International Development Models for Educational Reform1

1. A more extended discussion of the themes introduced in this paper can be found in Williams and Cummings (2005).

Abstract

Over the last half century of educational development, six distinctive administrative models have emerged: (1) neo-colonial, (2) centralised, (3) decentralised-regionalisation, (4) decentralised-sectoral, (5) community-based, and (6) transformative models. The origins, strengths, and weaknesses of the respective models are reviewed and compared.

Notes

1. A more extended discussion of the themes introduced in this paper can be found in Williams and Cummings (2005).

2. We use the term “modern school” to refer to formal schooling based on the Western model which consists of formal, graded schools that offer credentials and serve as a pre-requisite for entry into higher levels of schooling (Williams, 1997). Cummings (2003) outlined the main features of modern education in six core nations and traces its worldwide diffusion.

3. While this paper emphasises the development of education systems according to a limited number of patterns, other scholars emphasise the convergence of education institutions (e.g., Chabbott, 2003; Meyer & Hannan, 1979; Fuller & Rubinson, 1992).

4. In this paper, the discussion refers most directly to basic education in the formal system, though there are implications for higher education as well.

5. Despite the general tendency to retain much of the colonial system, a number of governments made conscious efforts to break with the past, such as Tanzania, Guinea, Ghana, Cuba, and Nicaragua. These efforts were more or less successful, though all encountered resistance and all, with the possible exception of Cuba, have retreated from their most revolutionary claims (Carnoy & Samoff, 1990).

6. Still, UNESCO has continued to play an influential advocacy and technical assistance role, though overshadowed somewhat by the bilateral agencies and multilateral banks.