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Abstract
To make sense of the gap between the theory and practice of community-driven development (CDD), development scholars and practitioners have proposed that the success of interventions is relative to the reform-mindedness of local government officials. This article sheds some light on the good governance performances of local government officials as part of the CDD programme Kalahi in the province of Bohol, Philippines. It highlights that locally, mayors who styled themselves as reformists enjoyed heightened power and electoral victories. In parallel, the province experienced a pattern of ‘growth with immiserisation’ and persistent political clientelism wrapped in a discourse of pro-poor development.
Acknowledgements
Many thanks to John Sidel for his continuous support, to my informants in Bohol and Manila for sharing their insights and experiences, and to two anonymous referees for their valuable comments.
Notes
1. Wong, What Have Been the Impacts, 15–19.
2. King, “A Critical Review”; Mansuri and Rao, “Community-Based and -Driven Development”; Mansuri and Rao, “Update Note”; Mansuri and Rao, “Participatory Development Reconsidered”; Mansuri and Rao, Localising Development; OED, The Effectiveness of World Bank Support; Pozzoni and Kumar, A Review of the Literature; Wassenich and Whiteside, CDD Impact Assessment Study; Wong, What Have Been the Impacts.
3. Labonne and Chase, “Do Community-Driven Development Projects”; Vajja and White, “Can the World Bank Build”; see also Pozzoni and Kumar, A Review of the Literature, 20–1; Wassenich and Whiteside, CDD Impact Assessment Study, 63–4.
4. On elite capture, see Dasgupta and Beard, “Community Driven Development”; Platteau, “Monitoring Elite Capture”. On conflict, see Arcand, Bah and Labonne, “Conflict, Ideology”; Crost and Johnston, “Aid under Fire.” See also Li, The Will to Improve, 230–69, for a discussion of corruption and conflict management in Indonesia’s KDP programme.
5. Gibson and Woolcock, “Empowerment, Deliberative Development”; Bebbington et al., “Local Capacity, Village Governance.”
6. Poteete in World Bank, “Think Pieces Summary,” 7.
7. McLaughlin, Satu and Hoppe, Kecamatan Development Programme, xi. See also OED, The Effectiveness of World Bank Support, 17–22; McLean et al., Exploring Partnerships; World Bank, Community Driven Development.
8. Canlas, Carizo and Bilbao, “Mainstreaming Community-Driven Development,” 23.
9. On ‘conducting the conduct’ of villagers as part of CDD interventions, see Li, The Will to Improve, 230–69.
10. Binswanger and Aiyar, “Scaling Up Community Driven Development,” 14.
11. Fox, “The Difficult Transition.”
12. Grindle, Going Local, 11.
13. Aref, “Barriers to Community Capacity”; Kontogeorgopoulos, Churyen and Duangsaen, “Success Factors.”
14. Choi and Fukuoka, “Co-opting Good Governance Reform.”
15. The full name of the programme is Kapit Bisig Laban sa Kahirapan (Linking Hands in the Fight against Poverty) Comprehensive and Integrated Delivery of Social Services, often abbreviated to KALAHI-CIDSS.
16. Butler, Bodies that Matter, 95.
17. Wedeen, “Acting ‘As If.’”
18. Anderson, “Cacique Democracy”; Sidel, Capital, Coercion, and Crime.
19. George, “Local Governance”; Rood, “Decentralisation, Democracy, and Development.”
20. Bhatnagar and Burkley, “Philippines: Kapitbisig,” 12.
21. Kalahi was subsequently rolled out through the US$105 million Kalahi CIDDS (Additional Financing) project (2010–2014).
22. World Bank, Project Appraisal Document, 2–3.
23. Kalahi was prepared in a ‘record time’ of nine months, as noted by then World Bank country director for the Philippines Robert Pulley in a 2002 presentation to the Philippine Department of Finance in Manila.
24. World Bank, Project Appraisal Document, 3.
25. Fisiy, ASEM Trust Fund, 2. Fisiy mentions the date of May 2000, which is assumed to be a small error.
26. Interview, September 23, 2009.
27. Pork barrel allocations refer to funds that Congressmen can freely allocate, and which are often used in exchange for political support.
28. Abinales and Amoroso, State and Society, 272–3; Hutchcroft, “The Arroyo Imbroglio.”
29. Although Kalahi was not implemented in Cebu.
30. World Bank, Community Driven Development, 5.
31. Green et al., Coastal Environmental Profile, xiii.
32. As listed on the website of the Bohol Investment Promotion Centre as part of Bohol’s 2010 economic profile.
33. NSCB, Estimation of Local Poverty; NSCB, 2003 City and Municipal Level.
34. Catarata, “Gardening 101.”
35. An expression coined by Bello, Kinley and Elinson, Development Debacle, 97.
36. Six interviews with the MPDCs of the 12 Kalahi municipalities were conducted in Bohol in October–November 2009. A local community organiser was interviewed in Cebu on 28 October 2009.
37. Interview, November 26, 2009.
38. As related in interview by an MPDC and area coordinator for Kalahi municipal coordination team on November 26, 2009.
39. The Kalahi Manager at the Philippine country office of the World Bank in Manila was interviewed on September 22, 2009.
40. As cited on Visayas Central blog, August 15, 2006.
41. World Bank, Project Appraisal Document, 33.
42. DSWD, Final Report, 8.
43. Beyond the remit of Kalahi, the barangay assembly is a formal meeting of all barangay residents, mandated by law to assemble at least twice a year to discuss the affairs of the barangay.
44. Edillon et al., Final Survey, 30.
45. The mayors of the 12 Kalahi municipalities were interviewed on October 20, 2009. Subsequent discussions with mayors, a vice-mayor, MDPCs and a Kalahi municipality facilitator took place on November 25–26, 2009.
46. World Bank, Community Driven Development, 55.
47. Canlas and Almoro, “Pilar, Bohol Case Study,” 16.
48. As cited in Bohol Government News, December 28, 2005.
49. Li, The Will to Improve, 242.
50. For analyses of CDD programmes as instruments of democratisation, see Guggenheim, “Crises and Contradictions”; Barron, Diprose and Woolcock, “Local Conflict and Community Development.”