Remembering Japanese Militarism Through the Fusosha Textbook: The Collective Memory of the Asian-Pacific War in Japan

Abstract

The Japanese Ministry of Education's approval of a junior high school history textbook justifying Japan's aggressive acts during the Pacific War has been criticized by the governments of several Asian countries, and became an important topic in anti-Japan protests in China and South Korea in April 2005. The textbook screening decisions made by the Japanese Ministry of Education have not only led to international protests, but they have also resulted in significant conflict within Japan, illustrated by a history of protests and lawsuits. This article examines the controversial textbook published by the Fusosha Publishing House and attempts to provide an understanding of the war memories promoted by the book. Furthermore, the article discusses the relationship between this appropriation of war memories and the rise of militarism in contemporary Japan.

Keywords:

• Asian-Pacific War
• Collective Memory
• Fusosha Textbook
• Japanese Militarism
• Textbook Screening

Acknowledgments

This manuscript was funded by the Faculty Research Grants of the University of Pittsburgh at Johnstown. An earlier version of the manuscript was presented at the 2006 National Communication Association annual convention and was awarded the Top Paper Award from the Asian/Pacific American Communication Studies Division. I express my appreciation to the University of Pittsburgh at Johnstown for funding the project, to Thomas Fuchs for his invaluable comments on the manuscript, and to J. Michael Sproule for his help with the revised version.

Notes

“Comfort women” are young women who were forced into sexual slavery by the Japanese imperial military during the Pacific War. About 80% of them were Koreans. Three former comfort women filed an initial lawsuit against the Japanese government in 1991.

The controversy rose again in 2009 when some school boards decided to adopt Atarashii Rekishi Kyokasho, a newer edition of the same book published by a different publisher (“Imajishi ga Hatsusaitaku,” 2009) In Yokohama City, Yukihisa Tamura, the chairperson of the school board, resigned after a number of people protested against his decision to adopt the textbook (“Yokohama no 8ku,” 2009; “Yokohamashi Kyoikuchoga,” 2010).

The Fusosha Textbook is their second textbook.

There are currently five other junior high school history textbooks used in Japan. They are published by Kyoiku Shuppan, Nihon Bunkyo Shuppan, Nihon Shoseki Shinsha, Shimizu Shoin, and Teikoku Shoin. None of these textbooks were authored by Ienaga. Ienaga wrote for senior high school students, whereas this article focuses on junior high school textbooks.

This is not to be confused with the original “Nanjing Incident” of 1927.

The Japanese Society for History Textbook Reform provides an English-translated version of the main text from chapters 4 and 5 of the textbook at http://www.tsukurukai.com/05_rekisi_text/rekishi_English/English.pdf Chapters 4 and 5 cover Japan's modernization period in the 19th century to the end of World War II.

In the Tokyo Trials, the estimated number of casualties was 200, 000 (Okazaki, 2002). The City of Nanjing estimates 300,000 (Honda, 1998).

Out of the eight junior high school history textbooks available today, only one, published by Nihon Shoseki, mentions the “comfort women.”

The 731 Unit is not mentioned in any of the eight textbooks.

Seven junior high school history textbooks because this study precedes the publication of the Fusosha textbook.

Japan's Education Minister from 1997 to 1998 and from 2000 to 2001.

Five of the eight books including the one by Tokyo Shoseki use the word, “massacre.” They are: Kyoiku Shuppan, Nihon Bunkyo Shuppan, Shimizu Shoin, Teikoku Shoin, and Tokyo Shoseki.

Only one of the available textbooks, published by Nihon Shoseki, states the estimated Chinese casualties (200,000).

Marco Polo Bridge Incident.

Okinawa was originally a separate kingdom until it was conquered and turned into a colony by Shimazu, a seventeenth century Japanese feudal lord. Although Okinawa was officially incorporated into Japan as a prefecture in the late nineteenth century, Okinawans have always been discriminated. Onishi (2007a) states that “Japanese soldiers distrusted Okinawans and feared that they would act as spies for the Americans” during the war (p. 8).

“Ikite ryoshu no haji wo ukezu” [Choose to die rather than to disgrace yourself by being caught]. This is from the battle codes issued by Hideki Tojo who was Prime Minister and Army General in 1941. The text was originally designed for soldiers but later civilians were made to comply with the code as well. As a result, a number of Japanese civilians were forced to kill themselves in Saipan and Okinawa.

The Yasukuni shrine is a Shinto shrine with an associated war museum (the Yushukan) where those who died for their country are honored, among them 14 Class A War Criminals. Despite the enshrinement of war criminals, Japanese politicians, including former Prime Ministers, have paid official visits to the shrine, providing fuel for national and international controversy.

Although two of the eight books that passed textbook screening in the spring of 2005 have a description stating that Okinawa residents were forced to kill themselves by the Japanese military (four other books including the Osaka Shoseki book have a description of forced suicides but do not include the term, “the Japanese military,”), this description was deleted from senior high school history textbooks as a result of the 2007 screening. The Education Ministry argued that there was not enough evidence that group suicides were actually forced by the military. Historians and politicians from Okinawa, together with survivors of the forced suicides, filed a complaint against the Ministry on April 27, 2007 (“Okinawasen kentei,” 2007). After massive protests in Okinawa and the succession of Prime Minister Shinzo Abe by the moderate Yasuo Fukuda, the Education Ministry, on December 27, 2007, announced that they would reinstate the military's role in the mass suicides in high school history textbooks though with a softer expression, “involvement,” instead of “coercion” (Onishi, 2007b). Onishi further states that the Japanese Society for History Textbook Reform, the authors of the Fusosha textbook, is opposed to the Education Ministry's decision.

In the meantime, the LDP, the conservative party, under Prime Minister Abe, became Japan's ruling party again in 2012.

The Texas State Board of Education has voted to revise their curriculum to portray conservative ideas more positively and emphasize the role of Christianity in the nation. Examples include “questioning the doctrine of ‘separation between church and state’ and dropping Thomas Jefferson, who coined the phrase, from a list of historical figures whose writings inspired political revolutions from the 1700s on” (“Rewriting history,” 2010).

On December 15, 2006, a new education law was instated that aims to incorporate patriotism and nationalism into the school curriculum (“Aikoku,” 2006).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Ako Inuzuka

Ako Inuzuka (Ph.D., Bowling Green State University, 2004) is an associate professor in the Department of Communication at the University of Pittsburgh at Johnstown.