A Review and Meta-Analysis Examining the Relationship of Music Content with Sex, Race, Priming, and Attitudes

Abstract

This meta-analysis (k = 35, N = 11,629) examines the effect that listening to music, particularly popular music, has on consumers. Results demonstrate that listening to music generates an effect on listeners consistent with the content of the music (average r = .210, k = 35, N = 11,629). This effect was similar when considering survey research (r = .227) or experimental research (r = .265). The tenets of excitation transfer theory received some support, particularly when considering the effects of music as a priming material (r = .399), demonstrating the impact of music as a means of establishing mood, and ultimately the subsequent reactions of individuals. One conclusion is that efforts toward media literacy or education may prove far more productive than media content restrictions when attempting to curb potential undesirable media effects. Additional implications for policy and theory are discussed.

Keywords:

• Attitudes
• Excitation Transfer Theory
• Media Effects
• Meta-Analysis
• Popular Music
• Priming
• Race
• Sex
• Social Learning Theory

Notes

∗Only first author listed; see reference section for complete citation.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Lindsay M. Timmerman

Lindsay M. Timmerman, (PhD, University of Texas, 2001) is in the Department of Communication at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, Wisconsis.

Mike Allen

Mike Allen, (PhD, Michigan State University, 1987) is in the Department of Communication at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, Wisconsis.

Jill Jorgensen

Jill Jorgensen (MA, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 2004) is in the Department of Communication at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, Wisconsis.

Jennifer Herrett-Skjellum

Jennifer Herrett-Skjellum (MA, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 1993) is at Verari Systems, Inc., Birmingham, Alabama.

Michael R. Kramer

Michael R. Kramer (PhD, University of Minnesota, 2004) is in the Department of Communication & Performance Studies at St. Mary's College, Notre Dame, Indiana.

Daniel J. Ryan

Daniel J. Ryan (PhD, Texas A&M University, 2002) is in the Department of Communication at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, Wisconsis.