Atmospheric Emissions from Shipping: The Need for Regulation and Approaches to Compliance

Abstract

Shipping has traditionally been viewed as the least environmentally damaging mode of freight transport. Recent studies have increasingly questioned this perception, as attention has focused on both the greenhouse gas emissions (mainly CO₂) and the emission of health-damaging pollutants (such as sulphur, nitrogen oxides and particulates) by ships. This paper reviews the available evidence on the atmospheric emissions of shipping. It proposes that the profit objective has prompted the pursuit of greater fuel efficiency within the sector, but that reliance on market forces alone is insufficient to deliver on the environmental imperative. The paper outlines the current and planned regulatory regime for the atmospheric emissions from ships and posits that greater, and more diverse, market regulation is required. Alternative general approaches to regulatory compliance are categorised as ‘alternative sources of energy’ or ‘abatement technologies’ and the characteristics of a range of specific options are analysed. The paper concludes that although the shipping industry has been slow to improve its environmental credentials, a combination of regulation and technological innovation provides it with significant potential to dramatically reduce its environmental impact.

Keywords:

• shipping
• regulation
• atmospheric pollution
• environment
• mitigation

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful for the comments and advice of two anonymous referees. In addition, the authors very much appreciate the support provided by the University of Gothenburg Sustainable Transport Initiative in partially funding the underpinning research for this work.

Notes

These comprise 41 nations classified as ‘industrialised countries and economies in transition’, in addition to the European Union. A full list of the countries included under this definition provided by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change can be found at: http://unfccc.int/parties_and_observers/parties/annex_i/items/2774.php

The three main types of marine fuel (bunkers) are most usually referred to as Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO), Intermediate Fuel Oil (IFO) and Marine Diesel Oil (MDO). HFO is the highly viscous residual fuel oil that remains after the more valuable cuts (or fractions) of crude oil have been boiled off during the refining process. MDO is the highest quality common marine fuel, being a gasoil distillate which, as distinct from ordinary diesel, contains some HFO. IFO is the medium quality of the three standard marine fuels and contains blended volumes of HFO, MDO and other lighter, higher quality fuel oils.