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Abstract
Dynastic cohesion of the Eastern Han declined from ca. 130 CE or earlier as may be seen in the absence of a decisive emperor, the treatment of his blood relatives, the growth of privately managed estates, and the cessation of measures to relieve distress and settle the population. To this we may add the growth of some types of groups of non-official influential individuals bearing various titles, and the expressions of a sharp criticism of the conduct of public life that accompanied the central government’s loss of strength.
大約公元130 年或者更早，東漢王朝的凝聚力開始削弱，其表現在缺乏一個主政的皇帝，外戚的專寵，豪強地主勢力的擴充，以及沒有執行緩解苦難和解決人口問題的措施。對此，我們也可補充：非官方有影響力且承載各種頭銜的某些個人群體的增長，以及伴隨中央集權力量喪失而來的對公眾生活尖銳批評的表達。
Notes on Contributor
Michael Loewe, university lecturer in Chinese Studies, Cambridge 1963–1990. Publications include Records of Han Administration (1967), Crisis and Conflict in Han China (1974), A Biographical Dictionary of the Qin, Former Han and Xin Periods (221 BC – AD 24) (2000); Dong Zhongshu, a “Confucian” Heritage and the Chunqiu fanlu (2011), and Problems of Han Administration (2016).
Notes
1 See HHS 4.166 for the part played by the Empress Dowager Dou 竇 (Zhangdi’s empress) and Deng Biao 鄧彪 in controlling the dynastic succession; and HHS 5.203 for the Empress Dowager and Deng’s part in bringing about the accession of Andi.
2 See Twitchett – Loewe 1986, pp. 259, 280, 304, 308, and deC 2016, pp. 109–112, 171, 199, 362.
3 HHS 6.249–250; deC 2007, p. 473.
4 At least 150 of these inscriptions are known. They include some for a regional inspector (ci shi 刺史, dated 119, 121, 167, 181, 190); a governor of a commandery (taishou 太守, 137, 171, 172, 179, 186, 205, 209); the colonel internal security (sili xiaowei 司隸校尉, 148, 173); the magistrate of Luoyang (Luoyang ling 洛陽令, 153); a county magistrate (ling 令, 177, 178, 183, 186, 190, 202); the supreme commander (taiwei 太尉, 178, 179); and once for the imperial counsellor (sikong 司空, 168), perhaps thanks to his descent from Kongzi.
5 HHS 6.276.
6 These ventures were made by or for Ma Mian 馬勉, self declared Yellow Emperor in 145 (HHS 38.1279); Hua Meng 華孟, a criminal and self-declared Heidi 黑帝 in 145 (HHS 38.1279–1280); Li Jian 李堅, self-declared emperor in 147 (HHS 7.291); Liu Suan 劉蒜, king of Qinghe 清河 (HHS 7.291); Chen Jing 陳景, self-styled Huangdi 黃帝 in 148, who appointed his officials (HHS 7.293); and Pei You 裵優, self-declared emperor in 150 (HHS 36.1243).
7 For the Yellow Turbans, see CitationCh’en Ch’i-yun 1986, p. 801.
8 HHS 9.370.
9 For zhaomu, see CitationLoewe 1994, pp. 276–279, and Citation2010a pp. 215–216. At a meeting held in Xi’an some years ago, Chinese archaeologists who had been working on Han tombs, did not accept the view that zhaomu had affected the choice of the tombs’ positions.
10 HHS 42.1437.
11 See Twitchett – Loewe 1986, pp. 124–126, 139–144.
12 For these processes, see CitationLoewe 2004, chapter eleven and maps 3 and 4 (pp. 358–359).
13 HHS 10A.410.
14 HHS 1B.81; 2.102, 109, 114; 3.159.
15 See, e.g., HHS 3.154, 157.
16 HHS 41.1414. See also HHS 42.1440 for the proposal of the Commissioner for state visits (Da Honglu 大鴻臚) to send the kings to their kingdoms.
17 HHS chapters 42, 52, and 55.
18 E.g., Liu Jing 劉荊, son of Guangwudi, king of Shanyang 山陽 and then Guangling 廣陵; Liu Chang 劉暢, son of Mingdi, king of Runan 汝南 and then Liang 梁; HHS 42.1446, 50.1675.
19 See HHS 42.1424 (at the death of Guangwudi); 50.1668 (Mingdi); 50.1670, 1672 (Zhangdi); 4.196; 55.1802 (Hedi); 55.1797 (Andi).
20 For tombs of some of the kings of both Western and Eastern Han, see CitationLoewe (1990), pp. 5–72.
21 See Map 12 in Twitchett – Loewe 1986, pp. 252–253.
22 For the situation and style of life of the binke 賓客, see p. 21 below.
23 Shiji chapters 18–21, HS chapters 15–18.
24 See CitationLoewe 2004, chapters 7, 8, and 9.
25 See Twitchett – Loewe 1986, p. 157, and CitationLoewe 2004, pp. 285, 291.
26 Of a total of 280 nobilities created for attainment of merit from Gaozu’s time onwards, twenty-six survived until 1 BCE, twenty-five until 10 CE; see CitationLoewe 2004, pp. 285, 290–291, 310.
27 Huo Guang’s nobility finally amounted to control of 17,000 households (HS 68.2947). This figure may be compared with that of 1,000 households that is set against the wealth or earnings of farmers, merchants, and others (HS 18.691, 91.3686).
28 See Ershiwu shi bu bian 二十五史補編, vol. 2 for Wan Sitong 萬斯同 (1638–1702), Dong Han wai qi hou biao 東漢外戚侯表; Dong Han huanzhe hou biao 東漢宦者侯表; Dong Han Yuntai gong chen hou biao 東漢雲臺功臣侯表; and Huang Dahua 黃大華, Dong Han zhongxing gongchen hou shixi biao 東漢中興功臣侯世系表.
29 HHS 78.2520; deC 2007, p. 725. These figures may be set against those of the population of the counties; those of ten thousand households were governed by a magistrate (ling 令) of 10,000 shi 石 grade; those of lesser size by a magistrate (zhang 長) of 300–500 shi grade.
30 HHS 22.789–790.
31 For the wenxue in Eastern Han, see pp. 20–21 below.
32 For a description of this debate, see Loewe 1974, chapter 3. For translations of the text, see CitationGale 1931 and CitationWalter 1978.
33 Yantie lun 32.410.
34 For decrees and other contexts, see HHS 3.133 (for 76 CE), 3.148 (for 85); 4.167 (for 88); 4.178 (for 94), 4.192 (for 104).
35 For allusions to a need to improve the standard of officials, see HHS 61.2020, 2035.
36 HHS 3.133.
37 HHS 4.180, 5.217.
38 The shi, later read dan, measured 19.9 litres.
39 HHS 7.288.
40 See the Shilü 史律, in Zhangjiashan Han mu zhu jian, transcription, pp. 203–205, CitationBarbieri-Low – Yates 2015, pp. 1084–1111.
41 For these tests, see HHS 6.261; 8.340, 341 (note 1); 61.2019–2020.
42 Han guan yi A.4a.
43 HHS 44.1500; Hou Hanshu jijie 44.4b.
44 HHS 25.883.
45 For these relations, see CitationHulsewé 1979.
46 For these developments, see CitationYü Ying-shih 1986, pp. 412–416, deC 2016, pp. 100–101, 138–140, 190, 252, 357.
47 For the forceful activities of Dianlian 滇零 from 107 see deC 2007, p. 139.
48 CitationBielenstein 1986, p. 266, CitationLoewe 1967, vol. I pp. 61–64.
49 The shuguo were named Guanghan 廣漢, Shujun 蜀郡, Jianwei, Zhangyi 張掖, Zhangyi Juyan and Liaodong 遼東. For their situation, see HHS (treatise) 23.3514, 3521, 3530, CitationBielenstein 1986, pp. 252–253, Map 12.
50 Given incorrectly in HS 28B.1640; for figures for 140 see HHS (treatise) 23.3533.
51 HS 28B.1609, 1614, 1621; HHS (treatise) 23.3518, 3519, 3521, 3525.
52 These differences are seen, e.g., for Beidi 北地, with nineteen and later six, and Liaoxi 遼西, with fourteen and later five counties, and also for Shangjun, Xihe 西河, Dingxiang 定襄 and You Beiping 右北平.
53 For references to one of these orders that was classed below the twenty, under the title of gongzu 公卒, see, e.g., Zhangjiashan Han mu zhujian strip no. 313, and CitationBarbieri-Low – Yates 2015, pp. 790, 807.
54 For the system of jue, see CitationLoewe 1960; for a summary, see CitationLoewe 2010b, pp. 297–299.
55 HHS 7.289.
56 HHS 1B.81.
57 These were dated in 168, following immediately after Lingdi’s accession (HHS 8.328) and in 215 at the declaration of Cao Jie 曹節 as Xiandi’s empress (HHS 9.388). For specific acts to relieve the sufferings of the liumin in Guangwudi’s reign, see HHS 76.2459.
59 See HS 24A.1137 for Dong Zhongshu, and 24A.1142 for the protests of Shi Dan 師丹 in 7 BCE. See also the proposal made for these restrictions by Zhufu Yan 主父偃 in 127 BCE (HS 64A.2802), and the remarks of Huan Tan 桓譚 early in Guangwudi’s reign (HHS 28A.958).
60 HS 90.3668.
61 The qing of 100 mu 畝 measured 11.39 English acres. The allocation to those who held the title of gongshi 公士, normally taken as the lowest of the orders, was 1.5 qing. Examples of large holdings include those of 300 qing (held by Fan Zhong 樊重, ca. 20 BCE to ca. 20 CE); 400 (held by the family of Zhang Yu 張禹 [d. 5 BCE]); 700 (held by the forebears of Yin Shi 陰識 [d. 59 CE]); 800 held by Liu Kang 劉康 (son of Guangwudi); and 400 (held by Zheng Tai 鄭太 [152–192]).
62 HHS 24.828.
63 HHS 49.1651.
64 For a fuller treatment of these inscriptions, see CitationLoewe (forthcoming).
65 CitationBielenstein 1947, pp. 139–141, 144, and 1986, pp. 223–290.
66 For further details of this subject, see CitationLoewe (forthcoming).
67 E.g., (a) where the numbers of registered households and individuals were higher, for Bajun 巴郡 (with a reduction from 4.4 to 3.4); Lingling 零陵 (from 6.6 to 4.7); Guiyang 桂陽 (from 5.5 to 3.7); also for Nanhai 南海, Cangwu 蒼梧 and Hepu 合浦; (b) where they were lower, for Guanghan 廣漢 (from 3.7 to 3.6); Yizhou 益州 (from 7.0 to 3.8); Wudu 武都 (from 4.5 to 4.0); Wuwei 武威 (from 4.3 to 3.4).
68 See the notes attached to Xu Hanzhi 23.3534, Hou Hanshu jijie (tr.) 23B.31a–32a. These quote figures from the Hanguan yi 漢官儀 of Ying Shao 應卲 (ca. 140 – before 204) and the Diwang shiji 帝王世記 [or 紀] of Huangfu Mi 皇甫謐 (215–282).
69 See CitationLewis 2007, p. 248, for dating this abolition in 32 CE.
70 HHS 61.2017–2020.
71 HHS 61.2026.
72 HHS 59.1909–1912.
73 CitationBalazs 1964, p. 200.
74 Qianfu lun 17.202.
75 Qianfu lun, 20.240.
76 CitationBalazs 1964, p. 205.
77 HHS 30B.1068.
78 HHS 61.2037.
79 HHS 63.2073.
80 HHS 52.1725–1731; CitationBalazs 1964, p. 205.