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Abstract
The roots of the information technology Revolution in Military Affairs (RMA) can be traced to the mid-1970s, when the West capitalized on scientific-technological developments to neutralize the threat posed by Soviet second echelons. However, the cultivation of the technological seeds of the American RMA preceded the maturation of the conceptual ones. Although it was the US that was laying the technological groundwork for the RMA, Soviet, rather than the American military theorists, were the first to argue that the new range of technological innovations constituted a fundamental discontinuity in the nature of war, which they dubbed the ‘Military-Technical Revolution’ (MTR). About a decade later, this fundamental Soviet approach to the transformations in military affairs was analyzed, adapted and adopted by the US, and designated the RMA. This article deals with the intellectual history of the Soviet MTR and the American RMA.
Notes
1Eliot A. Cohen, ‘Change and Transformation in Military Affairs’, Journal of Strategic Studies 27/3 (2004); for an overview of the RMA, see Project of Defense Alternatives, <www.comw.org/rma/>.
2See Stephen Biddle, Military Power: Explaining Victory and Defeat in Modern Battle (Princeton UP 2004) and the special issue of the Journal of Strategic Studies 28/3 (June 2005).
3See Oleg Grinevskii, Perelom: ot Brezhneva k Gorbachevu (Moscow: Olma Press 2004); Anton Pervushyn, Zvezdnie voiny: Amerikanskaia respublika protiv Sovetskoi imperii (Moscow: Exmo 2005).
4William E. Odom, The Collapse of the Soviet Military (New Haven, CT: Yale UP 1998), 72–5; Idem. ‘Soviet Force Posture: Dilemmas and Directions,' Problems of Communism (June–August, 1985), 1–14; V.D. Sokolovskii, Voennaia strategiia (Moscow: Voenizdat, 1962).
5Odom, The Collapse of the Soviet Military, 75; Richard Van Atta, Transformation and Transition: DARPA's Role in Fostering an Emerging Revolution in Military Affairs (Alexandria, VA: IDA 2003), Vol. 2, Chs. 3–4.
6Odom, The Collapse of the Soviet Military, 75; Formulated in 1976 as the US Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) publication FM 100–5 Operations, it was revised and rewritten by TRADOC during the early 1980s to make it more relevant and effective vis-à-vis the threat of Soviet echelons strategy. See Donn A. Starry, ‘Extending the Battlefield’, Military Review 61/3 (1981), 31–50; and ‘To Change the Army’, Military Review 63/3 (1983).
7Richard Lock-Pullan, US Intervention Policy and Army Innovation (New York: Routledge 2006), Ch. 4.
8Ibid.; Kimberly Marten Zisk, Engaging the Enemy: Organization Theory and Soviet Military Innovation, 1955–1991 (Princeton UP 1993), 121–32.
9Richard Lock-Pullan, ‘How to Rethink War: Conceptual Innovation and Air Land Battle Doctrine’, Journal of Strategic Studies 28/4 (Aug. 2005), 687–8.
10Odom, Collapse of the Soviet Military, 76; Zisk, Engaging the Enemy, 134.
11V. Kozhin and V. Trusin, ‘Voprosy primeneniia vooruzhennykh sil v operatsiiakh’, Zarubezhnoe voennoe obozrenie (hereafter ZVO) 10 (1983) pp. 18–19.
12The Soviets did not figure new Western doctrinal postulates and weaponry associated with the Active Defense into its wargaming at least until 1977; See Materialy razbora operativno-stratgecheskogo komandno shtabnogo uchenia ‘Zapad-77’ (Moscow: Ministerstvo Oborony SSSR 1977), 10–11.
13V.A. Zolotarev, Istoriia voennoi strategii Rossii (Moscow: Institut Voennoi Istorii MO RF 2000), 380.
14V.K. Konoplev, Nauchnoe predvidenie v voennom dele (Moscow: Voenizdat 1974), 6, 13, 32–3, 65–70, 127; S.I. Krupnov, Dialektika i voennaia nauka (Moscow: Voenizdat 1963), 100–26; I.A. Grudinin, Dialektika i sovremennoe voennoe delo (Moscow: Voenizdat 1971); V.M. Bondarenko, ‘Nauka kak factor ukrepleniia oboronsoposobnosti strany’, in A.S. Milovidov, Voenno-teoreticheskoe nasledie V.I. Lenina i problemy sovremennoi voiny (Moscow: Voenizdat 1987).
15V.M. Bondarenko, Sovremennaia nauka i razvitie voennogo dela (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Ministerstva Oborony 1976); I. Anureev, ‘Nauchno tekhnicheskii progress i voennaia nauka’, Voennaia mysl’ (hereafter VM), 2 (1970), 27–39; M. Cherednichenko, ‘Nauchno tekhnicheskii progress i razvitie vooruzhenia i voennoi tekhniki’, VM 4 (1972), 29–41. G.P. Otuytsskiy, ‘K Voprosu o sushchnosti voenno-tekhnicheskikh revoliutsii’, VM 2, 1998, 52–49.
16A.O. Baranov, Suschnost’ i soderzhanie sovremennoi voenno tekhnicheskoi revoliutsii (Moscow: Ministerstvo Oborony 1977); N.A. Lomov, Nauchno tekhnicheskii progress i revoliutsiia v voennom dele (Moscow: Ministerstvo Oborony, 1973); Bondarenko, Sovremennaia nauka i razvitie voennogo dela.
17P.M. Derevianko, Revoliutsiia v voennom dele. Vchem ee sushchnost'? (Moscow: Ministerstvo Oborony SSSR 1967); F.F. Gaivoronovksii, Evoliutsiia voennogo iskusstva: etapy, tendentsii, printsipy (Moscow: Voenizdat 1987).
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19A.O. Baranov, ‘Sovremennaia voenno-tekhnicheskaia revoliutsiia, ee soderzhanie i osobennsoti’ (PhD Dissertation, Moscow: Voenno Politicheskaia Akademiia 1974); and Suschnost’ i soderzhanie sovremennoi voenno tekhnicheskoi revoliutsii, esp. 16–18, 28–32; Iu.V. Man'ko, Dialektika razvitiia sposobov i form vooruzhennoi bor'by (Leningrad: Voennaia Akademia Sviazi 1975); Dmitri Trendafilov, ‘Ideologicheskie aspekty sovremennoi voenno-tekhnicheskoi revoliutsii’ (PhD Candidate dissertation, Moscow: Voenno Politicheskaia Akademiia 1977); D.D. Gorbatenko, Faktor vremeni v sovremennom boiu (Moscow: Ministerstvo Oborony 1972).
20Bondarenko, Sovremennaia nauka i razvitie voennogo dela, 94–5, 109; N.V. Mikhalkin, Logiko-gnoseologicheskii analiz voenno-tekhnicheskogo poznaniia (PhD Candidate dissertation, Moscow: Voenno-Politicheskaia Akademia 1983).
21Microelectronics, laser, kinetic energy, radio frequencies, electro-optic, electro-magnetic pulse, remote control and particle beam technologies.
22N. Ogarkov, ‘Sovetskaia voennaia nauka,’KZ, 18 Feb. 1978; Vsegda v gotovnosti, 31–43, 59–67; Istoriia Uchit Bditel'nosti (Moscow: Voenizdat 1985); ‘Na strazhe mirnogo truda’, Kommunist 10 (1981), 80–91; ‘Nadezhnaia zashchita mira’, KZ, 23 Sept. 1983; ‘Pobeda i segodniashnii den’, KZ, 9 May 1983; ‘Zashchita sotsializma: istoricheskii opyt i tekushchii moment’, KZ, 9 May 1984; G.P. Otiutzkii, Voenno tekhnicheskaia politika gosudarstva kak factor razvitiia sistemy ‘chelovek-voennaia tekhnika’, (Moscow: Voenno Politicheskaia Akademiia 1982).
23Makhmut Gareev, Frunze-Voennyi teoretik (Moscow: Voenizdat 1985), 425, 438–9; V.G. Reznichenko, Taktika (Moscow: Voenizdat 1984) 23–4. ‘Vysokotochnoe oruzhie’ in S.F. Akhromeev (ed.), VES (Moscow: Voenizdat 1986), 172.
24Zolotarev, Istoriia voennoi strategii Rossii, 442; N.V. Ogarkov, ‘Voennaia strategiia’, Sovetskaia Voennaia Entsiklopediia, Vol.7 (Moscow: Voenizdat 1979), 564–5; Oleg Grinevskii, Stsenarii dlia tret'ei mirovoi voiny (Moscow: Olma Press 2002), 353–7.
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26Zolotarev, Istoriia voennoi strategii Rossii, 379–80; 407–19 and 456; Odom, The Collapse, 65–9 and 433; Gareev, Esli zavtra voina, 80–1.
27V.V. Turchenko, ‘Tendentsii razvitiia teorii i praktiki strategicheskoi oborony’, VM 8 (1979), 13–24; and ‘O strategicheskoi oborone’, VM 7 (1982), 16–27; Ogarkov, 9 May 1983; Zolotarev, Istoriia voennoi strategii Rossii, 409–10 and 457.
28A.Z. Ekimovskii, ‘Puti sozdaniia ustoichivoi i aktivnoi oborony’, VM 7 (1983), 19–28; I.N. Manzhurin, ‘Otrazhenie kontrudarov protivnika v khode nastupatel'noi operatsii’, VM 10 (1986) pp. 14–22; V.A. Nazarenko, ‘Narushenie upravleniia voiskami – vazhnaia boevaia zadacha’, VM 7 (1983), 46–51.
29I. Vorob'ev, ‘Sootnoshenie i vzaimosviaz’ nastupleniia i oborony’, VM 4 (1980), 49–59. I.G. Zavialov, ‘Oboronitel'naia napravlennost’ Sovetskoi voennoi doktriny’, VM 1 (1981), 15–26; A.A. Danilevich, ‘Voenno teoriticheskoe nasledie M.V. Frunze i sovremennost’, VIZh 6 (1985), 80–7; M.A. Gareev, ‘Ob opyte boevoi podgotovki voisk’, VIZh 4 (1983), 11–20; Gareev, Frunze, 214, 241–3, 437–8.
30Zolotarev, Istoriia voennoi strategii Rossii, 425, 474–6. A.G. Khar'kov, ‘K voprosu o nachal'nom periode voiny’, VM 8 (1984), 25–34; M.M. Kozlov, ‘Organizatsiia i vedenie strategicheskoi oboroni po opytu Velikoi Otechestvennoi Voiny’, VIZh 12 (1980), 9–17; Akademiia General'nogo Shtaba, (Moscow: Voenizdat 1987) pp. 184–7; Valentin Varennikov, Nepovtorimoe (Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel’ 2001), Vol. 4.
31Van Atta, Transformation and Transition, 16–18.
32V. Filippov, ‘Soedineniia novogo tipa v armii SShA’, ZVO 7 (1978), 29; A. Solov'ev and L. Guliaev, ‘Radio-elektronnaia razvedka SShA’, ZVO 7 (1978), 12–18; V. Afinov, ‘Sredstva REB sukhoputnykh voisk SShA’, ZVO 4 (1980), 55–7.
33A. Bulatov, ‘Bor'ba s tankami na bolshikh dal'nostiakh’, ZVO 12 (1979), 12–13; N. Fomich, ‘Protivotankovye sredstva armii SShA’, ZVO 8 (1981), 35–40.
34V. Dmitriev and N. Germanov, ‘Upravliemye aviatsionnye bomby’, ZVO 3 (1981), 55–60; B. Semenov, ‘Takticheskie upravliaemye rakety klassa “vozdukh-poverkhnost'”’ZVO 5 (1981), 49–57.
35I. Loshchilov, ‘Sredstva avtomatizatsii upravleniia voiskami v boiu’, ZVO 5 (1978), 35; V.A. Aleksandrov, ‘O razvitii avtomatizirovannykh system upravleniia v armii SShA’, VM 3 (1983), 74–8.
36V. Afinov, ‘Amerikanskaia sistema PLSS’, ZVO 4 (1980), 55–7; V. Dmitriev, ‘Amerikanskaia sistema SOTAS’, ZVO 4 (1982), 40–2; P. Isaev, ‘Bor'ba s tankami’, ZVO 12 (1982), 37–42; N. Dmitriev, ‘Vzaimodeistvie aviatsii s sukhoputnymy voiskami’, ZVO 6 (1980), 48; N. Stapenko, ‘Batal'ionnaia takticheskaia gruppa v aktivnoi oborone’, ZVO 2 (1981), 29–34; R. Simonian, ‘Tendentsii v razvitiii voennoi doktriny SShA’, ZVO 8 (1983), 15; G. Vasil'ev, ‘Voprosy operativnogo iskusstva v vooruzhennykh silakh SShA’, ZVO 12 (1983), 3–7.
37E.G. Evgeniev, ‘Novye napravleniia gonki vooruzhenii v stranah NATO’, VM 1 (1977), 90–6; V.A. Tumas, ‘Voennoe iskusstvo sukhoputnykh voisk NATO na sovremennom etape’, VM 8 (1977), 79–87; K.M. Popov, ‘Zarubezhnaia pechat’ o kosmicheskom oruzhii’, VM 1 (1979), 59–66; A.N. Ponomarev, ‘Sostoianie i osnovnye napravleniia razvitiia aviatsionnoi tekhniki VVS SShA i drugikh stran NATO’, VM 6 (1977), 71–81; V. Borisov, ‘Organizatsiia voennykh nauchno-tekhnicheskikh issledovanii v NATO’, VM 2 (1975), 84–9; V.A. Aleksandrov, and V.A. Tumas, ‘Sovremennaia oborona po vzgliadam NATO’, VM 10 (1978), 89–96; M.V. Vasilchenko, ‘Operativnaia podgotovka vooruzhennykh sil NATO v 1980 godu’, VM 4 (1981), 62–9; N.S. Nikolaev, ‘O kharaktere i soderzhanii operativnoi podgotovki ob'edinennykh sil NATO’, VM 6 (1980), 66–72.
38Iu.I. Dmitriev and V.A. Mashchenko, ‘Priminenie navigatsionnykh sputnikovykh system SShA v voennykh tseliakh’, VM 10 (1983), 79–80; A.A. Zhovannik, ‘Kosmichiskie sistemy sviazi i ikh ispol'zovanie dlia upravleniia vooruzhennymy silami’, VM 4 (1983), 34–42; N.I. Ivliev, ‘Operativnaia i boevaia podgotovka vooruzhennykh sil NATO v 1982 godu’, VM 6 (1983), 70–5; I.N. Loschilov, ‘Perspektivy razvitiia ASU operativno takticheskogo naznacheniia sukhoputnykh voisk SShA’, VM 7 (1985), 69–77; and ‘Amerikanskaia kontseptsiia upravlenie, sviaz’ i razvedka’, VM 7 (1986), 63–72; Kozhin and Trusin, ‘Voprosy primeneniia vooruzhennykh sil v operatsiiakh’, Zarubezhnoe voennoe obozrenie 10 (1983), 18–19; N. Ivlev and V.Viktorov, ‘Kompleksnoe uchenie voisk tsentral'noi gruppy armii NATO’, ZVO 9 (1983), 10; L. Levadov and V. Viktorov, ‘Manevry i ucheniia NATO – ugroza miru’, ZVO 7 (1984), 8–9 and ‘Itogi operativnoi podgotovki ob'edinnenykh vooruzhennykh sil NATO v 1984 godu’, VM 3 (1985), 64–72.
39I. Golushko, ‘Tyl v usloviah ispol'zovaniia protivnikom vysoko-tochnogo oruzhiia’, Tyl i snabzhenie 7 (July 1984); N.G. Popov, ‘Dostizhenie zhivuchesti voisk v operatsiiakh’, VM 1 (1983), 32–44; S. Yegorov, ‘Mekhanizirovannaia diviziia SShA v nastuplenii’, ZVO 4 (1984), 23–8; V. Lamkhin, ‘Vozdushnaia nastupatel'naia operatsiia’, ZVO 11 (1984), 47–54; V. Sidorov, ‘Vedenie operatsii c primeneniem obychnykh sredstv porazheniia’, ZVO 1 (1985), 7–15.
40V.V. Afinov, ‘Razvitie v SShA vysokotochnogo oruzhia i perspektivy sozdania razvedovatel'no-udarnikh kompleksov’, VM 4 (1983), 63–71; V.G. Krymtsev and Iu.I. Molostov, ‘Vysokotochnoe protivotankovoe oruzhie armii stran NATO i perspektivy ego razvitiia’, VM 10 (1984), 73–9; N.I. Ivliev and L.V. Levadov, ‘Strategicheskoe KShU NATO Zima-83’, VM 12 (1983), 70–3.
41A.F. Volkov, ‘Leninskie printsipy voenno-tekhnicheskoi politiki KPSS’, VM 4 (1980), 31–8; I. Anureev, ‘Znachenie nauchno tekhnicheskoi revoliutsii dlia ukrepleniia oborony i povysheniia boevoi gotovnosti Sovetskikh Vooruzhennykh Sil’, VM 6 (1975), 65–76; ‘O vzaimosviazi voennoi nauki s estevstvennymi naukami’, VM 1 (1981), 27–35; ‘Vyshe effektivnost’ i kachestvo voenno-nauchnykh znanii’, VM 5 (1983), 3–16; M.M. Kir'ian (ed.), Voenno-tekhnicheskii progress i vooruzhennie sily SSSR, (Moscow: Voennoe Izdatel'stvo 1982), 262–4; Shavrov and Galkin, Metodologiia voenno-nauchnogo prognozirovaniia, 3–5; Bondarenko, Sovremennaia nauka i razvitie voennogo dela.
42N. Maksimov, ‘Kontseptsiia ‘vystrel-porazhenie’, ZVO 11 (1979), 13–14; Y.G. Yevgen'iev, ‘Novye napravleniia gonki vooruzhenii v stranakh NATO’, VM 1 (1977), 88–96; A.G. Sinitskii, ‘Nekotorye voprosy razvitiia vooruzheniia i boevoi tekhniki sukhoputnikh voisk NATO i ikh boevogo primeneniia’, VM 10 (1977), 83–91; A.S. Baturin, ‘Nauchno tekhnicheskaia revoliutsiia i voennye prigotovleniia SShA’, VM 1 (1981), 75–80.
43M.G. Popkov, ‘Metodologicheskii analiz informatsionnykh protsessov v sisteme ‘chelovek-voennaia tekhnika’, PhD candidate dissertation, Moscow: Voenno-Politicheskaia Akademiia 1983; N. Nechaev, ‘Voennye sistemy sviazi: tendentsii ikh razvitiia’, Tekhnika i vooruzheniia 6 (July) 1986; Gen. Ye. Kolibernov, interview in KZ, 21 Nov. 1985.
44V.A. Gorbunov, Effektivnost’ obnaruzheniia tselei (Moscow: Ministerstvo Oborony, 1980), Chs. 2, 5; I. Vorob'yev, ‘Sovremennie vooruzheniia i taktika’, KZ, 15 Sept. 1984; V.Makarebskyi, ‘Blitskrig v epokhu nauchno tekhnicheskoi revoliutsii, VZ 9 (Sept.) 1986; A.Dvoretskyi and V. Potashev, ‘O kontseptsii vozdushno-nazemnoi operatsii,’Vestnik PVO 8 (Aug. 1984); V.P. Shipovalov, ‘Bor'ba s tankami,’ViZh 9 (Sept.) 1986.
45V. Makarevskyi, ‘Gonka obychnyh vooruzhenii i problemi ee ogranicheniia,’Mirovaya ekonomika i mezhdunarodnye otnosheniia 5 (May 1984); Golushko, ‘Tyl v usloviah ispol'zovaniia protivnikom vysoko-tochnogo oruzhiia’.
46Reznichenko, Taktika, 51–71; P.K. Altukhov, Osnovy teorii upravleniia voiskami (Moscow: Voenizdat 1984), 32–4.
47Ogarkov, Vsegda v gotovnosti, 31–5, 40–3 and 59–67; ‘Na strazhe mirnogo truda’, Kommunist, 10, (1981), 80–91; ‘Nadezhnaia zashchita mira’, KZ, 23 Sept., 1983; KZ, 9 May 1983; Odom, ‘Soviet Force Posture’, 7–8.
48Shavrov and Galkin, Metodologiia, Chs. 6 and 14.
49L.I. Voloshin, ‘Teoriia glubokoi operatsii i tendentsii ee razvitiia’, VM 8 (1978), 14–26; A.M. Maiorov, ‘Proriv oborony: teoriia i praktika mirovykh voin’, VM 5 (1978), 79–94; R. Savushkin, ‘K voprosu o vozniknovenii i razvitii operatsii’, VIZh 5 (May 1979); and ‘K voprosu o zarozhdenii teorii posledovatel'nikh nastupatel'nikh operatsii’, VIZh 5 (May 1983), 12–20; Shimon Naveh, In Pursuit of Military Excellence: The Evolution of Operational Theory (London: Frank Cass 1997), 166–7.
50Ogarkov, ‘Glubokaia operatsiia’, SVE (Mosow: Voenizdat 1976), 574–8.
51A.F. Bulatov, ‘Aktual'nye voprosy sovremmennogo nastupatel'nogo boia’, VM 11 (1984), 60–9; Ogarkov, ‘Glubokaia operatsiia'; V.F. Mozolev, ‘Ob obshchikh osnovakh teorii sovetskogo operativnogo iskusstva’, VM 3 (1979), 13–22; M.I. Bezkhrebetnii, ‘Sovmestnaia operatsiia – glavnaia forma sovremennikh boevikh deistvii’, VM 7 (1979), 27–34; and ‘Podgotovka posleduiushchikh nastupatel'nikh operatsii’, VM 7 (1982), 28–38.
52Rezhichenko, Taktika, Ch.2; G.E. Peredel'skii, ‘Tendentsii razvitiia polevoi artilerii NATO’, VM 11 (1983), 62–9.
53A.G. Khar'kov, ‘Voevat’ ne chislom a umeniem’, VM 6 (1983), 34–42; P.G. Skachko, ‘Odnovremennoe vozdeistvie na vsiu glubinu operativnogo postroeniia protivnika – vedushchaia tendentsiia v razvitii teorii operativnogo iskusstva’, VM 7 (1985), 18–24.
54I.N. Vorob'ev, ‘Novoe oruzhie – novaia taktika,’VM 2 and 6, (1984); N.M.Vinokur, ‘Nekotorye voprosy razvitiia teorii sovremennogo boia,’VM 4 (1985); L.V. Leonidov and V.P. Vinokur, ‘Veroiatnye sposoby razviazyvaniia I vedeniia obychnoi voiny’, VM 12 (1985); The American ‘Assault Breaker’ and PLSS were commonly referred as a basic example of such a development. Krymtsev and Molostov, ‘Vysokotochnoe protivotankovoe oruzhie armii stran NATO i perspektivy ego razvitiia'; V. Chernukhin, ‘Taktika aviatsii NATO po preodoleniiu sistem PVO’, Vestnik PVO, no. 8 (Aug. 1981); A. Sergeev, ‘Razvedovatelno-udarnye kompleksy’, KZ, 14 Feb. 1985; M. Belov and V. Shchukin, ‘Razvedovatel'no-porazhaiushchiye kompleksy armii SShA’, Voennyi Vestnik 1 (1985), 86–9; Iu. Molostov, ‘Zashchita ot Vysokotochnogo Oruzhiia’, Voennyi Vestnik 2 (1987), 83–6; V. Shabanov, ‘Material'naia osnova oboronnoi moshchi’, KZ, 15 Aug. 1985; Skachko,'Odnovremennoe vozdeistvie na vsiu glubinu operativnogo postroeniia protivnika'; Stanislaw Koziej, ‘Przewidywane kierunki zmian w taktyce Wojsk Ladowych’, Przeglad Wojsk Ladowych (Sept. 1986), 1–8.
55I.N. Vorob'ev, ‘Novoe oruzhie i razvitie printsipov obshchevoiskovgo boia’, VM 6 (1986), 35; ‘Sovremennoe vooruzhenie i taktika’, KZ, 15 Sept. 1984; Gareev, Frunze, 245.
56Zolotarev, Istoriia voennoi strategii Rossii, 475.
57 Armeiskii Pregled 1 (1983), 98 and 2 (1983), 79.
58Afinov, ‘Razvitie v SShA vysokotochnogo oruzhia i perspektivy sozdania razvedovatel'no-udarnikh kompleksov’, 69–74; Skachko, ‘Odnovremennoe vozdeistvie na vsiu glubinu operativnogo postroeniia protivnika’.
59Ye.G. Korotchenko, ‘Ob evoliutsii printsipov voennogo iskusstva’, VM 9 (1988), 22–3. A. Karemov, ‘Voennaia doktrina SShA’, ZVO 4 (1983), 11; Afinov, ‘Razvitie v SShA vysokotochnogo oruzhia i perspektivy sozdania razvedovatel'no-udarnikh kompleksov’. The author noted the US ALB and ROK and RUK as the operational core of this modern doctrine. Skachko, ‘Odnovremennoye vozdeistvie’, 18–24.
60Razvedovatel'no udarnyi kompleks’, the term in Voennyi Entsiklopedicheskii Slovar’ (Moscow: Voenizdat 1986).
61Larry A. Brisky, ‘The Reconnaissance Destruction Complex: A Soviet Operational Response to Air-Land Battle’, Jornal of Soviet Military Studies 1/2 (Summer 1990), 297–8. Timothy L. Thomas, ‘Information Warfare in the Second Chechen War’, in Anne C. Aldis and Roger N. McDermott, Russian Military Reform, 1992–2002 (London: Frank Cass 2003), 216–17.
62Jeffrey McKitrick, ‘The Revolution in Military Affairs’, in From Battlefield of the Future: 21st Century Warfare Issues (Maxwell AFB, ALA: Air UP Sept. 1995).
63Jeffrey R. Cooper, ‘Another View of the Revolution in Military Affairs’, 124–5 in John Arquilla and David Ronfeldt, In Athena's Camp (RAND: National Defense Research Institute 1997); and see the following section of this article.
64Interview with Makhmut Gareev, Moscow, July 2006; I. Krupchenko, ‘Kharakternye cherty razvitiia i primeneniia tankovykh voisk’, ViZh 9 (1979), 25–32.
65Interview with Gareev; V.V. Tkachev, ‘Vzaimodeistvie v nastupatel'nom boiu’, VM 8 (1983), 51–6; V.V. Krysanov, ‘Massirovanie sil i sredstv na glavnykh napravleniiakh-iskusstvo i raschet’, VM 5 (1984), 26–32; Naveh, In Pursuit of Military Excellence, 166–7; Odom, ‘Soviet Force Posture’, 9.
66Vojtech Mastny and Malcolm Byrne, A Cardboard Castle? An Inside History of the Warsaw Pact, 1955–1991 (New York: CEU Press 2005), 482; Interview with Gareev; A. Babadzhanian, Tanki i tankovie voiska (Moscow: Voenizdat 1980); Ch. 2; Reznichenko, Taktika, Ch. 3, 152–63.
67Mastny and Byrne, A Cardboard Castle?, xlii, 482.
68Zygmunt Czarnotta, ‘Uzycie artylerii w wojnach lokalnych’, Przeglad Wojsk Ladowych, Vols. 5-6 (1987).
69Andrew Marshall, Director of Net Assessment, Some Thoughts on Military Revolutions – Second Version (Washington DC: Office of the Secretary of Defense, 23 Aug. 1993), 1.
70National Foreign Assessment Center, SR 79-10338X, Soviet Military Theory: Structure and Significance, Oct. 1979; CIA FOIA Electronic Reading Room [hereafter ERR]; 6.
71Deputy for National Intelligence Officers, to Assistant Chief of Staff/Intelligence, Dept. of the Air Force, Soviet Military Thought, 17 May 1974; Deputy to the DCI for Collection Tasking to Director of Central intelligence, Possible Reductions of Air Force Translation of Soviet Documents, 21 Aug. 1978; Gen. James Brown, Asst Chief of Staff, Intelligence, Dept. of the Air Force, to Director, Central Intelligence, USAF Efforts in the Filed of Literature Intelligence, 21 Nov. 1977, The US National Archives and Records Administration [hereafter NA].
72FBIS, War and the Army: A Philosophical and Sociological Study, edited By D.A. Volkogonov, A.S. Milovidov and S.A. Tyushkevich, JPRS L/9649, 7 April 1981, 1–7, 16–17, 21,24, 136, 141, 148, 167–171; FBIS, Methodology of Military Scientific Cognition, JPRS l/8213, 11 Jan.1979, 12–29; NA.
73US Joint Publications Research Service, Translations on USSR Military Affairs: Basic Military Training, FOUO 11/79/ JPRS L/8421, 25 April 1979. For the reference to the MTR see esp. 33–4 and 222; FBIS, Translations from Voyennaia Mysl’, No. 12, 1971, FPD 0003/73, 17 Jan. 1974, 87–8; FBIS, Translations From Voyennaya Mysl’, No. 10, 1971, FPD 0008/74, 11 Feb. 1974, 6; FBIS, Translations From Voyennaya Mysl’, No. 7, 1971, FPD 0014/74, 7 March 1974, 1–3, 6; NA.
74ACS/AF/Intelligence to Deputy for national Intelligence Officers, ‘Soviet Military Thought’ Translation Series, 13 May 1974; NA.
75FBIS/USSR Report/Military Affairs, Military Science, Theory, Strategy: Forecasting in Military Affairs, Vol. 6, 1978, FOUO 1/1981, 26 March 1981, 1–6; FBIS/Translations on USSR Military Affairs, Sociological Study of the Soviet Military Engineer, FOUO 3/79; esp. 396 and 408; NA.
76National Foreign Assessment Center, SR 81-18935X, ‘The Development of Soviet Military Power: Trends Since 1965 and Prospects for the 1980s’, 13 April 1981, 67; ERR. Nikolai Pushkarev, GRU: Vymysly i real'nost’– spetsluzhba voennoi razvedk, (Moscow: Eksmo 2004), 121–7; Ivan Potapov, ‘Ot Khrushchiova do Gorbacheva’, KZ, 11 Feb. 2006.
77National Foreign Assessment Center, SR 81-18935X, ‘The Development of Soviet Military Power: Trends Since 1965 and Prospects for the 1980s’, 13 April 1981, 67–9; and Central Intelligence Agency Directorate of Intelligence, SW-86 20026DX, Soviet Artillery Precision – Guided Munitions: A Conventional Weapons Initiative, Sept. 1986; Special National Intelligence Estimate, Soviet Acquisition of Military Significant Western Technology, Sept. 1985; ERR.
78Directorate of Intelligence, SOV 84–10173, Soviet Ground Forces Trends, 1 Oct. 1984, 19–20. and National Intelligence estimate, NIE 11–14–79, Warsaw Pact Forces Opposite NATO, 31 Jan. 1979, 78; ERR.
79Central Intelligence Agency Directorate of Intelligence, SW 86–10062, Soviet Microelectronics: Impact of Western Technology Acquisitions, Dec. 1986; and National Intelligence Estimate, NIE 11–12–83, Prospects for Soviet Military Technology and Research and Development, 14 Dec. 1983; ERR.
80Director of Central Intelligence, Trends and Development in Warsaw Pact Theater Forces and Doctrine Through the 1990s, NIE 11–14–89, Feb. 1989; ERR.
81Directorate of Central Intelligence, NIE 11/20–6–84, Warsaw Pact Non-nuclear Threat to NATO Airbases in Central Europe, 25 Oct. 1984, 41–2; and National Intelligence Estimate, NIE 11–14–85/D, Trends and Developments in Warsaw pact Theater Forces, 1985–2000, Sept. 1985, 9–13, 29–33; ERR.
82Maj. Gen. Shlipchenko, cited in the CIA Directorate of Intelligence, ‘The USSR: Initial Military Reaction to the Desert Storm’, 26 Feb. 1990, 3; ERR.
83National Intelligence estimate, NIE 11–14–79, Warsaw Pact Forces Opposite NATO, 31 Jan. 1979, 79; National Foreign Assessment Center, SR 81–18935X, ‘The Development of Soviet Military Power: Trends Since 1965 and Prospects for the 1980s, 13 April 1981, 67–9; ERR.
84Statement by Andrew Marshall at Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments roundtable on future warfare, 12 March 2002; in Michael G. Vickers and Robert C. Martinage, The Revolution in War (Washington DC: Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments 2004), 11; and Andrew Marshall, in Andrew F. Krepinevich, The Military-Technical Revolution: A Preliminary Assessment (Washington DC: Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments 2002), i.
85Tomes, US Defense Strategy, Ch. 4; Derek Leebaert, The Fifty-Year Wound: The True Price of America's Cold War Victory (Boston: Little, Brown 2002), 507; Ronald E. Powaski, The Cold War: The United States and the Soviet Union, 1917–1991 (New York: OUP 1998), 233.
86Most notably Gen. William Odom, Mary Fitzgerald, Notra Truelock and experts at Andrew Marshall's Office of Net Assessment.
87Barry Watts, ‘American Air Power’, in Williamson Murray, The Emerging Strategic Environment: Challenges of the Twenty-first Century (Westport, CT: Praeger 1999), 183–218; MacGregor Knox and Williamson Murray, The Dynamics of Military Revolution, 1300–2050 (New York: Cambridge UP 2001), 4.
88Tomes, US Defense Strategy, Ch. 4; Vickers and Martinage, The Revolution in War, 8–9; Richard H. Van Atta, Seymour J. Deitchman, and Sidney G. Reed, DARPA Technical Accomplishments, Volume III (Alexandria, VA: Institute for Defense Analyses 1991), II–14; William Owens, Lifting the Fog of War (New York: Farrar Straus Giroux 2000), 80–3; William J. Perry, Preventive Defense: A New Security Strategy for America (Washington DC: Brookings Institute Press, 1999), 179–80. ‘Desert Storm and Deterrence,’Foreign Affairs 70 (Fall 1991), 66–2.
89Robert R. Tomes, US Defense Strategy from Vietnam to Operation Iraqi Freedom, (New York, Routledge, 2007), Chs. 4–5.
90Max Boot, War Made New: Technology, Warfare, and The Course of History, 1500 to Today (New York: Gotham Books 2006), 9–11.
91Tomes, US Defense Strategy.
92Knox and Murray, Dynamics of Military Revolution, 3.
93Interview with Gareev; Also see Sergei Modestov, ‘Serii Kardinal Pentagona Andrew Marshall – ideolog novoi amerikanskoi revoliucii v voennom dele’, Nezavisimoe Voennoe Obozrenie, no. 4, 14 Dec. 1995.
94Tomes, US Defense Strategy.
95Andrew Bacevich, The New American Militarism (Oxford: OUP 2005), 161–3.
96Ibid.; Albert Wohlstetter, ‘Threats and Promises of Peace: Europe and America in the New Era’, Orbis 17 (Winter 1974); idem, ‘Between an Unfree World and None: Increasing Our Choices,’Foreign Affairs 63 (Summer 1985); idem, ‘The Political and Military Aims of Offensive and Defensive Innovation,’ in Fred Hoffman, Albert Wohlstetter, and David Yost, Swords and Shields: NATO, the USSR, and New Choices for Long-Range Offense and Defense (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books 1987).
97Bacevich, New American Militarism; Krepinevich, The Military-Technical Revolution, i–iv.
98Fred C. Ikle and Albert Wohlstetter, Discriminate Deterrence Report of the Commission on Integrated Long Term Strategy (Washington DC: DoD Jan. 1988), 8, 29,49,65; Bacevich, The New American Militarism, 160–2.
99Andrew W. Marshall and Charles Wolf, ‘The Future Security Environment’, Report of the Future Security Environment Working Group, submitted to the Commission on Integrated Long Term Strategy (Washington DC: DoD, Oct. 1988), 34–5, 40, 42, 64, 69–71.
100Bacevich, New American Militarism; Krepinevich, The Military-Technical Revolution.
101Western specialists claim and the Soviets concur, that during the war, the allies successfully executed a perfect version of the Soviet conventional theater offensive which encapsulated most of the doctrinal principles developed by Soviet military theoreticians in frames of the MTR. Naveh, In Pursuit of Military Excellence, 238 and 330; Stephen J. Blank, The Soviet Military Views of Operation Desert Storm: A Preliminary Assessment (Carlisle Barracks, PA: Strategic Studies Institute, US Army War College 1991), 31–3; Cooper, ‘Another View of the Revolution in Military Affairs'; and Norman C. Davis, ‘An Information-Based Revolution in Military Affairs’, 85, in Arquilla and Ronfeldt, In Athena's Camp.
102Statement by Andrew Marshall at a CSBA roundtable on future warfare, 12 March 2002; in Vickers and Martinage, The Revolution in War, 12; Krepinevich, The Military-Technical Revolution, i–iv.
103Marshall, Some Thoughts, 2–4; Krepinevich, The Military-Technical Revolution, iii–iv and 5–7; Vickers and Martinage, The Revolution in War, 10–13.
104Owens, Lifting the Fog of War, 83.
105Krepinevich, The Military-Technical Revolution, iv; Cooper, ‘Another View of the Revolution in Military Affairs’, 135, note 1; See for the Soviet ‘use’ of the RMA term: Derevianko, Revoliutsiia v voennom dele; and esp. Bondarenko, Sovremennaia nauka i razvitie voennogo dela, 109–11; Anureev, ‘Nauchno tekhnicheskii progress i voennaia nauka'; Cherednichenko, ‘Nauchno tekhnicheskii progress i razvitie vooruzhenia i voennoi tekhniki’.
106Krepinevich, The Military-Technical Revolution.
107Lock-Pullan, US Intervention Policy and Army Innovation, 92–3.
108Naveh, In Pursuit of Military Excellence, Chs. 7 and 8; Referring to the roots of the ALB, Erickson noted : ‘General Svechin, General Isserson and Marshal Tukhachevskii would at once be impressed and flattered, sufficiently so even to overlook the protracted intrusion upon their copyright’, John Erickson, ‘The Development of Soviet Military Doctrine; The Significance of Operational Art and the Emergence of Deep Battle’, in John Gooch (ed.), The Origins of Contemporary Doctrine (Camberley, UK: Strategic and Combat Studies Institute 1997), 106; Lock-Pullan, US Intervention Policy and Army Innovation, 682 and 686.
109Bacevich, The New American Militarism, 164–6.
110Marshall and Wolf, ‘The Future Security Environment', 26–7, 34–5, 40, 64, 69; Stephen Peter Rosen, Winning the Next War: Innovation and the Modern Military (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP 1991), 257–8.
111Lock-Pullan, US Intervention Policy and Army Innovation, 685.
112Knox and Murray, The Dynamics of Military Revolution, 4; James Der Derian, Virtuous War (Oxford: Westview Press 2001), 29–32.
113Michael Horowitz and Stephen Rosen, ‘Evolution or Revolution?’Journal of Strategic Studies 28/3 (June 2005), 441, 445.
114Cooper, ‘Another View of the Revolution in Military Affairs’, 139, note 39.
115Harriet Scott and William Scott, The Soviet Art of War (Boulder, CO: Westview Press 1982), 385.
116F.F. Gaivoronovskii and M.I. Galkin, Ku'ltura voennogo myshleniia (Moscow: Voennizdat 1991).
117Naveh, In Pursuit of Excellence, 164–76. S. Kozlov, ‘K voprosu o razvitii sovetskoi voennoi nauki posle vtori mirovoi voiny’, VM 2 (Feb. 1964), pp. 64–73.
118The term is borrowed from Stephen Rosen, Winning the Next War.
119The author deals with that question extensively and suggests plausible theoretical explanations in the framework of his doctoral dissertation ‘The Impact of Cultural Factors on Military Innovations: Comparing the Revolution in Military Affairs in the USSR, the US and Israel’. A full discussion on the relevant research findings will be presented in a forthcoming publication.