Diamond Desire – Probing the Epistemological Entanglements of Geology and Ethnography at Diamang (Angola)

ABSTRACT

In the wake of the Anthropocene there is a growing body of literature questioning the colonial and imperialistic underpinnings of geology, mineralogy and mining sciences. When focused on the African continent, these critiques echo and complement previous analyses of the role that anthropology has played as the ‘handmaiden of colonialism’. This article proposes to liken the two debates by focusing on the ethnographic practices promoted by the Angolan diamond mining company Diamang (1917–1988) during the interwar period. It argues that mineral desire, the greed for mineral resources such as diamonds, copper or gold, was the drive behind the introduction of ethnographic collecting and field-working to the Portuguese colony. The implications of this shift in perspective will be explored regarding the ongoing restitution debate. First, the article demonstrates that the history of the objects collected by Diamang disrupts ‘classic’ readings of the history of Portuguese anthropology focused on ‘disciplinary big men’ and their agendas. Second, it shows how the gathering and interpretation of ethnographic and archaeological data were totally integrated into the extractive apparatus of Diamang. The article then concludes by suggesting that the decolonisation of ethnographic collections must consider their entanglements with mining, geology and mineralogy.

KEYWORDS:

• African archaeology
• Angola
• Anthropocene
• Diamang
• Portuguese anthropology
• diamond mining
• museum anthropology
• settler colonialism
• restitution

Correction Statement

This article has been republished with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article.

Note on the contributor

João Figueiredo has a BA (Hons) in anthropology and a PhD in history. Currently, he is a post-doctoral research fellow in the project ‘LEGALPL: Legal pluralism in the Portuguese Empire (18th–20th century)’ at the New University of Lisbon, Portugal.

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the editors Caio Simões de Araújo and Arianna Lissoni for their guidance, and the anonymous reviewers for their feedback and insightful comments. I also thank all the participants of the workshop ‘Critical Entanglements: Colonialism, Anthropology and the Visual Arts’ (Wits University, Johannesburg, 10–11 May 2019) for their suggestions, especially Catarina Simão, Ciraj Rassool and Robert Gordon. Lastly, my gratitude also goes to Maria Elena Indelicato for her patient engagement with my thinking process and thorough editing of the manuscript. Her contribution clarified my argument and enriched the text.

Notes

1 R. Caillois apud M. Yourcenar, ‘Introduction’, The Writing of Stones (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1985), xix.

2 K. Marx, Capital – A Critique of Political Economy, vol. I (London: Penguin Books, 1982), 286.

3 K. Yusoff, A Billion Black Anthropocenes or None (Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press, 2018) [e-book].

4 Ibid.

5 Compiling a bibliography of this debate is beyond the scope of my article. See e.g. P. Wolfe, Settler Colonialism and the Transformation of Anthropology (London: Cassell, 1999); P. Pels, ‘What Has Anthropology Learned from the Anthropology of Colonialism?’, Social Anthropology/Anthropologie Sociale, 16, 3 (2008), 280–299; P. Pels and O. Salemink, ‘Five Theses on Ethnography as Colonial Practice’, History and Anthropology, 8, 1–4 (1994), 1–34.

6 H. Davis and Z. Todd, ‘On the Importance of a Date, or, Decolonizing the Anthropocene’, ACME: An International Journal for Critical Geographies, 16, 4 (2017), 761–780; J.S. Schneiderman, ‘The Anthropocene Controversy’, in R. Grusin, ed., Anthropocene Feminism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2017), 169–195. See also L. Schiebinger, Plants and Empire: Colonial Bioprospecting in the Atlantic World (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004), 194–242.

7 Davis and Todd, ‘On the Importance of a Date’, 767; E. Johnson and H. Morehouse, eds, ‘After the Anthropocene’, Progress in Human Geography, 38, 3 (2014), 439–456; Yusoff, A Billion Black Anthropocenes.

8 Yusoff, A Billion Black Anthropocenes.

9 Ibid.

10 Ibid.

11 I adapt both the expression ‘classic’, to qualify academic-centred histories of anthropology, and the concept ‘disciplinary big men’ from Pels and Salemink. Pels, ‘What Has Anthropology Learned’; Pels and Salemink, ‘Five Theses on Ethnography’; P. Pels and O. Salemink, eds, Colonial Subjects: Essays on the Practical History of Anthropology (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2000).

12 C.N. da Silva, ‘Assimilacionismo e assimilados no império português do século XX’, in A.B. Xavier and C.N. da Silva, O Governo dos Outros (Lisbon: ICS, 2016), 323–364; J. Fabian, ‘Presence and Representation’, Critical Inquiry, 16, 4 (1990), 753–772; N. Porto, Angola a Preto e Branco (Coimbra: Museu Antropológico da Universidade de Coimbra, 1999), 54 (note 10); N. Thomas, ‘Against Ethnography’, Cultural Anthropology, 6, 3 (1991), 309.

13 A.L. Stoler and F. Cooper, ‘Between Metropole and Colony – Rethinking a Research Agenda’ in F. Cooper and A.L. Stoler, eds, Tensions of Empire – Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 1–56.

14 A. Mbembe, On the Postcolony (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 17; Davis and Todd, ‘On the Importance of a Date’; Porto, Angola a Preto e Branco, 31, 111; Yusoff, A Billion Black Anthropocenes.

15 A. Mbembe, ‘Necropolitics’, Public Culture, 15, 1 (2003), 25–27.

16 F. Sarr and B. Savoy, Report on the Restitution of African Cultural Heritage (Paris, 2018).

17 A. Mbembe, ‘À propos de la restitution des artefacts africains conservés dans les musées d’Occident’, AOC, https://aoc.media/analyse/2018/10/05/a-propos-de-restitution-artefacts-africains-conserves-musees-doccident/, accessed 17 August 2019.

18 Yusoff, A Billion Black Anthropocenes.

19 D. Collier, Repainting the Walls of Lunda (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2016) [e-book]; N. Porto, Angola a Preto e Branco; N. Porto, ‘Manageable Past’, Cahiers d’Études Africaines, 39, 155–156 (1999), 767–787; N. Porto, Modos de Objectificação da Dominação Colonial (Lisbon: Gulbenkian, 2009); N. Porto, ‘A Arte e etnografia cokwe’, Etnográfica, 19, 1 (2015), 139–168; W.G. Clarence Smith, ‘The Myth of Uneconomic Imperialism: The Portuguese in Angola, 1836–1926’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 5, 2 (1979), 177.

20 J. Young, Heidegger’s Philosophy of Art (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001); Porto, Modos de Objectificação.

21 Ibid.

22 See, for instance, T. Hunt, H. Dorgerloh and N. Thomas, ‘Restitution Report’, The Art Newspaper, 27 November 2018. https://www.theartnewspaper.com/comment/restitution-report-museums-directors-respond, accessed 18 August 2019.

23 L. Canelas, ‘Museu Nacional de Etnologia, um caso à parte’, Publico, 7 December 2018. https://www.publico.pt/2018/12/07/culturaipsilon/noticia/caso-museu-nacional-etnologia-1853017, accessed 18 August 2019; Lusa Agency, ‘Museu Nacional de Etnologia não recebeu pedidos de restituição de peças’, Diário de Notícias, 22 March 2019. https://www.dn.pt/lusa/interior/museu-nacional-de-etnologia-nao-recebeu-pedidos-de-restituicao-de-pecas---diretor-10714516.html, accessed 18 August 2019.

24 Canelas, ‘Museu Nacional de Etnologia’.

25 Pels, ‘What Has Anthropology Learned’; Pels and Salemink, ‘Five Theses on Ethnography’; Pels and Salemink, Colonial Subjects.

26 H.G. West, ‘Inverting the Camel’s Hump: Jorge Dias, His Wife, Their Interpreter, and I’, in R. Handler, ed., Significant Others: Interpersonal and Professional Commitments in Anthropology (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 2004), 51–90; J. Leal, ‘A Antropologia em Portugal e o Englobamento da Cultura Popular’, Sociologia & Antropologia, 6, 2 (2016), 293–319; P. Israel, In Step With The Times: Mapiko Masquerades of Mozambique (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2014).

27 E. Tuck and K.W. Yang, ‘Decolonization Is Not a Metaphor’, Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education Society, 1, 1 (2012), 1–40; J. Mawhinney, ‘Giving up the Ghost: Disrupting the (Re)Production of White Privilege in Anti-Racist Pedagogy and Organizational Change’ (Master’s thesis, Ottawa, University of Toronto, 1998), 94–120.

28 C. Castelo, O modo português de estar no mundo (Porto: Edições Afrontamento, 1998); P.F. Matos, ‘Mendes Correia e a Escola de Antropologia do Porto’ (PhD thesis, Lisbon, Universidade de Lisboa, 2012); R.M. Pereira, ‘Raça, Sangue e Robustez: Os paradigmas da Antropologia Física colonial portuguesa’, Cadernos de Estudos Africanos, 7/8 (2005), 209–241; R.M. Pereira, ‘Uma visão colonial do racismo’, Cadernos de Estudos Africanos, 9/10 (2006), 129–140.

29 Pels and Salemink, ‘Five Theses on Ethnography’; Pels and Salemink, Colonial Subjects.

30 See, for instance, the works compiled in the two volumes of the proceedings of the ‘First National Congress of Colonial Anthropology’. This event was organised by the Portuguese Society of Anthropology and Ethnology (1918–), the academic study association which stood beyond the ‘Porto School of Anthropology’. Trabalhos do 1° Congresso Nacional de Antropologia Colonial, vols I and II (Porto: Edições da 1° Exposição Colonial Portuguesa, 1934).

31 Bernardino Machado became a full professor of the University of Coimbra while still lecturing in agriculture, in 1879, but began lecturing in geology immediately afterwards. He was responsible for establishing the first chair of anthropology in Portugal, in 1885, and curated the Ethnographic Collections of the Natural History Museum of the University of Coimbra. António Mendes Correia, who was the leading figure of the ‘Porto School of Anthropology’, became a full professor of mineralogy and geology of the University of Porto in 1926. He established and directed the Museum of Anthropology and Prehistoric Archaeology of the University of Porto. A.A.M. Correia, Geologia e Antropologia em Portugal (Lisbon: Imprensa Nacional de Lisboa, 1939); A.F. Moller, ‘Catalogo do Museu Ethnographico da Universidade de Coimbra’, O Instituto, 44 (1897), 674–682, 749–757; J.L. de Vasconcelos, História do Museu Etnologico Português (Lisbon: Imprensa Nacional, 1915), 284.

32 Correia, Geologia e Antropologia, 15–16.

33 All translations from Portuguese are the responsibility of the author.

34 Correia, Geologia e Antropologia.

35 A detailed analysis of this history goes beyond the scope of this article. See, for instance, D. Gallo, O Saber Português: Antropologia e Colonialismo (Lisbon: Heptágono, 1988); L. Macagno, ‘Antropólogos na “África portuguesa”’, África, 35 (2015), 87–118; L. Macagno, ‘A Brazilianist in Portuguese Africa’, Portuguese Studies Review, 26, 1 (2018), 221–246; West, ‘Inverting the Camel’s Hump’.

36 See Adriano Moreira’s interview reproduced in Macagno, ‘Antropólogos’, 108–110.

37 Directorate General for Cultural Heritage, National Museum of Ethnology. http://www.patrimoniocultural.gov.pt/en/museus-e-monumentos/rede-portuguesa/m/museu-nacional-de-etnologia/, accessed 18 August 2019.

38 J. Dias et al., eds, Escultura Africana No Museu de Etnologia do Ultramar (Lisbon: Junta de Investigação do Ultramar, 1968), afterword.

39 Although this afterword is anonymous, a festschrift edited in 1989 by the Centre for Ethnologic Studies in praise of Ernesto Veiga de Oliveira (1910–1990) suggests that it was written by Oliveira, close collaborator and friend of Dias. The anonymity seems meant to signal the collective nature of the work performed by the team of the MOE. Oliveira would repeat the exact same claims under analysis in a series of later articles and chapters. E.V. de Oliveira, ‘L’Art Africain au Portugal’, Antologia di Belle Arti, 17, 5 (1981), 25–44; E.V. de Oliveira, ‘Escultura Africana em Portugal’, in Escultura Africana em Portugal, (Lisbon: IICT, 1985), 11–44; E.V. de Oliveira and B. Pereira, Catálogo da exposição no Centro de Arte Contemporânea do Porto (Porto: SEIC, 1977); F.O. Baptista, J.P. de Brito, M.L. Braga et al., Estudos em Homenagem a Ernesto Veiga de Oliveira (Lisbon: Centro de Estudos de Etnologia/INIC, 1989), 15–16.

40 Oliveira, ‘L’Art Africain au Portugal’; Oliveira, ‘Escultura Africana em Portugal’.

41 Ibid.

42 B. Rogan, ‘A Remarkable Congress and a Popular General Secretary’, Etnográfica, 19, 3 (2015), 567–576; J. Dias, ‘The Quintessence of the Problem: Nomenclature and Subject-Matter of Folklore’, in Congrès International d’Ethnologie Régionale, Actes du Congrès International d’Ethnologie Régionale (Arnhem: Het Nederlands Openluchtmuseum, 1956), 1–14.

43 Dias et al., eds, Escultura Africana, afterword.

44 Ibid.

45 Ibid. ‘School of Social Sciences and Overseas Policy’ was the new designation of the old Colonial School, established in 1906 next to the Lisbon Geographic Society.

46 See, for instance, the plans for a new museum presented to the ‘First National Congress of Colonial Anthropology’ in 1934. M. Afonso do Paço, ‘Da necessidade da criação do Museu de Etnografia’, in Trabalhos do 1° Congresso, volume II, 23–27; L. Chaves, ‘Museu Etnográfico do Império Português – Sua necessidade – Um plano de organização’ in Trabalhos do 1° Congresso, vol. II, 28–45.

47 Yusoff, A Billion Black Anthropocenes.

48 Ibid.

49 Those which account for the objects incorporated because of the Ministerial Order of 26 April 1963, for instance. Dias et al., eds, Escultura Africana, afterword.

50 Canelas, ‘Museu Nacional de Etnologia’; Directorate General for Cultural Heritage, National Museum of Ethnology.

51 ‘I Congresso Nacional de Antropologia Colonial’, Trabalhos de Antropologia e Etnologia, 7 (1935), 17–21.

52 Mbembe, ‘À propos de la restitution’.

53 A. Videira, M. Fontinha et al., Relatório Anual 1963, 4 (1964), 32–34. http://www.diamangdigital.net/index.php?module=diamang&option=item&id=1503, accessed 23 August 2019; Porto, ‘Manageable Past’, 768–770.

54 Videira, Fontinha, et al., Relatório Anual 1963, 35.

55 A. Videira, A. Oliveira et al., Relatório Anual 1962, 4 (1963), 27. http://www.diamangdigital.net/index.php?module=diamang&option=item&id=1502, accessed 23 August 2019.

56 Companhia de Diamantes de Angola, Relatório do Conselho de Administração e Parecer do Conselho Fiscal relativos ao exercício de 1964 (Lisboa: Diamang, 1965), 27–31; Porto, Angola a Preto e Branco, 157.

57 Before becoming chief executive of Diamang (1919–1955), Vilhena had been Minister of Colonies (1917) and the Governor of the Nyassa Chartered Company (1902–1904), having then signed the agreement with the Witwatersrand Native Labour Association that turned the Portuguese company into a provider of forced labour for the South African mines. D.R. Curto, ‘Um álbum fotográfico da Diamang’, Mulemba – Revista Angolana de Ciências Sociais, 5, 10 (2015), 167; E. Vilhena, Companhia do Nyassa (Lisbon: Typographia da ‘A Editora’, 1905); Aventura e Rotina (crítica de uma crítica) (Lisbon: Oficinas Gráficas da Editorial Império, 1955), 18; M.J. Carvalho, ‘As Esculturas de Ernesto Jardim de Vilhena’ (PhD thesis, Lisbon, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 2014), 72–73, 104–108.

58 Porto, ‘A Arte e etnografia cokwe’; R. Pélissier, Le naufrage des caravelles (Montamets: Editions Pélissier, 1979), 23–25, 30.

59 Nuno Porto’s Angola a Preto e Branco is the monograph which comes closest to proposing such a reading. Collier, Repainting the Walls of Lunda; Porto, Angola a Preto e Branco; Porto, ‘Manageable Past’; ‘The Arts of the Portuguese Empire’; Porto, Modos de Objectificação da Dominação Colonial; Porto, ‘A Arte e etnografia cokwe’.

60 Collier, Repainting the Walls of Lunda; Porto, Angola a Preto e Branco. For an analysis of how the ethnographic efforts promoted by the museum became entangled with the obsessive-compulsive security measures set in place by Diamang’s security forces, see F. Calvão, ‘The Company Oracle, Corporate Security and Diviner-Detectives in Angola's Diamond Mines’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 59, 3 (2017), 574–599.

61 D. Collier, ‘Diamang as Apparatus: The Production of Painted Walls of Lunda in 1953’ in Collier, Repainting the Walls of Lunda, 29–72.

62 Ibid.

63 Ibid.

64 Porto, Angola a Preto e Branco, 24–25, 30.

65 Calvão, ‘Company Oracle’; J. Varanda, ‘“A Bem da Nação”: Medical Science in a Diamond Company in Twentieth-Century Colonial Angola’ (PhD thesis, London, University College London, 2007); J. Varanda, ‘Crossing Colonies and Empires’, in A. Digby, W. Ernst and P. B. Mukharji, eds, Crossing Colonial Historiographies: Histories of Colonial and Indigenous Medicines in Transnational Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2010), 165–184; T. Cleveland, Stones of Contention: A History of Africa’s Diamonds (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2014) [e-book]; T. Cleveland, Diamonds in the Rough (Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 2015) [e-book].

66 Collier, Repainting the Walls of Lunda.

67 Porto, ‘A Arte e etnografia cokwe’; Porto, ‘Manageable Past’.

68 Porto, ‘Manageable Past’, 768–770; Porto, ‘A Arte e etnografia cokwe’.

69 P.F. Matos, ‘Projectos Coloniais e seus efeitos’, Poiésis, 2, 2 (2009), 50–54; T.I.M. Pereira, Uma Travessia da Colonialidade (PhD thesis, Lisbon, Universidade de Lisboa, 2011), 99–100, 159–161.

70 A.B. Machado, ‘Notícia sobre a Acção Cultural da Companhia de Diamantes de Angola’, in M.L.R. Areia and A.B. Machado, eds, Diamang (Coimbra: Departamento de Antropologia, 1995), 11–28; Porto, ‘A Arte e etnografia cokwe’, 151–152; Porto, ‘Manageable Past’, 768–771; J. Redinha et al., Relatório Anual 1942, 1 (1943), 39. http://www.diamangdigital.net/index.php?module=diamang&option=item&id=6, accessed 13 September 2019.

71 Porto, ‘A Arte e etnografia cokwe’, 140; Angola a Preto e Branco, 10, 21, 24, 149–157.

72 P. Matos, ‘Projectos Coloniais e seus efeitos: o caso do trabalho de José Redinha desenvolvido no Museu do Dundo', Poiésis, 2, 2 (2009), 48–49.

73 Cleveland, Stones of Contention; Cleveland, Diamonds in the Rough; Curto, ‘Um álbum fotográfico’; J.O. de Oliveira et al., Flagrantes da vida na Lunda (Lisboa: Diamang, 1958); Vilhena, Aventura e Rotina, 10–11, 15, 49; Porto, Angola a Preto e Branco, 133.

74 Namely, Henrique de Carvalho’s journey from Luanda to the capital of Lunda Empire, between 1884 and 1887. B. Heintze, ‘A Rare Insight into African Aspects of Angolan History: Henrique Dias de Carvalho’s Records of His Lunda Expedition, 1880–1884’, Portuguese Studies Review, 19, 1–2 (2011), 93–113; J. Redinha, Campanha Etnográfica ao Tchihoco – Volume I (Alto-Tchicapa) (Lisbon: Diamang, 1953); Campanha Etnográfica ao Tchihoco – Volume II (Alto-Tchicapa) (Lisbon: Diamang, 1953); Porto, Angola a Preto e Branco, 13, 20–21.

75 M.L.R. Areia, ‘The Dundu Museum (Angola)’, in P. Allsworth-Jones, West African Archaeology (Oxford: Achaeopress, 2010), 157–160; Porto, Angola a Preto e Branco, 27–28.

76 J.D. Clark, Prehistoric Cultures of Northeast Angola and Their Significance in Tropical Africa, vol. I (Lisbon: Diamang, 1962), 19–20; L.S.B. Leakey, Tentative Study of the Pleistocene Climatic Changes and Stone-Age Culture Sequence in North-Eastern Angola (Lisbon: Diamang, 1949), 13, 19; Porto, Angola a Preto e Branco, 27–28.

77 Areia, ‘Dundu Museum (Angola)’, 157–160; Porto, Angola a Preto e Branco, 26–28.

78 These editions were freely sent to libraries and universities across the globe. J. Janmart, Les stations paléolithiques de l’Angola Nord-Est (Lisbon: Diamang, 1946); Matos, ‘Projectos Coloniais’, 48; Porto, Angola a Preto e Branco, 27, 52.

79 Ibid., 9.

80 Leakey, Tentative Study.

81 J. Janmart, The Kalahari Sands of the Lunda (Lisbon: Diamang, 1953), 13–14; Leakey, Tentative Study, 11; Porto, Angola a Preto e Branco, 52.

82 Leakey, Tentative Study, 15–18.

83 Ibid., 17.

84 Ibid.

85 Ibid.

86 Ibid.; Cleveland, Stones of Contention; Cleveland, Diamonds in the Rough.

87 Leakey, Tentative Study, 17.

88 Ibid., 15–18.

89 The relative oxidation of the lithic materials, the presence of kaolin and other chemical indicators could be combined with a physical analysis of the stratigraphic ‘sorting’ of smaller and larger elements and of the axial rotation at which the larger ones became deposited, in order to estimate the relative level of humidity that characterised the epoch when a given geological stratum was formed. Janmart, Les stations paléolithiques de l’Angola Nord-Est, 13–16.

90 Clark, Prehistoric Cultures, 20–24.

91 Leakey, Tentative Study, 17.

92 Ibid., 17, 82.

93 Janmart began corresponding with and visiting University of Cape Town Professor A.J.H. Goodwin (1900–1959) in 1942. J. Janmart, ‘Méthode pour le classement par rang d’âge des pierres taillées préhistoriques contenues dans les nappes de gravier des plaines alluviales’, in J. Janmart and J. Redinha, La station préhistorique de Candala (Lisboa: Diamang, 1948), 47–50; J. Redinha et al., Relatório Anual 1943, 2 (1944), 125. http://www.diamangdigital.net/index.php?module=diamang&option=item&id=26, accessed 13 September 2019.

94 J. Janmart, ‘Méthode pour le classement’, 49–50.

95 J. Janmart, ‘La station préhistorique de Candala (District de la Lunda, Angola du Nord-Est)’, in Janmart and Redinha, La station préhistorique de Candala, 18–24; Porto, Angola a Preto e Branco, 52–53. See also the annexes ‘A’ and ‘B’ to the administrative circular no. 21-D/41 in J. Redinha et al., Relatório Anual 1942.

96 Janmart, Les stations paléolithiques de l’Angola Nord-Est, 46; ‘Méthode pour le classement’, 48.

97 Ibid., 50–54.

98 Ibid.

99 Ibid.

100 Ibid.; Janmart, Les stations paléolithiques de l’Angola Nord-Est, 10; Janmart, Kalahari Sands of the Lunda, 62–64; Leakey, Tentative Study, 77–80.

101 Clark, Prehistoric Cultures of Northeast Angola, 19.

102 Ibid.

103 J. Leite de Vasconcelos, História do Museu Etnológico Português (1893–1914) (Lisbon: Imprensa Nacional, 1915 [1916]); J.L.S. Machado, Subsídios para a História do Museu Etnológico do Dr Leite de Vasconcelos (Lisbon: Ministério da Educação, 1965); M. Heleno, ‘Um Quarto de Século de Investigação Arqueológica’, O Arqueólogo Português, 2, 3 (1956), 221–237.

104 A. dos Santos Rocha, O Museu Municipal da Figueira da Foz: Catalogo Geral – Com indicação dos escriptos e desenhos que se têem publicado sobre muitos dos objectos catalogados (Figueira: Imprensa Lusitana, 1905).

105 Correia, Geologia e Antropologia.

106 I am here referring to the Decree Law 27.898 of 28 of July of 1937, and then the Decree Law 39.920 of 10 February 1955. Carvalho, As Esculturas de Ernesto Jardim de Vilhena, 202–203; Porto, Angola a Preto e Branco, 90.

107 Vilhena, Aventura e Rotina, 24–25, 27–32, 38–39; Porto, Angola a Preto e Branco, 2–7.

108 Calvão, ‘Company Oracle’; Porto, ‘Manageable Past’; Porto, Modos de Objectificação da Dominação Colonial.

109 According to its articles 193° and 194°, employers were obliged to provide means of conviviality and free housing befitting the ‘uses and costumes of the region’ and respecting self-determined ethnic divisions. Alencastro, ‘Política dos diamantes’ em Angola durante a primeira era colonial’, Afro-Asia, 57 (2018), 86–87; J. Redinha, A habitação tradicional em Angola (Luanda: Centro de Informação e Turismo de Angola, 1964), 3–7; Porto, Angola a Preto e Branco, 90.

110 E. de Vinhena, ‘Observações’, in J. Redinha et al., Relatório Anual 1958, 3 (1959), 2–3. http://www.diamangdigital.net/index.php?module=diamang&option=item&id=1495, accessed 13 September 2019; Porto, ‘Arte e etnografia cokwe’, 139; Matos, ‘Projectos Coloniais’, 51–55.

111 J. Fortunato, ‘Contributo para a valorização do espólio de José Redinha’, Jornal de Angola, 10 October, 2016, http://jornaldeangola.sapo.ao/cultura/contributo_para_a_valorizacao_do_espolio_de_jose_redinha, accessed 30 September 2019; J. Fortunato, ‘Mapa dos instrumentos tradicionais angolanos’, Jornal de Angola, 25 September, 2017, http://jornaldeangola.sapo.ao/cultura/mapa_dos_instrumentos_tradicionais_angolanos, accessed 30 September, 2019; Porto, Angola a Preto e Branco, 20–21.

112 It is beyond my scope to present a complete bibliography. For an example of his late style, see J. Redinha, ‘A habitação tradicional’ or ‘Um esquema evolutivo da escultura antropomorfa angolana’, Mensário Administrativo, 173–182 (1961), 3–8. A comprehensive list of his publications can be found in the nineteenth edition of Distribuição Étnica de Angola. J. Redinha, Distribuição Étnica de Angola (Luanda: Fundo de Turismo e Publicidade, 1975), 33–35.

113 Mbembe, On the Postcolony, 17.

114 J. Redinha, ‘Esboço de classificação das máscaras angolanas’, Mensário Administrativo, 173–182 (1961).

115 Ibid., 4–12.

116 Ibid., 7.

117 As the one systematised by Leakey. Leakey, Tentative Study, 77.

118 Collier, ‘Diamang as Apparatus’.

119 Ibid.

120 This is amply demonstrated by the two 16 mm documentaries which were commissioned in 1964 to illustrate ‘the survival of practices and uses that date from the pre-historical period’ in Lunda: Companhia de Diamantes de Angola, Relatório do Conselho de Administração, 28. See also Porto, Angola a Preto e Branco, 72.

121 J. Fabian, Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes Its Object (New York: Columbia University Press, 2014).

122 Porto, Angola a Preto e Branco, 26; Yusoff, A Billion Black Anthropocenes.

123 J. Redinha et al., Relatório Anual 1950 (1951), 37. http://www.diamangdigital.net/index.php?module=diamang&option=item&id=1216, accessed 30 September 2019; Porto, Angola a Preto e Branco, 127.

124 Redinha et al., Relatório Anual 1950, 37.

125 Ibid., 37–38.

126 Ibid.

127 Ibid.

128 See ‘Esquema I’, ‘Esboço A’ and ‘CARTA – Migrações I’ in J. Redinha, et al., Relatório Anual 1943, 20–22. J. Redinha, Distribuição Étnica de Angola (Luanda: Fundo de Turismo e Publicidade, 1975), 14.

129 In the case of diamonds, ethno-geological prospecting techniques were made obsolete in Angola with the discovery of kimberlites. They would remain useful to prospect for iron, or gold in the case of Uganda. C.F. de Andrade, A Geological Survey Made in 1945–46 (Lisbon: Diamang, 1953); J.B. Bebiano, Notas sobre a siderurgia dos indígenas de Angola e de outras regiões africanas (Lisbon: Serviços Diamang, 1960), 15–16; Leakey, Tentative Study, 77–80.

130 Correia, Geologia e Antropologia; R. First, Black Gold: Mozambican Miner, Proletarian and Peasant (Brighton: Harvester Press, 1983).

131 G. Freyre, Aventura e rotina (Lisbon: Livros do Brasil, 1952); Vilhena, Aventura e Rotina.

132 Ibid., 54–57, 60–66.

133 Ibid., 65–66.

134 Ibid., 60.

135 Ibid., 60–61.

136 Ibid., 61–66.

137 Ibid., 65–66.

138 Porto, Angola a Preto e Branco, 50.

139 Vilhena, Aventura e Rotina, 44–47; Alencastro, ‘Política dos diamantes em Angola, 93–97.

140 Janmart, Les stations paléolithiques de l’Angola Nord-Est, 9.

141 Yusoff, A Billion Black Anthropocenes.

142 Porto, Angola a Preto e Branco, 90; Redinha, A habitação tradicional em Angola.

143 Porto, Angola a Preto e Branco, 78; Vilhena, Aventura e Rotina, 15–19.

144 N. Bostrom, Anthropic Bias (New York: Routledge, 2001), 1–5.

145 Porto, Angola a Preto e Branco, 36, 74, 86; Yusoff, A Billion Black Anthropocenes.

146 Janmart, Kalahari Sands of the Lunda, 64.

147 Redinha et al., Relatório Anual 1950, 37–38.

148 Yourcenar, ‘Introduction’, xix; Yusoff, A Billion Black Anthropocenes.

149 Porto, Angola a Preto e Branco, 62, 67.

150 Ibid., 50.

151 Vilhena, Aventura e Rotina, 26.

152 Mbembe, On the Postcolony, 17.

153 Porto, Angola a Preto e Branco, 111–115.

154 Canelas, ‘Museu Nacional de Etnologia’.

155 Mbembe, ‘À propos de la restitution’.

156 Sarr and Savoy, Report on the Restitution.