An Exploration of Meanings of Leisure: A Chinese Perspective

In the West, the awareness of the important role of leisure in people's lives has grown significantly since World War II. Leisure studies has been an academic field in the United States for the past six decades. The first undergraduate curriculum in recreation was established in the 1940s, and the first graduate program in recreation with M.S. degree was approved in 1953 at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Since then, the study of leisure has also developed in Western Europe, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Taiwan and mainland China and captured the interest of scholars in various fields including sociology, anthropology, psychology, social psychology, economics, forestry and political science.

The field of leisure studies has contributed to a significant growth in knowledge about leisure but the scope of this knowledge remains limited. In particular, few scholars have studied leisure from a non-Western perspective. Leisure studies, therefore, has had limited input about non-Western concepts of leisure. Several leisure researchers (e.g., Chick, 1998; Freysinger & Kelly, 2000; Iwasaki et al., 2007; McDonald & McAvoy, 1997; Shaw & Henderson, 2005) have pointed out this shortcoming and called for more study of non-Western ideas of leisure. In response to these calls, we hope to introduce Chinese concepts of leisure to the field of leisure studies.

To lay the foundation for this discussion, we clarify what we mean by leisure. In English, little agreement exists as to what the word leisure means and implies. Many people simply see leisure as free time. Other people view leisure as a social status, an instrument for social control, a state of contemplation, or a spiritual, aesthetic or cultural condition. Some researchers insist the word leisure carries so many implications and shades of meanings that it defies definition. For the purpose of this essay, we will not select a single English definition of leisure. Instead, we want to focus on common Chinese terms with meanings comparable to several common English language definitions of leisure. For example, leisure is usually translated into Chinese as Xiu xian (i.e., 休閒 or 休闲 in Chinese; phonetically, Xiu xian resembles “shee-oo shi-an” in English). Today in Taiwan, people use the traditional term 休閒 and although 休閑 is an alternative, it is rarely used. In mainland China, people use the term 休闲, which is a simplified form of 休閑 (mainland China officially adopted simplified Chinese characters and published the first Simplified Characters Chart in 1964 and latter revised it in 1977 and 1986.) The etymological history of these terms reveals a great deal about the idea of leisure in Chinese culture.

Before we explore the idea and etymological history of Xiu xian, a few words about the Chinese writing system might be helpful. Most Western languages use written alphabets composed of letters that represent sounds, or phonemes, that are combined to produce words. Examples include the Roman or Latin alphabet used in this paper as well as the Greek and Cyrillic alphabets. In contrast, Chinese writing is composed of characters known as pictographs and ideographs. Pictographs began as drawings of the objects they represent, but after being used as long as 5,000 years, most pictographs have become highly stylized. Unlike pictographs, ideographs began as representations of abstract ideas such as numbers or directions. Like pictographs, however, many ideographs have grown increasingly stylized over time. Many characters in use today are associative compounds of two or more pictographs and/or ideographs that have been combined to represent a new idea. Furthermore, about 90% of existing characters are semantic-phonetic compounds with two parts. The first contains the character's meaning and the second provides information on pronunciation (see Ager, 2008, for examples of alphabetic, character-based and other writing systems).

Etymological Origin of “Xiu xian”

The Chinese characters 休閒 and 休闲 are associative compounds of two Chinese characters: 休 and 閒 or 休 and 闲. These characters can be traced back at least three millennia. The character 休 (Xiu) can be seen in Jia Gu Wen (甲骨文) or the “Oracle bone script,” which is the earliest known Chinese character system used around 1600-1100 BCE during the Shang Dynasty, as well as in Jin Wen (金文), the character system used around 1100-300 BCE during the Zhou Dynasty (Chen, 2002). The character 休 (Xiu) is an associative compound of two pictographic characters. ¹ > (Ren) is an image of a person, and 木 (Mu) is an image of a tree. When combined they form a vivid graphic representation of a person leaning on a tree 休 (Xiu). In an agricultural setting leaning on a tree usually means to take a break or rest. A break after any hard work would help a person relax and recover. That, in turn, might generate a good feeling or aesthetic sensation for him or her. This evidence demonstrates that the concept of leisure has been present in China since ancient times. The early Chinese developed the concept of leisure through their experience of daily living and used pictograms and associative compounds of pictograms to symbolize and express their ideas about leisure.

Somewhat later in Er Ya (爾雅) ² , the first Chinese dictionary, 休 (Xiu) has two meanings: one is “stopping for a while like a bird perching on a tree,” “taking a break,” and “rest;” ³ the other is “beautiful,” “fine,” “precious,” and “virtuous.” ⁴ Clearly, 休 (Xiu) has a long history of rich, colorful connotations. In addition to its primary present day meaning of “taking a rest” or “relaxing,” 休 (Xiu) also meant “beauty,” “fine quality,” “preciousness” and “virtue,” which symbolized fine qualities of both people and objects.

The release of physical pressure can make us feel good—physically, psychologically or even aesthetically. Over time, the meaning of the character 休 (Xiu) was extended to symbolize anything with fine qualities, and extended still further to represent fine qualities of any kind. In summary, the character 休 began as a portrait of a person leaning on a tree symbolizing physical relaxation. The character evolved to include psychological good feelings, and over time included fine qualities of people and objects.

閒 (Xian), the character comprising the second part of Xiu xian (休閒), is another associative compound. Today, its primary meaning is “free and unoccupied.” However, its meaning has evolved over time, and its ancient meaning was much richer than its current meaning. To understand how 閒 (Xian) evolved, it is important to understand the relationship between 閒 (Xian) and two related characters: 間 (Jian) and 閑 (Xian). All three of these characters share the same upper and outside part 門 that give them a similar shape and are associative compounds that consist of two pictographic characters. 閒 (Xian), the oldest of these three characters, was made by combining 門 （ (Men, an image of a door) and ） (Yue, an image of the moon). According to the dictionary Shuowen Jiezi ⁵ (說文解字, “Explaining Simple and Analyzing Compound Characters”), the associative compound 閒 (Xian) means an opening or space, because the two characters represent moonlight coming into a house through cracks between the planks of a door. Over time, this image, symbolizing a physical opening or space, came to also symbolize an interlude or an opening in time (i.e., a period of free time occurring between two periods of occupied time).

Possibly during the agricultural era, people worked during daylight and moonrise signaled a time to rest. After a day's work, people returned home to rest and relax. The experience of seeing moonlight coming through cracks in the door easily could have become associated with feeling relaxed and at ease, which led people to appreciate moonlight shining through cracks in the door as a symbol of relaxation. Thus, moonlight coming through the door could connote both utilitarian and nonutilitarian values. What was first understood as a time to recover from exhaustion of the flesh and mind could have been extended over time to apply to a period of relaxation in a more romantic sense. ⁶

間 (Jian), a newer associative compound, combines 門 (Men, or door) and 日 (Ri, or sun). Combined, these characters depict an image of the sunlight coming into the house representing the middle of the day, which came to imply a midday recess, pause or break. Later, the character evolved to symbolize something in between events, things or people.

Chen (1998) found no evidence for the character 間 (Jian) in the earliest dictionary from ancient China or in the somewhat later dictionary, Shuowen Jiezi. Before the character 間 (Jian) was created, only the character 閒 (Xian) was used. After 間 (Jian) was coined, the meanings of 閒 (Xian) and 間 (Jian) have been partially separated. 閒 (Xian) retains the meanings of “a space in between” and “having free time,” while 間 (Jian) means “a space in between” and being “physically in the middle.”

The third character, 閑 (also Romanized as Xian), existed both in the Jin Wen (金文) character system and Xiaozhuan (小篆, a small seal script started during the Qin Dynasty, 221-207 BCE). According to the dictionary Shuowen Jiezi, this character combines 門 (Men, the pictograph for door) and 木 (Mu, the pictograph for tree). This associative compound depicts a log barring a door and represents a protected, undisturbed space. This character is used to refer to a stable for horses, a retaining space or the action of guarding against. The last of these meanings implies both restriction and protection and has come to connote being idle, free and unoccupied. Clearly, when restricted from doing things or protected from being harmed, a person is constrained. However, somewhat paradoxically, according to Chinese thinking restriction gives one the freedom to do some things. Put another way, the Chinese people believe that neither absolute constraint nor absolute freedom exists. People are creatures dangling between these two opposite extremes.

In the past 閒 and 閑 (both Romanized as Xian) were rarely used interchangeably. Only when the meaning was “being free” or “being unoccupied” could 閒 be written as 閑. However, as the language evolved, the two characters came to be synonymous. Further, 閑 was gradually simplified into 闲, in which 門 (Men, or door) was simplified into 门 (Men), but 木 (Mu, or tree) was kept. This character evolution is why in mainland China leisure has been translated into 休闲, but in Taiwan the more traditional 休閒 or 休閑 has been used. In current usage, both the traditional 閒 and the simplified Chinese 闲 (both Romanized as Xian) mean “having free time” or “unoccupied.” When the character 休 (Xiu) is combined with 閒 or 闲 as 閒 or 闲 or 休闲 (both Romanized as Xiu Xian), the meaning of being free and unoccupied is reinforced, and the other meaning, “fine qualities of people or objects,” emerges.

At present, the different shades of meaning of Xiu xian (in both mainland China and Taiwan) are similar to the different shades of meaning of the English word leisure. Like leisure, Xiu xian can mean “free time” or “idleness,” or it can suggest a comfortable social status, a spiritual or aesthetic condition, or even a state of being. However, not many Chinese would think of Xiu xian as an instrument of social control.

The Chinese concept of leisure might have stunned Sebastian de Grazia, for he maintained that leisure was an idea discovered “in the Mediterranean world some time after Creto-Mycenaean civilization ended in catastrophe. Leisure never existed before, and afterward but rarely” (de Grazia, 1962, p. 1). Moreover, de Grazia declared “there is little point in asking whether primitives had leisure or whether the Orient or Egypt or Persia had it before Xerxes crossed into Greece” (de Grazia, 1962, p. 1). The history of the Chinese language proves such claims are erroneous and misleading. The ideas and ideals of Xiu xian have been playing significant roles in Chinese culture for 5,000 years, or 1,500 years before Xerxes invaded Greece.

Ideas of Leisure or Xiu xian in Chinese Culture

Taoism and Confucianism, two major schools of thought in China, both developed around the same time as the classical period of ancient Greece in the fifth and fourth centuries BCE. Both Taoism and Confucianism have had major impacts on the Chinese ideas and ideals of leisure.

Taoism and Chinese Concepts of Leisure

Chuang Tzu, also known as Chuang Chou (369-286 BC), is most responsible for Taoist influence on Chinese ideas and ideals of leisure. The key concept of Taoism is Tao (道):

(Tao) literally means a way, road or paths, signifies the way along which all must walk and represents the course of things, the principle of the one in the many, or the universal principle underlying the natural order of things. In the Chinese tradition, man (sic) is considered as a being that can never be separated from Nature and therefore must follow the principle or law (i.e., the Tao) of Nature in order to have a fulfilling living experience, i.e., being in one with Nature. In a sense, the law of nature is the law of the life. (Yeh, 1993, p. 29)

Taoism emphasizes the value of a natural unoccupied spirit and living a leisurely lifestyle. Chuang Tzu advocated that humans should live in a natural way so they can find the happiness of being completely leisured and unoccupied. He not only advocated this idea and ideal but also lived his own life in this way. Chuang Tzu's life has influenced most Chinese literati and many common people throughout history and continues to do so. According to Yeh:

One may even argue that the creative, joyful, receptive and carefree sides of the Chinese character must have been shaped, to a great extent, by Taoism. Taoism is certainly a major source in understanding the Chinese spirit. Moreover it is the most fruitful source in understanding how the Chinese deal with leisure. (1993, p. 46)

Confucianism and Chinese Concepts of Leisure

Kong Tzu (551-479 BCE), the founder of Confucianism, is known in the West as Confucius. Confucius has long been considered the greatest of Chinese teachers. Although he is most famous for his philosophy about personal and governmental morality, correct social relationships, justice and sincerity, Confucius's teachings also address the state of being at leisure. Unlike Taoism, which is little concerned with the “bondage” that prevents humans from becoming authentic beings, Confucianism advocates a relatively free and leisurely mind or state while at the same time caring for the people and the country. This idea has been reflected by the following well-known story in the Analects:

One day, Confucius asked his four disciples, Tzu Lu (子路, also known as Yu, 由), Tsang Hsi (曾皙, also known as Ch'iu, 求), Zan Yu (冉有, also known as Ch'ih, 赤) and Kung Hsi Hua (公西華, also known as Tien, 點), what they would do if their abilities were fully acknowledged.

Tzu Lu said he would like to be in charge of a relatively small state which was being threatened by the armies of the surrounding larger states, and suffering from crop failure. And under his governance, within three years his people would be fearless and know how to take care of themselves.

Ch'iu said if he was to govern a territory of 60 to 70 li (里), or maybe 50 to 60 li (里), ⁷ for three years, and the people would have all they need.

Ch'ih modestly answered he would like to serve as a minor assistant, dressed in the ceremonial gown and cap.

Tien was the last one to reply after he set his lute down with its strings still ringing. He said, “At the height of spring, all decked out in spring clothes, I would like to take five or six young men, and six or seven youngsters to go for a swim in the Yi River, enjoying the cool breeze at the Rain Dance Festival, and make our way back home, singing.” Confucius sighed, and said, “Ah, lovely. I am with you, Tien.” (Adapted from Muller, 2005)

Tien's real meaning is that he would prefer a leisurely lifestyle. One can acquire this state of being only if a country is governed well. Therefore, Tien aims higher than the other disciples. His ideal is a peaceful harmonious society where everyone can live leisurely and none will have to worry about governance. Since he aims at a society of leisure for all, he is acclaimed by Confucius. This story has been quoted often by later generations especially the literatias “The Wish of Tien.” Tien's description of an ideal state exemplifies the spirit and lifestyle Chinese people have longed for.

Understood as a state of freedom and harmony with nature, 休閒, 休闲 (Xiu Xian), leisure was a lifestyle advocated by ancient Chinese philosophers, pursued and highly regarded by ancient Chinese literati, and admired by common people. Throughout Chinese history and culture, Xiu Xian has been strongly associated with nature. It refers to perfect harmony between people and nature, between the subjective mind and objective nature, as reflected in the ideas of philosophers such as Chuang Tzu and Confucius. Clearly, both Chuang Tzu and Confucius, the foremost figures of China's two most important philosophical schools, valued leisure highly and both have had a strong influence on Chinese culture. There is no question that their ideas and ideals of leisure have been playing significant roles in Chinese society throughout history.

Leisure: A Concern with no Cultural Boundaries

Although research over the past few decades has contributed to an understanding of leisure, the scope of leisure research still remains limited to its occidentalocentric tradition. In general, the field of leisure studies often fails to acknowledge that non-Western cultures may have concepts similar to the Western idea of “leisure.” This assumption is a deficit to the field. In this paper, we have demonstrated Chinese culture has much to offer regarding the roles leisure has played in human societies.

Yeh stated:

Leisure is recognized as an arena in which an individual deals with two fundamental human concerns, that is, living a good life and pursuing happiness. There is little doubt the importance and consideration of leisure rises whenever our basic and most pressing needs are satisfied. (1993, p. iii)

Therefore, we believe leisure is a concern with no cultural boundaries. The ideas or concepts of leisure may be either similar or different cross-culturally depending on the perspective taken. We suggest that more research on the meanings of leisure in different cultures is needed to understand these differences and perspectives.

Note: The first author was born and raised in Mainland China, teaches in Zhejiang University, and is a member of Asian Pacific Centre for the Study of Leisure in Hangzhou, China. She is currently a Fulbright scholar at Penn State University. The second author was born and raised in Taiwan and completed both his Master and Ph.D. degrees in Leisure Studies at Arizona State University and the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, respectively.

Notes

¹The various types of characters were first classified c. 100 CE by the Chinese linguist Xu Shen, whose etymological dictionary Shuowen Jiezi (說文解字/说文解字) divides the script into six categories, the li[ugrave]shu (六書/六书). These categories are : 象形 (Xiangxin, i.e., Pictograms), 指事 (Zhishi, i.e., Ideographs), 會意 (Huiyi, i.e., Associative compounds or Logical aggregates), 形聲 (Xingsheng, i.e., Pictophonetic compounds), 轉注 (Zhuanzhu, i.e., Associate transformation), and 假借 (Jiajie, i.e., Borrowing). Associative compounds are characters combining pictograms to symbolize ideas or concepts. For more information, readers may search for the subject “Chinese character” on Wikipedia (retrieved and adapted Jan. 26, 2008, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_character).

² Er Ya (爾雅) was one of the thirteen Classics. “The Erya (traditional Chinese: 爾雅; simplified Chinese: 尔雅; pinyin: Ěry[acaron]; Wade-Giles: Erh-ya) is the oldest extant Chinese dictionary. Bernhard Karlgren (1931: 49) concluded that “the major part of its glosses must reasonably date from” the third century BC.” (retrieved Jan. 26, 2008, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erya).

³Listed on the word item 126 in the second part Shigu in Er Ya (爾雅 釋詁下).

⁴Listed on the word item 56 in the second part Shigu in Er Ya (爾雅 釋詁下).

⁵The Shuowen Jiezi Chinese: 說文解字/说文解字; Wade-Giles: Shuo-wen chieh-tzu; “Explaining Simple and Analyzing Compound Characters”) was an early second century CE Chinese dictionary from the Han Dynasty. It was the first comprehensive Chinese character dictionary, the first to analyze the structure of the characters and to give the rationale behind them (sometimes also the etymology of the words represented by them), as well as the first to use the principle of organization by sections with shared components, called section headers (b[ugrave]shôu 部首). For more information, readers may search for the subject “Shuowen Jiezi” on Wikipedia (retrieved Jan. 26, 2008, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuowen_Jiezi).

⁶The character 閒 (Xian) also developed a second, very different meaning. “Being in the middle” or “being somewhere in between” can also mean “occupying a space in between,” such as hiding a recess or a partition. This connotation evolved into the meaning of “dislike, destroy a relationship, and spy.”

⁷The word li (里) reflects several different measurements. Some say 25 families is a li (里), some say 72, some say 100. The English translation is can be a community of 25, (or 72, or 100, etc.) families.