 Jiang and Wang, Study of Space Operations, 6.
28 AMS, Science of Military Strategy, 92.
29 Jiang and Wang, Study of Space Operations, 42.
30 Jiang and Wang, Study of Space Operations, 52.
31 Jiang and Wang, Study of Space Operations, 142–43.
32 Sources: ‘Yaogan,’ Dragon in Space, http://www.dragoninspace.com/earth-observation/yaogan.aspx; Rui C. Barbosa, ‘Long March 3B lofts Gaofen-4 to Close Out 2015,’ nasaspaceflight.com, 28 December 2015, http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2015/12/long-march-3b-gaofen-4-close-2015/; ‘Zhongguo Haiyang weixing’ [China’s Ocean Satellites], Zhongguo hangtian [Aerospace China], No. 372 (April 2009), 10‒11; Wang Qiao, Wu Chuanqing, and Li Qing, ‘Environment Satellite 1 and its Application in Environmental Monitoring,’ Journal of Remote Sensing 1 (2010): 104; Rui C. Barbosa, ‘China launches Jilin-1 mission via Long March 2D,’ nasaspaceflight.com, 7 October 2015, http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2015/10/china-launches-jilin-1-mission-long-march-2d/.
33 ‘China to Launch Nearly 40 Beidou Navigation Satellites in Five Years,’ China Daily, 4 February 2016, http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2016-02/04/content_23389137.htm.
34 Jiang and Wang, Study of Space Operations, 150.
35 Chang Xianqi, Junshi hangtian xue [Military Astronautics] (Beijing: National Defense Industry Press, Citation2002), 257‒58.
36 See, for example, Wang Liping and Zhang Ya, ‘Cong taikong zuozhan yanxi kan tianzhande zuixin fazhen’ [‘Development of Space War Based on Space Operation Exercises’], Hangtian dianzi duikang [Aerospace Electronic Warfare], 27/3 (Citation2011), 4–6 and Chen Baoquan, Yang Guang, and Li Xuefeng, ‘Kongjian dianzi gongjide tixi zuozhan xiaoyong ji fazhan duice’ [Research on System Combat Effects and Develop Policy of Space Electronic Attack’] Hangtian dianzi duikang [Aerospace Electronic Warfare], 28/1 (Citation2012), 13.
37 See Jiang and Wang, Textbook for the Study of Space Operations, 127.
38 Chang, Military Astronautics, 260; and Zhang Zhiwei and Feng Chuangjiang, ‘Kongtianzhan changchang yu guohia kongtian anquan zhanlue’ [‘Analysis of Future Integrated Air and Space Operations’], Zhongguo junshi kexue [China Military Science], no. 2 (2006), 58.
39 Chang, Military Astronautics, 173.
40 Chang, Military Astronautics, 295‒96.
41 Qi Xianfeng, ‘Kongjian xinxi xitong fanghu tantao’ [‘Study on the Protection of Space Information System’], Zhuangbei zhihui jishu xueyuan xuebao [Journal of the Academy of Equipment Command and Technology], 18/5 (2007/5), 62.
42 Chang, Military Astronautics, 295‒96, 258.
43 Office of the Secretary of Defense, Military and Security Developments Involving the People’s Republic of China 2016, 37.
44 ‘Fengyun-1C Debris Cloud Remains Hazardous,’ Orbital Debris Quarterly News, January 2014, 3‒4.
45 This is a modified version of a table that appears in Kevin Pollpeter, Eric Anderson, and Fan Yang, China Dream, Space Dream: China’s Progress in Space Technologies and Implications for the United States, Institute on Global Conflict and Cooperation, 2015, 86.
46 Office of the Secretary of Defense, Military and Security Developments Involving the People’s Republic of China (2015), 14.
47 Office of the Secretary of Defense, Military and Security Developments Involving the People’s Republic of China 2016, 37.
48 Bill Gertz, ‘China Tests Anti-satellite Missile,’ Washington Free Beacon, 9 November 2015, http://freebeacon.com/national-security/china-tests-anti-satellite-missile/.
49 ‘Zhongguo zaici gaokong kexue tance shiyan: gaodu genggao shuju gengduo’ [‘China Again Conducts a High Altitude Science Mission: Higher Altitude and More Data’], Zhongguo xinwenwang [China News], 14 May 2013, http://www.chinanews.com/gn/2013/05-14/4817925.shtml.
50 Office of the Secretary of Defense, Military and Security Developments Involving the People’s Republic of China (2015), 14.
51 Office of the US Secretary of Defense, Annual Report to Congress: Military and Security Developments Involving the People’s Republic of China (2012), 9.
52 ‘Ban fei xiao weixing jiang ‘zhuigan’ fenlihou de shen qi guidao chuan’ [‘Small Companion Satellite Will Chase After the Shenzhou 7 Orbital Capsule After Separation’], Xinhuanet, 24 September 2008, http://news.xinhuanet.com/newscenter/2008-09/24/content_10104787.htm; ‘Shenzhou-7 Launches Small Monitoring Satellite,’ Xinhuanet, 27 September 2008, http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-09/27/content_10123015.htm; ‘Ban fei xiao weixing jiang gei shen qi ‘zhaoxiang’ [‘Small Companion Satellite Will Take Photographs of Shenzhou 7’], Xinhuanet, 24 September 2008, http://news.xinhuanet.com/newscenter/2008-09/24/content_10104656.htm.
53 Brian Weeden, ‘Dancing in the Dark: The Orbital Rendezvous of SJ-12 and SJ-06F,’ Space Review, 30 August 2010, http://www.thespacereview.com/article/1689/1.
54 See Kevin Pollpeter, ‘China’s Space Robotic Arm Programs,’ SITC News Analysis, October 2013, http://igcc.ucsd.edu/assets/001/505021.pdf.
55 Office of the US Secretary of Defense, Annual Report to Congress: Military and Security Developments Involving the People’s Republic of China (2012), 9.
56 Office of the U.S. Secretary of Defense, Annual Report to Congress: Military and Security Developments Involving the People’s Republic of China (2006), 35.
57 Elaine M. Grossman, ‘Top Commander: Chinese Interference with U.S. Satellites Uncertain,’ World Politics Review, 18 October 2006, http://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/articles/267/top-commander-chinese-interference-with-u-s-satellites-uncertain
58 Statement of Paul K. Martin, Inspector General, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, ‘NASA Cybersecurity: An Examination of the Agency’s Information Security,’ 29 February 2012, 5.
59 Mary Pat Flaherty, Jason Samenow, and Lisa Rein, ‘Chinese Hack U.S. Weather Systems, Satellite Network,’ Washington Post, 12 November 2014, http://www.washingtonpost.com/local/chinese-hack-us-weather-systems-satellite-network/2014/11/12/bef1206a-68e9-11e4-b053-65cea7903f2e_story.html.
60 Office of the U.S. Secretary of Defense, Annual Report to Congress: Military and Security Developments Involving the People’s Republic of China (2011), 37.
61 Congressional Budget Office, ‘The Global Positioning System for Military Users: Current Modernization Plans and Alternatives,’ October 2011, 4.
62 Defense Science Board, ‘Report of the Defense Science Board Task Force on Tactical Air Warfare,’ November 1993, 12.
63 ‘Decision of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on Some Major Issues Concerning Comprehensively Deepening the Reform,’ Xinhua, 16 January 2014, http://www.china.org.cn/china/third_plenary_session/2014-01/16/content_31212602_15.htm.
64 Wang Shibin and An Puzhong, ‘Xi Jinping xiang zhongguo renmin jiefangjun lujun huojianjun zhanlue zhiyuan budui shouyu junqi bing zhi cunci’ [‘Xi Jinping Confers Military Flags to Chinese People’s Liberation Army Ground Force, Rocket Force, and Strategic Rocket Force’] Zhongguo junwang [China Military Net], 1 January 2016, http://www.81.cn/sydbt/2016-01/01/content_6839896.htm.
65 Ren Xu, ‘Guofangbu xinwen fayanren jiu shenhua guofang he jundui gaige youguan wenti jieshou meiti zhuanfang’ [‘Ministry of National Defense Spokesperson Takes Media Inquiries on Deepening National Defense and Military Reform’], Zhongguo junwang [China Military Net], 1 January 2016, http://www.81.cn/jmywyl/2016-01/01/content_6839936.htm.
66 ‘Expert: PLA Strategic Support Force a Key Force To Win Wars,’ China Military Online, http://english.chinamil.com.cn/news-channels/pla-daily-commentary/2016-01/06/content_6846500.htm.
67 ‘Expert: PLA Strategic Support Force a Key Force to Win Wars,’ China Military Online, http://english.chinamil.com.cn/news-channels/pla-daily-commentary/2016-01/06/content_6846500.htm.
68 ‘Zhuanjia cheng zhanlue zhiyuan budui duli chengjun linian lingxian yu meijun’ [‘Expert Calls the Strategic Support Force an Independent Service An Idea Ahead of the U.S. Military’], http://mil.news.sina.com.cn/china/2016-01-08/doc-ifxnkkuy7732953.shtml.
69 See, for example, http://bbs.tiexue.net/post_10782499_1.html.
70 ‘Gaofen yihao de luohou yu tese’ [Gaofen-1 Deficiencies and Characteristics], http://news.qq.com/zt2013/GF1.
71 ‘Scientists: China Should Integrate Space Resources to Improve Emergency Response,’ People’s Daily Online, 4 March 2009, http://english.people.com.cn/90001/90781/90876/6605410.html.
72 Gregory Kulacki, ‘Strategic Options for Chinese Space Science and Technology: A Translation and Analysis of the 2013 Report from the Chinese Academy of Sciences,’ Union of Concerned Scientists, November 2013, 15.
73 Li Guangchang, Cheng Jian, and Zheng Lianqing, Kongtian yiti xinxi zuozhan [Integrated Aerospace Information Operations], (Beijing: Military Sciences Press 2004), 9, 18; Zhu Hui, ed., Zhanlue kongjun lun [Strategic Air Force] (Beijing: Blue Sky Press 2009), 43.
74 Chen Ling and Chen Peng, ‘Xinxi boyi: kongjun maibu dangxian’ [‘The Information Game: The Air Force Takes a Step Towards the Front Ranks’], Kongjun Bao [Air Force News], 19 April 2007, 2.
75 Zhu, Strategic Air Force, 48.
76 AMS, Science of Military Strategy, 224, 226, 227.
77 AMS, Science of Military Strategy, 230.
78 Bob Butterworth, ‘Limit Command of Military Satellites: Butterworth,’ Breaking Defense, 15 September 2014, accessed http://breakingdefense.com/2015/09/limit-military-command-of-spy-satellites-butterworth/. Butterworth’s comments were actually made about US space systems.
79 Colin Clark, ‘Would Spies Command in a Space War? Dunford Says Maybe,’ Breaking Defense, 22 July 2015, accessed http://breakingdefense.com/2015/07/would-spies-command-in-a-space-war-dunford-says-maybe/.
80 Patrick Tucker, ‘USAF Stands Up Space Mission Force to Counter Russia, China,’ Defense One, 1 February 2016, http://www.defenseone.com/technology/2016/02/usaf-stands-space-mission-force-counter-russia-china/125568/.
81 Colin Clark, ‘DepSecDef Work Invokes ‘Space Control;’ Analysts Fear Space War Escalation,’ Breaking Defense, 15 April 2015, accessed http://breakingdefense.com/2015/04/depsecdef-work-invokes-space-control-analysts-fear-space-war-escalation/.
82 Mike Gruss, ‘Carter: Pentagon Budget Will Do ‘Even More’ for Space Protection,’ Space News, 3 February 2016, http://spacenews.com/carter-pentagon-budget-will-do-even-more-for-space-protection/.
83 Colin Clark, ‘DepSecDef Work Invokes ‘Space Control.’
84 David C, Gompert, ‘Responding to China’s Antiaccess Strategy,’ Testimony before the U.S-China Economic and Security Review Commission, 24 January 2014, http://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/Gompert_Testimony1.30.14.pdf.
85 See Kevin Pollpeter, ‘China’s Space Doctrine’, in Andrew S. Erickson and Lyle J. Goldstein, Chinese Aerospace Power (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press 2011), 50–68.
