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Original Articles

France and the problems of security and international disarmament after the first world war

Pages 247-280 | Published online: 19 Aug 2006
 

Abstract

This article argues that disarmament negotiations in Geneva played an important but hitherto little understood role in the evolution of French security policy after the First World War. While the majority of French policy-making elites remained unconvinced that collective security and arms reductions could ever form the basis of France's national security policy, they were forced to adapt to the changes in the international and domestic political contexts of the post-war era. Policy makers found it increasingly difficult to ignore the growing prominence of discourses of disarmament and mutual assistance both inside France and in international society. In order to adapt to changes in international norms, foreign policy evolved away from traditional strategies based on the balance of power and military alliances towards multilateral security pacts and an intensified focus on international law. This new approach, which was an amalgamation of traditional alliance politics and liberal internationalist principles, would remain at the centre of French diplomacy through to the mid 1930s.

Acknowledgement

The author would like to thank Rob Hanks, Andrew Barros, Talbot Imlay, Martin Thomas, John Ferris, Martin Alexander and John Keiger for their comments on earlier drafts of this essay.

Notes

1Quoted from Zara Steiner, The Lights that Failed: European International History, 1919–1933 (Oxford: OUP Citation2005), 565.

2Maurice Vaïsse, Sécurité d'abord: La politique française en matière de désarmement, 9 décembre 1930–17 avril 1934 (Paris: Pedone Citation1981), 25.

3See, among others, Jacques Bariéty, Les Relations franco-allemandes après la première guerre mondiale (Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne Citation1977); Georges-Henri Soutou, ‘Die deutschen Reparationen und das Seydoux-Projekt, 1920–1921’, Vierteljahrehefte für Zeitgeschichte 23 (Citation1975), 237–70; id., ‘Le coke dans les relations internationales en Europe de 1914 au plan Dawes’, Relations Internationales 143 (Citation1985), 249–67; Charles S. Maier, Recasting Bourgeois Europe: Stabilization in France, Germany and Italy in the Decade After World War I (Princeton: PUP Citation1975); Stephen A. Schuker, The End of French Predominance in Europe: The Financial Crisis of 1924 and the Adoption of the Dawes Plan (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press Citation1977); Walter A. McDougall, France's Rhineland Diplomacy, 1914–1924: The Last Bid for a Balance Of Power in Europe (Princeton: PUP Citation1978); Denise Artaud, La question des dettes interalliées et la reconstruction de l'Europe (2 vols, Paris: Champion Citation1978); Marc Trachtenberg, Reparation in World Politics: France and European Economic Diplomacy, 1916–1923 (New York: Columbia UP Citation1980); Bruce Kent, The Spoils of War: The Politics, Economics and Diplomacy of Reparations, 1918–1932 (Oxford: OUP Citation1989); Stanislas Jeannesson, Poincaré, la France et la Ruhr (1922–1924): histoire d'une occupation (Strasbourg: Presses Universitaires de Strasbourg Citation1997); id., ‘French Policy in the Rhineland’, Diplomacy & Statecraft 16/3 (Sept. Citation2005), 475–86; J.F.V. Keiger, Raymond Poincaré (Cambridge: CUP Citation1997); and Nicole Jordan, ‘The Reorientation of French Diplomacy in the 1920s: The Role of Jacques Seydoux’, English Historical Review 117/473 (Citation2002), 867–88. For useful, if dated, overviews, see Jon Jacobsen, ‘Is There a New International History of the 1920s?’, American Historical Review 88/3 (June Citation1983), 617–45; and id., ‘Strategies of French Foreign Policy after World War I’, Journal of Modern History 55 (Citation1983), 78–95.

4There are two important exceptions to this general trend, both of relatively recent vintage: M.-R. Mouton, La Société des Nations et les intérêts de la France (1920–1924) (Berne: Peter Lang Citation1995); and J.L. Hogge, II, ‘Arbitrage, Sécurité, Désarmement: French Security and the League of Nations, 1920–1925’ (Ph.D. diss., New York University Citation1994). A study that focuses specifically on security policy but tends to ignore the role of disarmament is Clemens Wurm, Die französische Sicherheitspolitik in der Phase der Umorientierung, 1924–1926 (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang Citation1979).

5See, in particular, S. Blair, ‘La France et le Pacte de la Société des Nations: le rôle du Gouvernement Français dans l'Élaboration du Pacte de la Société des Nations, 1914–1919’ (Thèse de Doctorat, University of Paris-I, Citation1991).

6David Stevenson, French War Aims Against Germany, 1914–1919 (Oxford: OUP Citation1982), 133–215; Georges-Henri Soutou, ‘The French Peacemakers and Their Home Front’, in Manfred Boemeke, Gerald D. Feldman and Elisabeth Glaser (eds), The Treaty of Versailles: A Reassessment After 75 Years (Cambridge: CUP Citation1998), 167–188; and Stephen A. Schuker, ‘The Rhineland Question: West European Security at the Paris Peace Conference’, in ibid., 275–312. See also Jean-Baptiste Duroselle, Clemenceau (Paris: Fayard Citation1988), 720–72; McDougall, France's Rhineland Diplomacy, 33–96; and Alan Sharp, The Versailles Settlement: Peacemaking in Paris, 1919 (London: Macmillan Citation1991).

7For an excellent case study illustrating this point, see Alan Sharp, ‘The Enforcement of the Treaty of Versailles, 1919–1923’, Diplomacy & Statecraft 16/3 (Sept. Citation2005), 423–38.

8Antony Lentin, Lloyd George and the Lost Peace (London: Palgrave Citation2001); Gill H. Bennett, British Foreign Policy during the Curzon Period (London: Macmillan Citation1995); Steiner, Lights that Failed, 182–255; and Sharp, ‘Enforcement of the Treaty of Versailles’.

9Carolyn Kitching, Britain and the Problem of International Disarmament, 1919–1934 (London: Routledge Citation1999), 42–86; and John R. Ferris, Men, Money and Diplomacy: The Evolution of British Strategic Policy, 1919–1926 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP Citation1989), 90–155.

10See Mouton, Société des Nations, 159–80; and Hogge, ‘Arbitrage, Sécurité Désarmement’, 13–36.

11See especially Nicolas Roussellier, Le Parlement de l'éloquence: la souveraineté de la délibération au lendemain de la Grande Guerre (Paris: Presses de la Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques Citation1997).

12Stevenson, ‘Britain, France and the Origins of German Disarmament’, in this collection.

13See, among dozens of such reports, those in SHAT [France, Ministère de la Défense, Service Historique de l'Armée de Terre], carton 7N 3529-2, ‘Note sur la nécessité d'une occupation interalliée de la rive gauche du rhin’, 6 Feb. 1919; ‘Note au sujet du désarmement de l'Allemagne’, no date but Feb. 1919; ‘Historique du project de désarmement de l'Allemagne’, 30 Sept. 1919; ‘Sur le caractère de l'article 213 du Traité de Versailles’, 28 Feb. 1924.

14Quoted in Jere C. King, Foch versus Clemeneceau. France and German Dismemberment, 1918–1919 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP Citation1960), 22.

15MAE [France, Ministère des Affaires Étrangères], SDN [série Société des Nations], Vol.13, ‘Note au sujet de la constitution, du rôle et du fonctionnement de la Commission Permanente (militaire, navale et aérienne) prévue par l'article IX du pacte de la SDN’, 22 July 1919.

16Cited from a later draft in MAE, PA-AP [Papiers d'Agents et Archives Privées] 118, Papiers Millerand, Vol.4, ‘Note sur la constitution de la Commission permanente militaire, navale et aérienne prévue par l'article IX du Pacte de la SDN’, 29 Oct. 1921. See also SHAT, 7N 3529-3, ‘Note sur la constitution de la Commission Permanente militaire, navale et aérienne prévue par l'article IX du pacte de ls SDN’, March 1920. Marked ‘Texte revisé to take into account the observations of M. Foch and M. Pétain’.

17Hogge, ‘Arbitrage, Sécurité, Désarmement’, 100, 125–6.

18Salvador De Madariaga, Disarmament (Oxford: OUP Citation1929), 78–9.

19Andrew Webster, ‘Making Disarmament Work: The Implementation of the International Disarmament Provisions in the League of Nations Covenant’, Diplomacy & Statecraft 16/3 (Sept. Citation2005), 551–69.

20Quoted in ibid., 553. See also Kitching, Britain and the Problem of International Disarmament, Ch.1.

21Mouton, Société des Nations, 192–3.

22SHAT, 7N 3529-2, ‘Rapport du Vice-Amiral Lacaze’, prepared for the French premier and Foreign Minister Leygues.

23SHAT, 7N 3529-3, Leygues to the Ministry of War (EMA), 29 Oct. 1920.

24SHAT, 2N 5-3, ‘Résumé de la situation allemande’, and ‘Situation de l'armée Bolchévique’, 13 Dec. 1920; see also Andrew Barros, ‘Disarmament as a Weapon’ in this collection.

25SHAT, 7N 3530-2, ‘Proposition faite à la Sous-Commission des Armements de la Société des Nations’, 11 Dec. 1920. See also Lefèvre's earlier response ‘Article 8 du Pacte de la Société des Nations’, 10 Nov. 1920, which makes the same arguments with less force.

26MAE, SDN, Vol.72, Berthelot to the SFSDN, 11 Dec. 1920.

27SHAT, 7N 3530-1, ‘Note sur le réduction des armements’, 9 Nov. 1920. The reports forwarded to Paris by French representatives on the PAC, and in particular by Requin, in SHAT, cartons 7N 3529 and 7N 3530. See also Webster, ‘Making Disarmament Work’, 553–8; and Barros, ‘Disarmament as a Weapon’.

28See, among many other examples, SHAT, 7N 3529-3, ‘Rapport de M. le Maréchal Fayolle à M. le Président du Conseil’, 4 Nov. 1921; and the summary by Requin in the same dossier, ‘Réorganisation ou suppression de la Commission temporaire des armements’, 23 June 1924. This carton is replete with French complaints about the TMC. See also Webster, ‘Making Disarmament Work’, 554–5, 557–60; Hogge, ‘Arbitrage, Sécurité, Désarmement’, 101–6; and Mouton, Société des Nations, 198–206.

29Discussed in Hogge, ‘Arbitrage, Sécurité, Désarmement’, 128–33 and Robert J. Young's excellent, Marketing Marianne: French Propaganda in America, 1900–1945 (London: Rutgers UP Citation2004), 71–92.

30SHAT, 2N5-2, CSDN procès-verbal, 27 Oct. 1920. See also Jean Doise and Maurice Vaïsse, Politique étrangère de la France: Diplomatie et outil militaire, 1871–1991 (Paris: Seuil Citation1992), 336–7.

31SHAT, 7N 3529-1, Marshal Pétain to André Maginot (War Minister), 28 Dec. 1922.

32MAE, SDN, Vol.826, ‘Note au sujet de l'échange des renseignements prévu par l'Article 8 du Pacte’, 6 July 1921; SHAT, 7N 3530-2, ‘Note sur la question de l'échange des renseignements prévus par l'Article 8 du Pacte’, 9 Nov. 1920.

33MAE, SDN, Vol.706, ‘Le problème de la réduction des armements devant la Société des Nations’, SFSDN note, 1 Jan. 1921; SHAT, 7N 3530-2, ‘La Société des Nations et la limitation des dépenses militaires’, 3 Apr. 1921; 7N 3530-3, ‘Résolution approuvée par la sous-commission le 19 juillet 1921’; 7N 3529-3, ‘Rapport de M. Le Maréchal Fayolle à M. le Président du Conseil’, 4 Nov. 1921.

34SHAT, 7N 3530-2, ‘La Société des Nations et la limitation des dépenses militaires’, 3 Apr. 1921; 7N 3530-2, ‘La SDN et la limitation des dépenses militaires’, 18 April 1921; and MAE, Série Y (Internationale), Vol.435, Briand's instructions to the French delegation in Geneva, 9 Sept. 1921.

35Cited in Mouton, Société des Nations, 199.

36For the genesis of this project, see the run of documents in MAE, série Z, Grande-Bretagne, Vol.69. For the British reaction see [Kew, The National Archives], FO [Foreign Office records] 371, Vol.7000, W12716/12716/17, ‘Proposed Anglo-French defensive alliance’, 5 Dec. 1921; W13420/12716/17, ‘Notes respecting the possible conclusion of an Anglo-French alliance’, 26 Dec. 1921 (Eyre-Crowe Memorandum) and W13355/12716/17, ‘Memorandum on the question of an Anglo-French Alliance’, 28 Dec. 1921 (Curzon). All printed and circulated to the cabinet.

37MAE, série Z, Grande Bretagne, Vol.69, ‘Notes prises au cours d'une conversation entre M. Lloyd George et M. Briand le mercredi 21 décembre 1921’; ‘Observations sur la rédaction du projet’, 28 Dec. 1921 (Berthelot's views); ‘Note de M. Fromageot’, 27 Dec. 1921; ‘Alliance’, 26 Dec. 1921 (Jacques Seydoux's); and ‘Projet d'alliance franco-anglaise’, 28 Dec. 1921.

38Keiger, Poincaré, 275–85.

39On the Washington Conference and its aftermath, see Joel Blatt, ‘The Parity that Meant Superiority: French Naval Policy Towards Italy at the Washington Conference, 1921–22, and Interwar French Foreign Policy’, French Historical Studies 12/2 (Fall Citation1981), 223–48; id., ‘France and the Washington Conference’, Diplomacy & Statecraft 4/3 (Nov. Citation1993), 192–219.

40On this question, see the minutes of the combined marine and foreign affairs commissions of the French chamber of 17 March 1922 in [France, Archives Nationales], Commission des Affaires Étrangères, carton C14634.

41MAE, SDN, Vol.707, Requin note of 20 March 1922. The French were aware that the War Office was also opposed to Esher's scheme.

42MAE, SDN, Vol.707, Poincaré note to Geneva, 1 Apr. 1922.

44MAE, PA-AP 118, Papiers Millerand, Vol.3, Gout to Millerand, 25 Feb. 1922.

43MAE, SDN, Vol.707, ‘Note pour M. Lebrun’, 3 Apr. 1922; SHAT, 7N 3529-3, ‘Rapport de la Commission Permanente Consultative … à la suite de la session de Genève (12–17 mai 1922)’, 19 Apr. 1922.

45Hogge, ‘Arbitration, Sécurité, Désarmement’, 182–3.

46Lord Robert Cecil [Viscount Cecil of Chelwode], A Great Experiment: An Autobiography by Viscount Cecil (London: Jonathan Cape Citation1941), 138–40; and Mouton, Société des Nations, 287–9.

47SHAT, 7N 3529-3, ‘Rapport du Lt-Col. Requin sur les travaux de la Commission temporaire des armements (session de Paris, 3 et 7 juillet 1922)’, 7 July 1922.

48MAE, SDN, Vol.709, ‘Note du Lt. Col. Requin: Conclusions auxquelles conduit l'examen du projet de Lord Robert Cecil’, 24 Apr. 1922; also in 7N 3529-3 as ‘Note sur les projets de Lord Esher et de Lord Robert Cecil’, 23 Aug. 1922 and marked ‘approuvée par le Président du Conseil’. See also ‘Rapport du Lt. Colonel Requin’, to Poincaré, 10 Oct. 1922 in the same dossier.

49MAE, série Z, Vol.71, Poincaré to Saint-Aulaire, 11 Aug. 1922.

50MAE, PA-AP 118, Papiers Millerand, Vol.4, Requin note, 6 Sept. 1922.

51For de Jouvenel's views, see MAE, PA-AP 118, Papiers Millerand, Vol.4, de Jouvenel to Poincaré, 14 Sept. 1922; for those of Gout, see his note to Millerand of 6 September 1922, ibid. See also C. Manigand, Henry de Jouvenel (Limoges: PULIM Citation2000); and id., Les Français au service de la Société des Nations (Berne: Peter Lang Citation2003).

52Quotes from Alfred Zimmern, The League of Nations and the Rule of Law, 1918–1935 (London: MacMillan Citation1936), 340; and SHAT, 7N 3531-1, ‘Étude des conditions dans lesquelles des traités de garantie mutuelle pourraient permettre une réduction des armements’, 19 Mar. 1923.

53Hogge, ‘Arbitrage, Sécurité, Désarmement’, 211–4; and Roussellier, Parlement de l'éloquence, 179–246.

54SHAT, 7N 3529-3, ‘Note au sujet de la Résolution XIV de l'Assemblée (Projet de traité de garantie mutuelle)’, 8 Nov. 1922.

55MAE, PA-AP 118, Papiers Millerand, Vol.5, ‘Note sur le projet d'assistance mutuelle’, 21 Aug. 1923.

56SHAT, 7N 3531-1, ‘Étude des conditions dans lesquelles des traités de garantie mutuelle pourraient permettre une réduction des armements’, 19 Mar. 1923. For further evidence of this mindset, see SHAT, 2N 5-9, ‘Rapport fait au Conseil Supérieur de la Défense Nationale au nom de la Commission d'Études’, 30 May 1923. This also served as preliminary instructions to the French delegation in Geneva; see MAE, SDN, Vol.716, ‘Note de la Délégation Française: examen technique e la question des traités de garantie mutuelle’, 26 Mar. 1923.

57See the discussion in SHAT, 2N 5-9, ‘Procès-verbal de la séance du CSDN du 11 juin tenue au Palais de l'Elysée sous la présidence de M. Alexandre Millerand’. See also MAE, Série Y (Internationale), Vol.506, ‘Avis émis par le CSDN au sujet de la Résolution XIV’, 11 June 1923. On the state of Franco-British relations, see Jeannesson, Poincaré, la France et la Ruhr, 254–7, 291–2; and Elspeth Y. O'Riordan, Britain and the Occupation of the Ruhr (London: Palgrave Citation2001), 81–100.

58Official statement of the French position forwarded to League Secretary General Eric Drummond. SHAT, 7N 3531-1, 15 June 1923.

59MAE, SDN, Vol.716, Requin note (forwarded to Poincaré), 5 May 1923; SHAT, 7N 3531-1, ‘Rapport du Lt. Colonel Requin’, 23 May 1923; and ibid., ‘Note pour M. le Président du Conseil’, 24 May 1923.

60SHAT, 7N 3531-1, ‘Rapport du Lt. Colonel Requin’, 12 juin 1923; ibid., ‘Analyse du Rapport sur les travaux du Comité spécial de la Commission temporaire des armements de la SDN (session de juillet 1923)’; SHAT, 7N 3531-1, ‘Note au sujet de l'examen par M. le Général Serrigny du projet de Traité d'Assistance Mutuelle’, 30 Aug. 1923; forwarded to Poincaré on 24 Aug. 1922; and ibid., ‘Traité d'assistance mutuelle: projet d'instructions’, 1 Sept. 1923.

61See, for example, SHAT, 7N 3531-1, ‘Note au sujet du projet du traité d'assistance mutuelle’, 15 Aug. 1923 (SGDN note); SHAT, 7N 3531-1, ‘Note: Considérations générales sur le projet d'assistance mutuelle’, (general staff note) Aug. 1923; and ibid., ‘Pacte de garantie et réduction des armements’, 1 Sept. 1923 (general staff note).

62SHAT, 7N 3531-1, ‘Pacte de garantie et réduction des armements’, Maginot to Poincaré, 7 Sept. 1923 (emphasis in original).

63SHAT, 7N 3531-1, Poincaré to the French Delegation in Geneva, 12 Sept. 1923.

64Cf. Jeannesson, Poincaré, la France et la Ruhr, 283, 239–59, 288–311; see also McDougall, France's Rhineland Diplomacy, 305–23; Conan Fischer, The Ruhr Crisis, 1923–1924 (Oxford: OUP Citation2004), 182–257; and Steiner, Lights that Failed, 223–37.

65Roussellier, Parlement de l'éloquence, 213–38.

66SHAT, 7N 3531-1, ‘Note: Considérations générales sur le projet d'assistance mutuelle’ (general staff note), Aug. 1923; ‘Pacte de garantie et réduction des armements’, 1 Sept. 1923; and MAE, PA-AP 29, Papiers Bourgeois, Vol.22, (Peretti) ‘Note sur l'entrée de l'Allemagne dans la SDN’, 26 July 1922.

67Schuker, End of French Predominance in Europe, 81–115; and Jeannesson, Poincaré, la France et la Ruhr, 279–391.

68Fischer, Ruhr Crisis, 250–89; McDougall, France's Rhineland Diplomacy, 331–5; and Jeannesson, Poincaré, la France et la Ruhr, 345–71.

69Serge Berstein, Edouard Herriot ou la République en personne (Paris: Presses de la Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques Citation1985), 91–105; and Jeannesson, Poincaré, La France et la Ruhr, 381–7.

70SHAT, 7N 3531-2, ‘Étude des garanties de sécurité’, 21 Feb. 1924.

71Ibid.

72SHAT, 7N 3531-2, ‘Observations au sujet de la note des Affaires Étrangères sur les Garanties de Sécurité’, 4 Apr. 1924; ‘Resume de la note des Affaires Étrangères du 14-4-24’, Apr. 1924; and a note from Debeney to Poincaré, 12 May 1924.

73MAE, PA-AP 118, Papiers Millerand, Vol.41, ‘Garanties de sécurité’, 20 May 1924 note by Laroche recounting the views of Pétain and Foch; and SHAT, 7N 3531-2, ‘Note du Maréchal Foch’, 15 Apr. 1924.

74In addition to the material cited above, see SHAT, 7N 3531-2, ‘Étude des garanties de sécurité’, May 1924; and ‘Analyse d'une étude sur le droit d'investigation’, no date but certainly spring 1924.

75See the material in MAE, PA-AP 118, Papiers Millerand, Vol.41.

76SHAT, 7N 3531-2, Saint-Aulaire to Poincaré, 27 Mar. 1924; and ‘Conversation avec Londres sur la question de sécurité’, Poincaré to Maginot (War Minister), 28 Mar. 1924; ‘Au sujet de la sécurité’, Saint-Aulaire to Poincaré, 7 Apr. 1924. On British policy, see Ferris, Men, Money and Diplomacy, especially 144–5, 182–3, and especially Keith Neilson, Britain, Soviet Russia and the Collapse of the Versailles Order, 1919–1939 (Cambridge: CUP 2005), 11–41.

77Quoted in Kitching, Britain and the Problem of International Disarmament, 75, and see more generally 67–86.

78The best discussion of this remains Schuker, End of French Predominance in Europe, especially 229–37.

79Recent literature on this question includes Antoine Prost, Republican Identities in War and Peace (Oxford: Berg Citation2002), especially 11–43, 93–105; Mona Siegel, The Moral Disarmament of France: Education, Pacifism and Patriotism, 1914–1940, (Cambridge: CUP Citation2004), 51–122; Jean-Pierre Biondi, La Mêlée des pacifistes, (Paris: Maisonneuve & Larose Citation2000); and Maurice Vaïsse (ed.), Le pacifisme en Europe: des années 1920 aux années 1950 (Brussels: Bruylant Citation1993). On Franco-German cultural reconciliation, see the essays in H.M. Bock (ed.), Entre Locarno et Vichy: Les relations culturelles franco-allemands (2 vols, Paris: Editions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique Citation1993).

80See the fascinating analysis of this trend in Roussellier, Parlement de l'éloquence, 204–75.

81Serge Berstein, Histoire du Parti Radical, Vol.1 (Paris: Presses de la Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques Citation1980), 284–6; and Jean-Noel Jeanneney, La faillite du Cartel: leçon d'histoire pour une gauche au pouvoir (Paris: Seuil, 2nd edn Citation1982), 1–29, 43–58.

82SHAT, 7N 3531-2, ‘Analyse succincte de la note sur le garanties de sécurité’, 1 May 1924.

83SHAT, 7N 3531-2, ‘Des garanties de sécurité’, 4 Aug. 1924 (final internal version of the Laroche note) ; and ‘Remise à M. Mac Donald d'une note sur la sécurité’, 11 Aug. 1924.

84French minutes of the Chequers meetings in MAE, Série Y (Internationale), Vol.691. See also the accounts of Schuker, End of French Predominance in Europe, 237–45; Bariéty, Relations franco-allemandes, 390–415; and Georges Suarez, Herriot, 1924–1932 (Paris: Editions de France Citation1932) [a revised edition of Une nuit chez Cromwell (Paris: Editions de France 1930)]. See also the elegant polemic by Jeanneney, La faillite du Cartel, 43–57.

85MAE, PA-AP 89, Papiers Herriot, Vol.22, ‘Notes prises au cours d'une conversation entre M. Herriot et M. MacDonald’, 8 July 1924.

86SHAT, 7N 3531-1, ‘Étude sur le projet d'assistance mutuelle de la Société des Nations’, 12 June 1924.

87SHAT, 7N 3532-1, ‘Origine du protocole d'arbitrage, de sécurité et de réduction des armements’, misdated 9 Sept. 1924, this document was drafted by the SFSDN after the protocol was agreed.

88The ‘Shotwell-Bliss Plan’ was sponsored by James Shotwell and Tasker Bliss. See especially C. Bouchard, ‘Le “Plan Américain ” Shotwell-Bliss de 1924: une initiative méconnue pour le renforcement de la paix’, Guerres Mondiales et Conflits Contemporains 202–203 (Citation2002), 203–25. On compulsory arbitration in the French liberal tradition, see Léon Bourgeois, La Société des Nations (Paris: Georges Crès et Cie Citation1910), 87–156.

89On the role of the École libre, see John Keiger, ‘Patriotism, Politics and Policy in the Foreign Ministry, 1880–1914’, in Robert Tombs (ed.), Nationhood and Nationalism in France, 1889–1918 (London: HarperCollins Citation1991), 255–67. On the role of international law, see especially Jean Baillou et al., Les Affaires étrangères et le corps diplomatique français, tome II, 1870–1980 (Paris: Editions du CNRS Citation1984), 413–9.

90MAE, SDN, Vol.710, undated but certainly late Aug. 1924; SHAT, 7N 3532-1, ‘Origine du protocole d'arbitrage, de sécurité et de réduction des armements’; and Bouchard, ‘Le “Plan Américain” Shotwell-Bliss de 1924’, 221–22.

91There are no detailed historical studies of French policy and the Geneva Protocol. There is, however, the very useful analysis by Hogge, ‘Arbitrage, Sécurité, Désarmement’, 358–74.

92The text of the agreement is reproduced in Philip J. Noel-Baker, The Geneva Protocol (London: P.S. King and Sons Citation1925), 215–24; see also SHAT, 7N 3532-1, ‘Origine du protocole d'arbitrage, de sécurité et de réduction des armements’.

93Hogge, ‘Arbitrage, Sécurité, Désarmement’, especially 360–7.

94SHAT, 7N 3532-3, ‘Questions à examiner à la demande des délégués français’, 16 Sept. 1924; ‘Observations sur les textes examinés le 23 septembre 1924 dans les bureaux de Monsieur Laroche’ and ‘Note du Général Debeney’, no date; see also ‘Cadre General des études à entreprendre en vue de la réunion du Comité du Conseil de la Société des Nations le 17 novembre 1924’, 18 Oct. 1924.

95SHAT, 7N 3532-1, ‘Mémorandum au sujet du programme de la Conférence projetée sur la réduction des armements’, 20 Oct. 1924; also marked ‘Note du Colonel Requin’ (emphasis in original).

96See also the minutes of two key inter-ministerial committee (the Commission d'études) on 22 Oct. and 7 Nov. 1924 in SHAT, 7N 3532-4.

97Herriot's opponents went so far as to leak the minutes of the Chequers meeting in an attempt to undermine his policy. See Schuker, End of French Predominance in Europe, 257–9.

98This analysis is based, in particular, on a close reading of the correspondence in MAE, SDN, Vols 710–712.

99Comte de Saint-Aulaire, Confessions d'un vieux diplomate (Paris: Flammarion Citation1953), 704–62; Jules Laroche, Au Quai d'Orsay avec Briand et Poincaré (Paris: Hachette Citation1957), 196–8. On Seydoux, see his memoirs of the period, De Versailles au Plan Young (Paris: Plon Citation1932); as well as Jordan, ‘Reorientation of French Diplomacy’; and Jeannesson, ‘L'Europe de Jacques Seydoux’, Revue Historique 299/1 (1998), 123–43.

100SHAT, 7N 3532-4, ‘Délibération de la 1ère section de la Commission d'études du CSDN dans sa séance du 7 novembre 1924’.

101SHAT, 2N 6-3, ‘CSDN: Procès-verbal de la séance du 15 novembre 1924’. Quote from Hogge, ‘Arbitrage, Sécurité, Désarmement’, 395.

102SHAT, 7N 3532-1, ‘Avis émis par la réunion du CSDN dans sa séance du 15 novembre 1924’.

103[Kew, The National Archives], CAB[inet papers] 2/4, Minutes of the 192nd meeting of the CID, 16 Dec. 1924.

104CAB 21/289, ‘Draft Report on the Protocol’, 20 Feb. 1925.

105CAB 21/289, CID Paper No. 558-B, ‘Reduction of Armaments, Protocol on the Pacific settlement of International Disputes’, January 1925 (memorandum by Cabinet Secretary Maurice Hankey). I am grateful to Lora Gibson of the University of Wales, Aberystwyth, for the reference to this document.

106Jean-Baptiste Duroselle, ‘The Spirit of Locarno: Illusions of Pactomania’, Foreign Affairs 50 (Citation1972), 752–64.

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