An Examination of the Differential Impacts of Social Bonds and Organized Crime Affiliation on Male and Female Youth Street Gang Members’ Delinquency

ABSTRACT

This study examines the differential impacts of social bonds and organized crime affiliation on theft and violence in a sample of 201 male and female youth street gang members in Hong Kong. Specifically, the study examines gender differences in social bonds and delinquency among active youth street gang members aged between 12 and 24 years. A purposive sample of 109 male and 92 female active youth street gang members was recruited from a public housing estate with the help of outreach social workers. A series of hierarchical regression analyses indicated that parental attachment, involvement in organizations, and Hong Kong triad affiliation were associated with theft and violence among male youth street gang members, while belief in the legal system and Hong Kong triad affiliation were associated with theft among female youth street gang members. However, only the effect of the belief social bond on (non-)violent delinquency was found to be significantly different between male and female youth street gang members. Peer attachment was not significantly associated with theft nor violence among male or female youth street gang members. Subsequently, implications for social service delivery and future studies are discussed.

Notes

¹ While youth street gangs remain a matter of widespread concern, it is also necessary to reflect on the real possibility that youth street gang members, especially as they age, may take on more risky, high-yielding tasks outside of their gang. Often these opportunities, with the promise of self-enhancement and protection, are accessible by affiliation with organized crime groups.

² For clarity, scholars in Hong Kong have conceptualized the label ‘youth gangs’ in two ways: with existing Hong Kong triad affiliations (Lo 2012) or without association to Hong Kong triads (Lee 2005a). In this paper, we refer to the latter conceptualization. An alternative label adopted by Lo (2012) and Lo and Tam (2018) that is equivalent to the conceptualization of ‘youth gang’ by Lee (2005a) is ‘deviant youth gang’.

³ After 1845, legislation suppressing the growth and activities of triad groups underwent significant reforms, notably in 1887, 1911, 1920, and in 1949. In terms of law enforcement, the Triad Society Bureau was first established in 1958. It was reestablished in 1978 as a subunit of the Organized Crime Bureau called the Triad Society Division, and thereafter replaced with the Organized and Serious Crime group in 1991. Responding to the increased involvement of triads in organized crime, passed legislation such as the Drug Trafficking (Recovery of Proceeds) Ordinance in 1989 and the Organized and Serious Crimes Ordinance in 1995 vastly expanded police powers to investigate and crackdown on serious organized crimes, such as money laundering or drug trafficking.

⁴ This pairing is commonly referred to as the ‘Dai lo-Lan tsai’ relationship in Hong Kong (Lo 2012; Wong 2001).

⁵ Skipping or dropping out of school is common among at-risk youngsters who get involved in youth gangs (Lee 2005a; Wong 2001).

⁶ Translation of the items from English to Chinese was done in collaboration with the outreach youth social workers.

⁷ To the best of the authors’ knowledge, 黑社會 is a term in Cantonese that refers to triad societies. This was confirmed by the outreach youth social workers prior to inclusion in the survey. Furthermore, local and international scholars have similarly used 黑社會 to mean Hong Kong triad societies (Wong 2018).

⁸ Based on observations by Lo (2012), the organizational-cultural trend for exhibiting violence mimics an inverted-U curve. As an early recruit, violence would be ‘called out’ in different situations (e.g. by the ‘Big Brothers’). However, at the point being an office-bearer and onward, the use of violence would no longer be necessary nor deemed wise as it would attract attention from law enforcers (see Lo 2012: 560).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Wing Hong Chui

Wing Hong Chui is a Professor in the Department of Social and Behavioral Sciences, and Dean of Students at City University of Hong Kong. His research interests include social work, youth studies, criminology, and criminal justice. He has coauthored two books entitled Responding to Youth Crime in Hong Kong: Penal Elitism, Legitimacy and Citizenship (2014, Routlege) and The Hong Kong Legal System (2nd ed.) (2020, Cambridge University Press) and his works have been recently published in International Journal of Drug Policy, Children and Youth Services Review, and International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology.

Paul Vinod Khiatani

Paul Vinod Khiatani is a Postdoc at the Department of Social and Behavioral Sciences, City University Hong Kong. His research interests include youth studies, gangs, and social movements. His works have been recently published in Journal of Interpersonal Violence, The Social Science Journal, and International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology.

Milliam Kiconco

Milliam Kiconco is a PhD student at the Department of Social and Social and Behavioral Sciences, City University Hong Kong. Her research interests include gender and crime, violence against women, and homicide studies.