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Abstract
Africa’s inherited colonial borders have been central in debates on decolonisation for reasons that include challenges posed to African mobilities and identities, suggesting that there is a crisis of ideas about the border. This article draws on critical border studies (CBS) to examine the agency and negotiating capabilities of border residents using Leklebi and Wli, on the Ghana–Togo border, as case studies. How are discourses and practices of the border embedded in the contemporary everyday life of the borderland residents? What do their bordering practices reveal about their borderscapes? Are borderscapes being created or negotiated dependent on context? It argues that in these borderlands, borderscapes and bordering are conceived and expressed contextually not only through the lens of the postcolonial territorial border but also through the precolonial migration histories as well as precolonial concepts of political space. It contributes to border studies by highlighting the importance of historical and cultural factors in bordering and borderscapes. An understanding of such complexities may, in a significant way, help us to rethink or reconsider the arbitrariness of borders.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank Peace Medie, Mjiba Frehiwot, Obodai Torto, Frank Afari, the editors of the journal and anonymous reviewers for their encouragement and critical comments.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 Discussion with Theophilus Anku Hehemeku, 76-year-old retired educationist, Leklebi-Fiafe, 19 January 2018.
2 Discussion with Seth Pentem, fiateƒenɔla (regent) Leklebi-Kame Tornu, Leklebi-Kame, 16 February 2018.
3 See Ajala, “Nature of African Boundaries,” 182–8; Shepperson and Drake, “Fifth Pan-African Conference,” 58–9; West, “Global Africa,” 101; Ayittey, “United States of Africa,” 99; Ndlovu-Gatsheni, “Decolonising Borders”; Nkrumah, Africa Must Unite.
4 Mukisa, “Toward a Peaceful Resolution,” 16.
5 African Union, “Organisation of African Unity Charter,” Article III (3).
6 Ndlovu-Gatsheni, “Decolonising Borders,” 23.
7 Ibid.
8 This is discussed in depth in the next section.
9 See Asiwaju, Partitioned Africans; Nugent, Smugglers, Secessionists and Loyal Citizens; Lentz, “This Is Ghanaian Territory”; Gordon, “Owners of the Land and Lunda Lords”; Flynn, “We Are the Border”; Miles, “Partitioned Royalty.”
10 Greene, Gender, Ethnicity and Social Change.
11 Discussions with Theophilus Anku Hehemeku, Leklebi-Fiafe, 1 February 2018; Togbe Wilson Kodzo Ekuame, zikpuitↄ (stool father) of Leklebi, Leklebi-Fiafe, 5 February 2018; Togbe Stanley Gborgblor, tsiame (linguist) of Leklebi, Leklebi-Fiafe, 6 February 2018; Harrison Korsi Deh, Leklebi-Fiafe, 6 February 2018; Davidson Dara, 78-year-old farmer, Leklebi-Duga, 7 February 2018; Komla Joel Agama, 83-year-old retired educationist, Leklebi-Dafor, 14 February 2018; Togbe Korsi Agbodza, 85-year-old Asidigborme sametsitsi (elder of Asidigborme clan), Leklebi-Duga, 14 February 2018; Togbe Ben Hehemekpe, zikpuitↄ of Leklebi-Dafor, Leklebi-Dafor, 15 February 2018; B. W. A. Asimenu, 83-year-old retired agriculturist, first person from Leklebi-Agbesia to graduate from secondary school, Leklebi-Agbesia, 15 February 2018; Togbe Patrick Fie, fiateƒenɔla (regent) of Leklebi-Agbesia, Leklebi-Agbesia, 15 February 2018.
On Ewe migration from Notsie, see Amenumey, Ghana: A Concise History, 19–22; Gavua, “Brief History,” 5. Mamattah, Ewes of West Africa, 31–56; Spieth, Ewe People, 37–8, 64.
12 Discussions with Edmund Kwashi Nyavor, former secretary to the paramount chief of Wli, Wli-Afegame, 21 October 2017; Togbe Agbitsu, trɔ̃nua (priest) of Togbe Dovo, Wli-Afegame, 23 October 2017; Togbe Kodzo Gblorkpor, Atangba sametsitsi (elder of Atangba clan), Wli-Agorviefe, 23 October 2017; Mercy Akluwor Klutse, a 99-year-old lady, Wli-Afegame, 24 October 2017; Togbe Pata II, sohefia (youth chief) Wli-Afegame, 24 October 2017; Nelson Nyagbovi, ametsitsi (elder), Wli Agorviefe, 25 October 2017; Togbe Anthony Nudanu, fiateƒenɔla (regent) of Wli-Afegame, Wli-Afegame, 25 October 2017; Alexander Noel Nyavor, Boy Scout Leader, Wli-Afegame, 25 October 2017; Lydia Yawa Adabra, 89-year-old lady, Wli-Agorviefe, 25 October 2017.
13 Information provided by Philip-Neri Jayson-Quashigah. It is important to point out that Wli-Todzi shares a boundary with Danyi. However, there are no motorable roads in Ghana between Wli-Todzi and the other Wli towns. Access to Wli-Todzi is several hours’ walk through the mountains, which are part of the Agumatsa range, home to Ghana’s highest waterfall and tallest mountain. By road, it is about a three-hour ride from Wli-Agorviefe through several towns in Togo to Wli-Todzi.
14 The Ewe-speaking people are also in Benin and Nigeria.
15 Yayoh, “German Rule in Colonial Ewedome.”
16 On the making of the Ghana–Togo boundary see Bening, “Ghana–Togo Boundary.”
17 Bening, “Ghana–Togo Boundary,” 198.
18 On Ewe unification, see Amenumey, Ewe Unification Movement; Amenumey, “Pre-1947 Background”; United Nations Visiting Mission to Trust Territories in West Africa, 1952, “Special Report on the Ewe and Togoland Unification.”
19 See Brown, “Borderline Politics in Ghana.”
20 Hehemeku, written answers to questions, 1 February 2018.
21 Ndlovu-Gatsheni, “Decolonising Borders,” 24.
22 Parker and Vaughan-Williams, “Critical Border Studies,” 729.
23 Newman, “Borders and Bordering,” 173.
24 Lamb, “Where Is the Border,” 1.
25 Ibid., 2.
26 Rumford, “Introduction: Citizens and Borderwork in Europe,” 2.
27 Johnson et al., “Interventions on Rethinking ‘the Border,’” 66.
28 Dell’Agnese and Szary, “Borderscapes,” 6. On borderscapes see also Brambilla, “Exploring the Critical Potential of the Borderscapes Concept”; Krichker, “Making Sense of Borderscapes.”
29 Cassidy, Yuval-Davis and Wemyss, “Debordering and Everyday (Re)Bordering.”
30 Quoted in Bhambra, “Postcolonial and Decolonial Reconstructions,” 122.
31 Ibid.
32 Ndlovu-Gatsheni, “Decolonising Borders,” 37.
33 Quoted in Abraham, “Lines upon Maps,” 62.
34 Quoted in Bhambra, “Postcolonial and Decolonial Reconstructions,” 123.
35 Maldonado-Torres, “On the Coloniality of Being,” 262.
36 Asiwaju, Partitioned Africans; Nugent, Smugglers, Secessionists and Loyal Citizens; Lentz, “This Is Ghanaian Territory”; Flynn, “We Are the Border”; Miles, “Partitioned Royalty”; Bening, “Ghana–Togo Boundary”; Ajala, “Nature of African Boundaries”; Mariam, “Background of the Ethio–Somalian Boundary Dispute”; Lawrance, “En Proie à la Fièvre du Cacao”; Englebert, Tarango and Carter, “Dismemberment and Suffocation”; Żukowski, “Sub-Saharan African Borderlands.”
37 Zeller, “Special Issue: African Borderlands,” 2.
38 Quoted in Coplan, “Introduction: From Empiricism to Theory,” 2.
39 Cons and Sanyal, “Geographies at the Margins.”
40 Van Schendel and de Maaker, “Asian Borderlands,” 3.
41 Nugent, “Arbitrary Lines and the People’s Minds,” 35.
42 Johnson et al., “Interventions on Rethinking ‘the Border.’”
43 Discussion with David Adzagbo, a 102-year-old retired audit service staff member, Leklebi-Kame, 18 January 2018.
44 Discussion with Christian Biaku, fiatↄ (father of the chief) of Leklebi-Kudzra, Leklebi-Kame, 18 January 2018.
45 Discussion with Nyavor.
46 Focus group discussion with fiawo (chiefs), nyↄnufiawo (queenmothers) and ametsitsiwo (elders) of Wli-Todzi, Wli-Todzi, 26 October 2017. It was pointed out that the current ‘chief’ was installed without their knowledge. An apology was, however, subsequently rendered by the Agotime. The status of the chief is not very clear; it seems the Agotime are using the international border to assert their political independence.
47 The tenancy agreement involves giving away a percentage of the crops to the landlord. With food crops such as rice and maize, a third goes to the landlord, while with cash crops such as cocoa the landlord gets half of the harvest.
48 See notes 12 and 46.
49 See Odotei and Awedoba, Chieftaincy in Ghana; Bob-Milliar, “Chieftaincy, Diaspora, and Development”; Logan, “Roots of Resilience”; Adotey, “Parallel or Dependent.”
50 The stool is the symbol of chiefly authority among the ethnic groups in the southern part of Ghana.
51 Focus group discussion with nyↄnufiawo (queenmothers) and ametsitsiwo (elders) of Leklebi-Kame and Leklebi-Kudzra, Leklebi-Kame, 21 January 2018; focus group discussion with fiawo (chiefs), ametsitsiwo and community leaders of Leklebi-Kame, Leklebi-Kudzra and Leklebi-Kame Tornu, Leklebi-Kame, 16 February 2018; focus group discussion with chiefs, nyↄnufiawo, ametsitsiwo of Leklebi-Kame Tornu, Togo, 20 February 2018.
52 For similar cross-border relations, see Adotey, “International Chiefs”; Adotey, “Where Is my Name.”
53 Discussion with Freeman Adoboe, Leklebi-Kame, 20 February 2018.
54 According to Leklebi oral traditions, during the Ewe migration from Notsie they did not flee through the part of the wall that was broken, as was the case for some Ewe groups; rather, they walked through the main gate – hence the name of the festival. This, according to them, was possible because they were the blacksmiths of the king of Nostie, Togbe Agorkoli, and as such possessed a key to the gate.
55 See notes 11 and 51.
56 See Nshimbi, “Life in the Fringes.”
57 Discussions with Ghana Immigration Service (GIS) and Ghana Revenue Authority (GRA) officials, and Ministry of Food and Agriculture officials, Leklebi-Kame, 18 January 2019; GIS and GRA officials, Wli-Agorviefe, 19 February 2019; interaction with Togolese border post officials, 18 January 2018, Leklebi-Kame Tornu, Togo; Yikpa-Dafo, Togo, 18 February 2018.
58 Discussion with Ekuame.
59 Moyo, “Beitbridge–Mussina Interface,” 6.
60 Discussion with Agbitsu.
61 On elections on Ghana’s borderlands, see Robert-Nicoud, “Elections and Borderlands in Ghana.”
62 Nshimbi, “Life in the Fringes.”
63 Discussion with Nyagbovi.
64 Hall, “Who Needs Identity.”
65 Discussion with Gblorkpor. See Lentz, “This Is Ghanaian Territory” and Lawrance, “En Proie à la Fièvre du Cacao” for other resource contestations on the Ghana–Burkina Faso and Ghana–Togo border, respectively.
66 Johnson et al., “Interventions on Rethinking ‘the Border.’”
67 Lamb, “Where Is the Border,” 9.
68 Nshimbi, “Life in the Fringes,” 3.
69 Ndlovu-Gatsheni, “Decolonising Borders,” 27.
70 Republic of Ghana, Citizenship Act, 2000 (Act 591), Section 16(1). See Robert-Nicoud, “Elections and Borderlands in Ghana.”
71 Moyo, “Beitbridge–Mussina Interface,” 4.
72 Lamb, “Where Is the Border,” 1. See also Nugent, Smugglers, Secessionists and Loyal Citizens; Lentz, “This Is Ghanaian Territory.”
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Edem Adotey
Edem Adotey is a Historian and Research Fellow in the History and Politics Section of the Institute of African Studies, University of Ghana. His research is situated within border/borderland studies, with an interest in the Ghana–Togo border and the related issues of chieftaincy, identity, nationalism and pan-Africanism. His publications include ‘Parallel or Dependent? The State, Chieftaincy and Institutions of Governance in Ghana’ (African Affairs vol. 184, no. 473 (2019): 628–45); ‘“International Chiefs”: Chieftaincy, Rituals and the Reproduction of Trans-Border Ewe Ethnic Communities on the Ghana–Togo Boundary’ (Africa vol. 88, no. 3 (2018): 560–78); and ‘Where Is My Name? – Contemporary Funeral Posters as an Arena of Contestation and (Re)negotiation of Chiefly Relations Among the Ewe of Ghana and Togo’ (History in Africa vol. 45 (2018): 59–69).