The role of forensic palynology in sourcing the origin of falsified antimalarial pharmaceuticals

ABSTRACT

Forensic palynology (the use in civil and criminal investigations of spores, pollen and other microscopic entities found on pollen slides) can be used in many different contexts. Over the past 10 years, forensic palynology has been used to identify the origin of falsified (i.e. counterfeit) life-saving pharmaceuticals, particularly antimalarials. Counterfeit antimalarial pharmaceuticals in both tablet and liquid form have been picked up throughout Southeast Asia and increasingly through Africa, resulting in massive loss of life. A wide range of spores, pollen, fibres, charcoal, black specks, insect remains, fungal spores and hyphae, etc. have been found in the tablets. The amount recovered has decreased over time, with increased sophistication of the counterfeiting as the perpetrators increase income and can afford more specialised equipment. Research, with forensic palynology forming just one aspect, suggests that many of the pharmaceuticals that could be sourced came from the border areas of China with Vietnam, Lao People's Democratic Republic (LPDR), Thailand and Myanmar (Burma).

KEYWORDS:

• Forensic palynology
• falsified pharmaceuticals
• antimalarial tablets
• artesunate
• homicide
• Asia
• Africa

Acknowledgements

Special thanks are extended to Dr Paul Newton (Centre for Tropical Medicine, Oxford University) who introduced me to the world of counterfeit medicines and reviewed this short paper. Thanks are also extended to Vaughn Bryant (Texas A&M University), Aline Plaçon and John Newton (INTERPOL), Eva Christophel (WHO, Western Pacific Regional Office) and Kevin Faure, Ray Soong, Ian Raine and Roger Tremain (GNS Science).

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

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D.C. Mildenhall

DALLAS C. MILDENHALL graduated with a D.Sc. from Victoria University, Wellington, New Zealand in 1992. He currently works part-time for GNS Science as a principal scientist. He has 49 years' experience in the fields of palynology, forensic palynology and palaeoenvironmental analysis. He is a member of the American Association of Stratigraphic Palynologists, the Australian and New Zealand Forensic Science Society, the Centre for International Forensic Assistance at Glasgow University (Scotland) and the International Working Group on Forensic Geology, part of the International Union of Geological Sciences. From 2012 onwards he has been guest Professor at the New University of Lisbon, EGAS MONIZ, Portugal, lecturing in forensic palynology. He has worked on forensic cases, presented or run symposia, seminars, workshops, university courses, invited and keynote addresses in forensic palynology and palaeopalynology in Australia, Austria, Cambodia, England, Ireland, Italy, New Zealand, Portugal, Scotland, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand and the USA. He has edited a special issue on forensic palynology for the journal Forensic Science International and a section on “Forensic Proxies” for the 2nd Encyclopaedia on Quaternary Science. He has also published over 450 scientific articles on all aspects of palynology and palaeobotany including 4 books and a number of book chapters.