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ABSTRACT
In the years before the public announcement of the daguerreotype process in 1839, Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre and others experimented with variations on photographic processes, including a heretofore mysterious process used to create a group of objects known as dessins-fumées (or smoke drawings). Exacting in style and miniature in scale, each depicts one of a limited number of architectural motifs in black media. While compositions are repeated within the small set of known dessins-fumées, variations in superficial details and shading are observed between “copies.” The J. Paul Getty Museum has two of these rare objects, Moorish Arch and Courtyard of a Gothic Castle. The black materials used by Daguerre were characterized with non-invasive analytical methods, including digital microscopy, macro x-ray fluorescence scanning, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, and Raman micro-spectroscopy; mockups were created to assess their potential methods of application. This research revealed that the Getty dessins-fumées are drawings and not produced by photographic or printmaking techniques. This study also characterizes the materials used to create the drawings and confirm the order in which they were applied. They are discussed with respect to how they address the uncertainty surrounding the development of photographic processes by Daguerre and others in the 1820s and 1830s.
RÉSUMÉ
Dans les années précédant l'annonce publique de l'invention du daguerréotype en 1839, Louis-Jacques- Mandé Daguerre et d'autres expérimentèrent avec des variations de procédés photographiques, dont un procédé, jusqu'ici mystérieux, utilisé pour créer un groupe d'objets appelés dessins-fumées. Stylistiquement exacts et de taille miniature, chacun dépeint l'un de quelques motifs architecturaux avec un medium noir. Si les compositions se répètent au sein du petit groupe de dessins-fumées identifiés, certaines « copies » présentent entre elles des variations de détails et d'ombrages superficiels. Le J. Paul Getty Museum possède deux de ces objets rares, Moorish Arch (arche mauresque) et Courtyard of a Gothic Castle (cour intérieure d'un château gothique). Les matériaux noirs utilisés par Daguerre ont été analysés avec des méthodes analytiques non-invasives, dont la microscopie numérique, la cartographie en macro-spectrométrie de fluorescence X, la spectroscopie infrarouge à transformée de Fourier et la micro-spectroscopie Raman ; des échantillons ont été fabriqués pour évaluer leur potentielles méthodes d'application. Cette recherche aura permis de révéler que les dessin-fumées sont bien des dessins et non des photographies ou des estampes. Cette étude caractérise également les matériaux utilisés pour la création des dessins et confirme leur ordre d'application. Ceux-ci servent aussi de support de discussion quant à l'incertitude autour du développement de procédés photographiques par Daguerre et ses confères dans les années 1820 et 1830. Traduit par Sophie Barbisan.
RESUMO
Em anos anteriores ao anúncio público do processo daguerreótipo em 1839, Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre e outros experimentaram variações nos processos fotográficos, incluindo um processo até então misterioso usado para criar um grupo de objetos conhecidos como dessins-fumées (ou desenhos de fumaça). Exato em estilo e miniatura em escala, cada um retrata um número limitado de motivos arquitetônicos em mídia negra. Enquanto as composições se repetem dentro do pequeno conjunto de dessins-fumées conhecidos, observam-se variações de detalhes superficiais e sombreamento entre as “cópias”. O Museu J. Paul Getty possui dois desses objetos raros, Moorish Arch e Courtyard of a Gothic Castle. Os materiais pretos usados por Daguerre foram especificados através de métodos analíticos não invasivos, incluindo microscopia digital, varredura de macro fluorescência de raios X, espectroscopia de infravermelho com transformada de Fourier e microespectroscopia Raman; mockups foram criados para avaliar seus potenciais métodos de aplicação. Esta pesquisa revelou que os dessins-fumées do Getty são desenhos e não foram produzidos por técnicas fotográficas ou de gravura. Este estudo também especifica os materiais utilizados para criar os desenhos e confirmar a ordem em que foram aplicados. Também discute como eles abordam a incerteza em torno do desenvolvimento dos processos fotográficos por Daguerre e outros nas décadas de 1820 e 1830. Traduzido por Francisco Vieira.
RESUMEN
En los años previos al anuncio público del proceso del daguerrotipo en 1839, Louis-Jacques- Mandé Daguerre y otros, experimentaron con variaciones en los procesos fotográficos, incluyendo un hasta ahora misterioso proceso utilizado para crear un grupo de objetos conocidos como dessins-fumées (o dibujos-humo). Con una exactitud de estilo y siendo una miniatura a escala, cada uno ilustra un número limitado de motivos arquitectónicas en un medio negro. Si bien las composiciones se repiten dentro del pequeño conjunto de dessins-fumées conocidos, se observan variaciones en los detalles superficiales y sombreado entre las “copias”. El Museo J. Paul Getty tiene dos de estos objetos excepcionales, Arco Moro y Patio de un Castillo Gótico. Los materiales negros utilizados por Daguerre se caracterizaron con métodos analíticos no invasivos, incluyendo microscopía digital, macro mapeo de fluorescencia de Rayos X, espectroscopía Infrarroja con transformada de Fourier y micro espectroscopia Raman; se crearon modelos a escala para evaluar sus posibles métodos de aplicación. Esta investigación reveló que los dessins-fumées del Getty son dibujos y no fueron producidos por técnicas fotográficas o grabados. Este estudio también caracteriza los materiales utilizados para crear los dibujos y confirmar el orden en que fueron aplicados. Se discuten con mirada a cómo estos dirigen la incertidumbre que rodea el desarrollo de los procesos fotográficos de Daguerre y otros en la década de 1820 y 1830. Traducción: Irene Delaveris; revisión: Amparo Rueda.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to our colleagues at the Getty Museum and Getty Conservation Institute for the generous support of Jim Ganz, Marc W. Harnly, and Nancy K. Turner including review of drafts; for expertise and insights we acknowledge Ronel Namde and Stacey Rain Strickler on image processing, Art Kaplan, Douglas MacLennan, and Karen Trentelman on analytical methods, and Emily Beeny (Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco) on techniques; for the support of comparative research from Joshua Chuang (New York Public Library), Israel Museum, Paul Messier LLC (Yale Institute for Preservation of Cultural Heritage), Hans P. Kraus, and Serge Kakou Collection; to Stephen C. Pinson (Metropolitan Museum of Art) for his expertise on Daguerre.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 One dessin-fumée (84.XM.1019) came through the collection of Arnold Crane; the other (84.XM.905) came from Stephen White Gallery. The Getty also holds a lithograph, dated about 1818 (84.XP.1450.7), from the Crane collection. Actual daguerreotypes made by Daguerre are rare. The Getty Museum holds a rare daguerreotype portrait of Daguerre by Charles Meade, made in 1848 (84.XT.953).
2 On the granular, resinous ground that gives aquatints their characteristic reticulated appearance, from Fielding’s The Art of Engraving, with the Various Modes of Operation of Citation1841, 40:
The process of aquatint engraving, as now followed, consists in pouring over a highly polished copper-plate a liquid composed of a resinous gum dissolved in spirits of wine, which latter evaporating leaves the resin spread all over the plate in minute grains that resist the action of the aquafortis, which however corrodes the bare surface of copper that is left between them. This granulated varnish is called a ground; but before the invention of this process, dust grounds were made use of, though they are no longer used in England. The method of making them is as follows:—Powder some common black resin very finely, and tie it up in a muslin bag; then having rubbed the plate very slightly with a greasy rag so as just to dim the copper, shake the bag over it till it is completely covered with powder; strike the plate smartly at the back to shake off any loose particle, and fix the resin which remains on it by warming it at the back with a piece of lighted paper till it begins to change colour. (Fielding Citation1841)
3 Senefelder’s detailed instructions on fabricating a pen nib from a watch spring:
The manner of preparing them is as follows: —Take a common watch-spring, not too small and not too large, (an eighth or a sixth part of an inch is the best size,) clean it from grease by rubbing it with sand or chalk, then put it into a clean cup, filled with a solution of equal parts of water and of aqua-fortis, and let the spring be wholly covered with the solution. The aqua-fortis will affect the spring; then let it remain in it till about three-fourths of its thickness is consumed, and it becomes as pliable as a slip of paper … / The must then be ben or hollowed into a semi-circular form ; this is best effected by putting them on a flat stone, and hammering them with a small hammer, such as watch-makers use, the points of which must be rounded; if a few sheets of paper are put under it, the operation will be greatly facilitated … / After this the pen must be cut ; to effect which let a fine slit, of the length of one-twelfth or an inch, be made in the midst of the watch-spring by means of a fine pair of steel scissors ; then, on both sides of it, let as much be taken off gradually as necessary to give the point of the pen the proper form. (Senefelder Citation1819)
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Sarah K. Freeman
Sarah K. Freeman joined the Paper Conservation Department at the J. Paul Getty Museum in 2006 as a Photographs Conservator. She holds an MA and Certificate of Advanced Study in art conservation from the Buffalo State College program and a B.S. in art history from the University of Wisconsin, Madison. Address: Paper Conservation Department, J. Paul Getty Museum, 1200 Getty Center Drive, Suite 1000, Los Angeles, CA 90049, USA. Email: [email protected]
Michelle Sullivan
Michelle Sullivan joined the Paper Conservation Department at the J. Paul Getty Museum in 2016 as a Drawings Conservator. She holds an MS and Certificate of Advanced Study in art conservation from the Winterthur/University of Delaware Program and a BA in studio art and art history from the University of California at Santa Barbara. Address: As for Freeman. Email: [email protected]
Nathan S. Daly
Nathan S. Daly is currently a Research Scientist at Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge, UK. Previously he was a Research Fellow in the Scientific Department at the National Gallery in London, and a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the Getty Conservation Institute focusing on the non-invasive technical analysis of works on paper. He holds a PhD in chemistry from Columbia University and a BA in chemistry from Northwestern University. Address: The Fitzwilliam Museum, Trumpington Street, Cambridge CB2 1RB, GB. Email: [email protected]
Karen Hellman
Karen Hellman joined the Department of Photographs at the J. Paul Getty Museum in 2010 as an Assistant Curator. She holds a PhD in Art History and the History of Photography from the Graduate Center, City University of New York, an MA in Art History from the Institute of Fine Arts, NYU, and a BA in Art History from Brown University. Address: As for Freeman. Email: [email protected]
Lynn Lee
Lynn Lee before joining the Department of Conservation and Research at the M+ Museum in January 2022, Lynn Lee was at the Getty Conservation Institute from 2011-2021. She received her Ph.D. from the University of California, Berkeley, in Physical Chemistry and was the Andrew W. Mellon Postdoctoral Fellow in Conservation Science at the Straus Center for Conservation and Technical Studies, Harvard Art Museums. Address: M+ Museum, M+ Tower, West Kowloon Cultural District, Kowloon, HK. Email: [email protected]