Negotiated Partition of South Africa – An Idea and its History (1920s–1980s)

ABSTRACT

This article analyses a number of academic and journalistic proposals on the negotiated partition of South Africa coming from different schools of thought, from within South Africa and abroad, from the 1920s up to the late 1980s. These proposals of dividing South Africa into a ‘predominantly black’ and a ‘predominantly white’ state were presented by their authors as an alternative to apartheid and seen as a way out of the impasse created by the unwillingness of the National Party to accept the one man, one vote principle for a unitary state. The article examines how the proposals gradually foresaw giving the economically most relevant parts of the country to the ‘predominantly black state’. The article argues that this debate also has to be seen in the context of the Cold War where the partition of countries had been a means to pacify divided societies, at least temporarily.

KEYWORDS:

• South Africa
• intellectual history
• partition
• Alfred Hoernlé
• South African Institute of Race Relations

Notes

1 L. Thompson, The Unification of South Africa 1902–1910 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1960).

2 R. Hyam, The Failure of South African Expansion 1908–1948 (London: Palgrave, 1972); R. Hyam and P. Henshaw, The Lion and the Springbok: Britain and South Africa Since the Boer War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003).

3 For ease of reference, see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_active_separatist_movements_in_Africa, accessed 1 September 2017.

4 See J.P. Quéneudec, ‘Remarques sur le règlement des conflits frontaliers en Afrique’, Revue Générale de Droit International Public, 74 (1970), 70; S. Lallonde, ‘The Role of the Uti Possidetis Principle in the Resolution of Maritime Boundary Disputes’, in C. Chinkin and F. Baetens, eds, Sovereignty, Statehood and State Responsibility: Essays in Honour of James Crawford (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 255.

5 D.M. Ahmed, Boundaries and Secession in Africa and International Law: Challenging Uti Possidetis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015); B. Fagbayibo, ‘South Sudan, Uti Possidetis Rule and the Future of Statehood in Africa’, AfricLaw, 26 April 2012, https://africlaw.com/2012/04/26/south-sudan-uti-possidetis-rule-and-the-future-of-statehood-in-africa/, accessed 1 September 2017.

6 J. Silvester, ‘Forging the Fifth Province: Imaginative Geographies and Territorialities of Empire’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 41, 3 (2015), 505–518.

7 B. Schwarz, The White Man's World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011).

8 F. van Zyl Slabbert and D. Welsh, South Africa's Options: Strategies for Sharing Power (London: Rex Collings, 1979), 169; Albert Grundlingh, Slabbert: Man on a Mission (Johannesburg: Ball, 2021).

9 Christoph Marx, Christoph Marx, Trennung und Angst. Hendrik Verwoerd und die Gedankenwelt der Apartheid (Berlin: DeGruyter 2020).

10 P. Laurence, The Transkei: South Africa's Politics of Partition (Johannesburg: Ravan Press, 1976). 

11 P. van den Berghe, South Africa: A Study in Conflict (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967), 120.

12 P.B. Rich, Hope and Despair: English Speaking Intellectuals and South African Politics 1896–1976 (London: British Academic Press, 1993), 14.

13 S. Dubow, ‘Afrikaner Nationalism, Apartheid and the Conceptualization of “Race”,’ Journal of African History, 33, 2 (1992), 209.

14 The most comprehensive account is by G. Maasdorp, ‘Forms of Partition’, in R.I. Rotberg and J. Barratt, eds, Conflict and Compromise in South Africa (Lexington: Lexington Books, 1980), 107–146; shorter overviews are provided in D. Geldenhuys, South Africa's Black Homelands: Past Objectives, Present Realities and Future Developments (Johannesburg: South African Institute of International Affairs, 1981), 52–58; E. Lourens and H. Kotzé, ‘South Africa's Non-unitary Political Alternatives’, in A. Venter, ed., South African Government and Politics (Johannesburg: Southern Book Publishers, 1989), 298–300; A. Lijphart, Power-Sharing in South Africa (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), 31–46; D.L. Horowitz, A Democratic South Africa? Constitutional Engineering in a Divided Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), 131–133.

15 N.J. Rhoodie, Apartheid and Racial Partnership in Southern Africa: A Sociological Comparison between Separate Ethno-national Development in South Africa and Racial Partnership in the Former Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, with Special Reference to the Principles and Motives Involved in these Policy Systems (Pretoria: Academica, 1969), 359.

16 A. du Toit, ‘Captive to the Nationalist Paradigm: Prof. F.A. van Jaarsveld and the Historical Evidence for the Afrikaner's Ideas on his Calling and Mission’, South African Historical Journal, 16, 1 (1984), 79.

17 S. Dubow, review of Ivan Evans, Bureaucracy and Race: Native Administration in South Africa (University of California Press, 1997), Journal of Modern African Studies, 36, 3 (1998), 531.

18 C.R.D. Halisi, ‘From Liberation to Citizenship: Identity and Innovation in Black South African Political Thought’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 39, 1 (1997), 61–85.

19 R. Omond, ‘South Africa's Post-apartheid Constitution’, Third World Quarterly, 9, 2 (1987), 634.

20 An early analysis of the process is provided in A.P. Walshe, ‘The Origins of African Political Consciousness in South Africa’, Journal of Modern African Studies, 7, 4 (1969), 583–610.

21 Maasdorp, ‘Forms of Partition’, 117.

22 S. Dubow, South Africa’s Struggle for Human Rights (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2012), 52.

23 Resolution on ‘The South African Question’ adopted by the Executive Committee of the Communist International following the Sixth Comintern congress, 1928; in: S. Johns, ‘The Comintern, South Africa and the Black Diaspora’, Review of Politics, 37, 2 (1975), 200.

24 E. Johanningsmeier, ‘Communists and Black Freedom Movements in South Africa and the US: 1919–1950’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 30, 1 (2004), 169.

25 Johns: ‘The Comintern’, 234.

26 I. Filatova and A. Davidson, ‘“We, the South African Bolsheviks”: The Russian Revolution and South Africa’, Journal of Contemporary History, 52, 4 (2017), 953.

27 G. Simon, Nationalism and Policy Toward the Nationalities in the Soviet Union: From Totalitarian Dictatorship to Post-Stalinist Society (Boulder: Westview Press, 1991).

28 Filatova and Davidson, ‘We, the South African Bolsheviks', 953.

29 Ibid.

30 C.R.D. Halisi, Black Political Thought in the Making of South African Democracy (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999), 50.

31 Johanningsmeier, ‘Communists and Black Freedom Movements’, 169.

32 Halisi, Black Political Thought, 76–77.

33 Quoted in C.M. Tatz, Shadow and Substance in South Africa: A Study in Land and Franchise Policies Affecting Africans, 1910–1960 (Durban: University of Natal Press, 1962), 88; see also D.D.T. Jabavu, The Segregation Fallacy and Other Papers: A Native View of some South African Inter-Racial Problems (Lovedale: Lovedale Institution Press, 1928), 46–47.

34 C. Higgs, ‘Jabavu, Davidson Don Tengo’, in E.K. Akyeampong and H.L. Gates Jr., eds, Dictionary of African Biography, Vol. 3 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 179.

35 Dubow, South Africa’s Struggle, 50.

36 Jabavu, The Segregation Fallacy, 11.

37 I.D. MacCrone, ‘R.F.A. Hoernlé – A Memoir’, in I.D. MacCrone, ed., Race and Reason (Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1945), xxiv.

38 A. Hoernlé, South African Native Policy and the Liberal Spirit (Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1939), ix.

39 MacCrone, ‘R.F.A. Hoernlé – A Memoir’, xxiv.

40 R. Bernasconi, ‘The Paradox of Liberal Politics in the South African Context: Alfred Hoernlé’s Critique of Liberalism’s Pact with White Domination’, Critical Philosophy of Race, 4, 2 (2016), 172–173.

41 S. Dubow, ‘Introduction’, in S. Dubow and A. Jeeves, eds, South Africa’s 1940s: Worlds of Possibilities (Cape Town: Double Storey, 2005), 7.

42 R.F.A. Hoernlé, ‘Anatomy of Segregation (1936)’, in I.D. MacCrone, ed., Race and Reason (Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1945), 108.

43 H. Giliomee, The Afrikaners: Biography of a People (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2003), 448.

44 Hoernlé, South African Native Policy, 181.

45 Giliomee, The Afrikaners, 473, referring to Hoernlé 1939, 149-168; see also Lijphart, Power-Sharing in South Africa, 32; A. Nash, The Dialectical Tradition in South Africa (New York: Routledge, 2009), 65–66.

46 MacCrone, ‘R.F.A. Hoernlé – A Memoir’, xxxv.

47 Bernasconi, ‘The Paradox of Liberal Politics’, 174, quoting Hoernlé 1945, 158.

48 R.F.A. Hoernlé, ‘Present-Day Trends in South African Race Relations (1941)’, in I.D. MacCrone, ed., Race and Reason (Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1945), 160.

49 Hoernlé, ‘Anatomy of Segregation’, 108–109.

50 Legassick, quoted in Bernasconi, ‘The Paradox of Liberal Politics’, 174.

51 Hoernlé, South African Native Policy, 185.

52 Hoernlé, ‘Anatomy of Segregation’, 95.

53 Hoernlé, ‘Present-Day Trends’, 162.

54 Rich, Hope and Despair, 59, 55. On Hoernlé’s possible influence on apartheid thinking and Jack Simons’ accusation that he contributed to the formulation of the idea by stressing the word ‘separation’ instead of ‘segregation’ – the former translating into Afrikaans as ‘apartheid’ (though ‘apartheid’ could be better translated as ‘apartness’), see Rich, Hope and Despair, 63–65. On earlier uses of the term ‘apartheid’ by the Bond vir Rassestudie in 1936, see Dubow, ‘Afrikaner Nationalism’, 211; and H. Giliomee, ‘The Making of the Apartheid Plan, 1929–1948’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 29 (2003), 373–392.

55 Hoernlé, ‘Present-Day Trends’, 145.

56 Bernasconi, ‘The Paradox of Liberal Politics’, 175, 177.

57 Rich, Hope and Despair, 59, 62.

58 Hoernlé, South African Native Policy, 184.

59 H. Suzman and E. Kahn, eds, New Lines in Native Policy (Johannesburg: South African Institute of Race Relations, 1947).

60 S. Marks, ‘Afterword: Worlds of Impossibilities’, in S. Dubow and A. Jeeves, eds, South Africa’s 1940s: Worlds of Possibilities (Cape Town: Double Storey, 2005), 267.

61 H. Giliomee, ‘Apartheid, Verligtheid, and Liberalism’, in J. Butler, R. Elphick, and D.J. Welsh, eds, Democratic Liberalism in South Africa: Its History and Prospect (Middletown: Wesleyan University Press, 1987), 363–383.

62 H. Giliomee, Historian: An Autobiography (Cape Town: Tafelberg, 2016), 21.

63 Dubow, ‘Introduction’, 2.

64 Ibid.

65 Giliomee The Afrikaners, 473.

66 Ibid.

67 ‘Dat ons vir twee soorte mense ‘n plek wil regmaak in twee helftes van hierdie groot land van ons’, H.P. von Wyk Louw, ‘Voorwoord’, in D.P. Botha, Die opkomst van ons derde stand (Cape Town, 1960), viii, translated in Giliomee, The Afrikaners, 473; see Giliomee, Historian, 34–35.

68 Marks, ‘Afterword’, 273.

69 Giliomee, The Afrikaners, 478, referring to UG 28-48 Report of the Native Law Commission; see Dubow, ‘Introduction’, 10.

70 I. Evans, Bureaucracy and Race: Native Administration in South Africa (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 57. (cpt. Reviving the Department of Native Affairs)

71 P.O. Sauer, Verslag van die Kleurvraagstuk-Kommissie van die Herenigde Nasionale Party (Sauer Report, 1948).

72 Giliomee, The Afrikaners, 476–479.

73 Ibid.

74 A. Ashforth, The Politics of Official Discourse in Twentieth-Century South Africa (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990), 135–136.

75 Fagan, quoted in Giliomee, The Afrikaners, 498.

76 S. Dubow, Apartheid, 1948–1994 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014); S. Dubow, Racial Segregation and the Origins of Apartheid in South Africa, 1919–36 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 1989).

77 Rich, Hope and Despair, 91.

78 Ibid.

79 Rich, Hope and Despair, 93.

80 Rich, Hope and Despair, 64.

81 A.J. Christopher, Atlas of a Changing South Africa (London: Routledge, 2001), 121; M. West, ‘From Pass Courts to Deportation: Changing Patterns of Influx Control in Cape Town’, African Affairs, 81, 325 (1982), 463–477.

82 Tatz, Shadow and Substance in South Africa, 156–157.

83 Dubow, South Africa’s Struggle, 74; see Filatova and Davidson, ‘“We, the South African Bolsheviks”,’ 955.

84 H. Suzman, Race Classification and Definition in the Legislation of the Union of South Africa 1910–1960: A Survey and Analysis (Johannesburg: South African Institute of Race Relations, 1960), 1; see J. Dugard, Human Rights and the South African Legal Order (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978), 59–60; Dubow, South Africa’s Struggle, 79.

85 F.A. van Jaarsveld, ‘André du Toit: Much Ado About Nothing’, South African Historical Journal, 16, 1 (1984), 81, on the aim of his own paper ‘Die Afrikaner se idees oor uitverkorenheid, geroepenheid en bestimming’ (1959/61).

86 B. Bunting and R. Segal, The Rise of the South African Reich (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1964); see Dubow, Apartheid, 282. On South Africa historiography, see C. Marx, Oxwagon Sentinel: Radical Afrikaner Nationalism and the History of the Ossewabrandwag (Berlin: Lit Verlag, 2008), 4–11; F.A. van Jaarsveld, ‘Recent Afrikaner Historiography’, Itinerario, 16, 1 (1992), 93–106. The centre-right journalist John Mander warned already in 1963 that ‘comparisons with Nazi Germany do more harm than good.’ J. Mander, ‘South Africa: Revolution or Partition’, Encounter, 21, 4 (1963), 11.

87 D.V. Cowen, The Foundations of Freedom – with Special Reference to Southern Africa (Cape Town: Oxford University Press, 1961), 69.

88 The Cottesloe Convention, part II no. 9, http://kerkargief.co.za/doks/bely/DF_Cottesloe.pdf, accessed 14 February 2018.

89 Du Toit, ‘Captive to the Nationalist Paradigm’, 52.

90 See, for example, B.B. Keet, Suid-Afrika Waarheen? (Stellenbosch: University Publishers, 1956); C.W. de Kiewiet, The Anatomy of South African Misery (London: Oxford University Press, 1956); B.B. Keet, ‘The Bell has Already Tolled’, in B.B. Keet, ed., Delayed Action: An Ecumenical Witness from the Afrikaans-Speaking Church (Pretoria: N.G. Boekhandel, 1961), 5–12; A.B. du Preez, Inside the South African Crucible (Cape Town: HAUM, 1959; N.J. Rhoodie and H.J. Venter, Apartheid: A Socio-Historical Exposition of the Origin and Development of the Apartheid Idea (Cape Town: HAUM, 1960); L.E. Neame, A History of Apartheid: The Story of the Colour War in South Africa (New York: London House and Maxwell, 1963); Jordan K. Ngubane, An African Explains Apartheid (New York: Praeger, 1963).

91 E.A. Tiryakian, ‘Apartheid and Politics in South Africa’, Journal of Politics, 22, 4 (1960), 696.

92 D.V. Cowen, Constitution-Making for a Democracy: An Alternative to Apartheid (Johannesburg: Anglo American Corporation of South Africa, 1960), 5, 33–37.

93 Jan Graaff, Cape Argus, 15 October 1960.

94 Cowen, The Foundations of Freedom, 70–71; 159–160.

95 F.P. Spooner, South African Predicament: The Economics of Apartheid (London: Jonathan Cape, 1960), 234.

96 Dubow, Apartheid, 285, referring to Michael O’Dowd, 1974.

97 Spooner, South African Predicament, 131–132.

98 Paul Giniewski, Bantustans: A Trek towards the Future (Cape Town: Human & Rousseau, 1961), 8, 14, 178, 223 [French orig., Un faux problème colonial: L’Afrique du Sud (1961)].

99 E.A. Tiryakian, ‘Sociological Realism: Partition for South Africa?’, Social Forces, 46, 2 (1967), 214 n. 25.

100 Dubow, Apartheid, 112.

101 Giliomee, The Afrikaners, 532.

102 P.L. van den Berghe, South Africa, a Study in Conflict (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1965; repr. 1970), 125.

103 van den Berghe, South Africa, 117.

104 van den Berghe, South Africa, 125.

105 van den Berghe, South Africa, 148, 158.

106 See H. Suzman, In No Uncertain Terms: A South African Memoir (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1993), 15.

107 S.D. Girvin, ‘The Architects of the Mixed Legal System’, in R. Zimmermann and D.P. Visser, eds, Southern Cross: Civil Law and Common Law in South Africa (Oxford: Clarendon, 1996), 132; see E. Kahn, ‘Oliver Deneys Schreiner: The Man and his Judicial World’, South African Legal Journal, 97 (1980), 574.

108 O.D. Schreiner, ‘Building Real Nationhood in South Africa’, Optima (London), 11 (1961), 127.

109 O.D. Schreiner, ‘Political Power in South Africa’, in P.J.M. McEwan and R.B. Sutcliffe, eds, The Study of Africa (London: Methuen, 1965), 230, 237; O.D. Schreiner, Realism in Race Relations (Johannesburg: South African Institute of Race Relations, 1962), 6.

110 O.D. Schreiner, ‘South Africa – United or Divided’, in O.D. Schreiner, The Nettle: Political Power and Race Relations in South Africa (Johannesburg: South African Institute of Race Relations, 1964), 85.

111 Hoernlé, South African Native Policy, 181.

112 Schreiner, ‘South Africa – United or Divided’, 87.

113 C. Marx, Oxwagon Sentinel: Radical Afrikaner Nationalism and the History of the Ossewabrandwag (Berlin: Lit Verlag, 2008), 126; but see also Giliomee who emphasises that Cronjé was not an ‘influential figure’; Giliomee, The Afrikaners, 471.

114 N.J. Rhoodie, ‘n Rasse-sosiologiese Ontleding van Afsonderlike Volksontwikkeling en Partnership, met besondere Verwysing na die Motiewe vir hierdie Beleidsisteme’ (D.Phil. thesis, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 1965).

115 J. Miller, An African Volk: The Apartheid Regime and Its Search for Survival (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016), 2; S. Dubow, ‘Racial irredentism, ethnogenesis, and white supremacy in high-apartheid South Africa', Kronos 41, 1 (2015), 236.

116 Rhoodie, Apartheid and Racial Partnership, 357–360.

117 Rich, Hope and Despair, 62.

118 Tiryakian, ‘Apartheid and Politics’, 682.

119 Tiryakian, ‘Sociological Realism’, 208–209; see Pennsylvania State University, Eberly Family Special Collections Library, Historical Collections and Labor Archives, Edward A. Tiryakian Papers, 1881–2011 (6521), ‘Partition for South Africa 1967, 1965–1968’, Box 9, Folder 5.

120 Bernasconi, ‘The Paradox of Liberal Politics’, 175, 177.

121 Tiryakian, ‘Sociological Realism’, 208, 214, 212.

122 Tiryakian, ‘Sociological Realism’, 213.

123 Tiryakian, ‘Sociological Realism’, 214, 217.

124 Van den Berghe, South Africa, 158.

125 Tiryakian, ‘Sociological Realism', 218.

126 Ibid.

127 Tiryakian, ‘Sociological Realism’, 219.

128 Ibid.

129 See Suzman, who argued that ‘half a million Colored and Indian families had been removed since [the Group Area Act of 1950] […]. Compensation […] was minimal.’ Suzman, In No Uncertain Terms, 80–81.

130 Jabavu, The Segregation Fallacy, 4, 7.

131 Tiryakian, ‘Sociological Realism’, 220–221.

132 Horowitz, A Democratic South Africa?, 145.

133 P.N. Malherbe, Multistan: A Way Out of the South African Dilemma (Cape Town: David Philip, 1974), 1.

134 G.M. Buthelezi, ‘Mein Konzept einer südafrikanischen Föderation’, Internationales Afrika-Forum, 10, 2–3 (1974), 118–122 (translated and introduced by Klaus von der Ropp).

135 Malherbe, Multistan, 37.

136 E. Brookes, ‘“Multistan”: A New Factor’, review of P.N. Malherbe, ‘Multistan’: A Way Out of the South African Dilemma (Cape Town: David Philip, 1974), Reality, 6, 5 (1974), 16.

137 Suzman, In No Uncertain Terms, 133; see J. Lelyveld, Move Your Shadow: South Africa, Black and White (New York: Crown, 1985).

138 C.L. Sulzberger, ‘Staying Out of the Last Ditch’, International Herald Tribune, 10 August 1977, 4; also published as under the title ‘Eluding the Last Ditch’, New York Times, 10 August 1977.

139 Sulzberger, ‘Staying Out of the Last Ditch’, 4.

140 J. Blenck and K. von der Ropp, ‘Republik von Südafrika: Teilung als Ausweg?’, Aussenpolitik, 27, 3 (1976), 308–324.

141 J. Blenck and K. von der Ropp, ‘Republic of South Africa: Is Partition a Solution?’, South African Journal of African Affairs, 7, 1 (1977), 21–32.

142 Blenck and von der Ropp, ‘Republic of South Africa”, 25.

143 ‘Eine integrierte Gesellschaftsordnung sei nur im Himmel, nicht aber in Südafrika zu verwirklichen.’ K. von der Ropp, ‘Simplifizierungen?’ [letter to the editor], Afrika heute, May (1973), 54; see also K. von der Ropp, ‘Südafrika muss geteilt werden’ [letter to the editor], Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 289, 13 December 1974, 10.

144 Blenck and von der Ropp, ‘Republic of South Africa”, 25.

145 K. von der Ropp, ‘Is Territorial Partition a Strategy for Peaceful Change in South Africa?’, International Affairs Bulletin, 3, 1 (1979), 40; Blenck and von der Ropp, ‘Republic of South Africa’, 31, 25.

146 Miller, An African Volk, 2.

147 Sulzberger, ‘Staying Out of the Last Ditch', 4; Ropp, ‘Is Territorial Partition’, 41.

148 Arguments listed in von der Ropp, ‘Is Territorial Partition’, 41, 47 n. 4.

149 ‘Radikale Verzweiflungslösung’; G.A. Sonnenhol, Südafrika ohne Hoffnung: Wege aus der Gefahr (Düsseldorf: Econ, 1978), 68. On ambassador Sonnenhol (1968–1972), see S. Schrafstetter, ‘A Nazi Diplomat Turned Apologist for Apartheid: Gustav Sonnenhol, Vergangenheitsbewältigung and West German Foreign Policy towards South Africa’, German History, 28, 1 (2010), 44–66.

150 Tiryakian, ‘Sociological Realism’, 214.

151 Horowitz, A Democratic South Africa?, 133.

152 P.R. Botha, South Africa Plan for the Future: A Basis for Dialogue (Johannesburg: Perscor, 1978), 212–213, 175–176.

153 E. Bahr, ‘Ohne Verhandlungslösung ist die Gefahr eines dritten Weltkrieges ständig gegenwärtig’, Deutsches Allgemeines Sonntagsblatt, 28, 10 July 1977, 8.

154 Van Zyl Slabbert and Welsh, South Africa's Options, 169.

155 Maasdorp, ‘Forms of Partition’, 117.

156 Quoted in: D. Geldenhuys, Some Foreign Policy Implications of South Africa's ‘Total National Strategy’, with Particular Reference to the ‘12-Point Plan’ (Johannesburg: South African Institute for International Affairs, 1981), 60.

157 Geldenhuys, Some Foreign Policy Implications, 11, 14; see also Geldenhuys, ‘South Africa's Black Homelands’, 53.

158 Omond, ‘South Africa's Post-apartheid Constitution’, 629.

159 K. Asmal, L. Asmal, and R.S. Roberts, Reconciliation Through Truth: A Reckoning of Apartheid's Criminal Governance (Cape Town: David Philip, 1997), 72.

160 D.C. Hindson, ‘Orderly Urbanization and Influx Control: From Territorial Apartheid to Regional Spatial Ordering in South Africa’, Cahiers d'études africaines, 25, 99 (1985), 402; see A. Lijphart, ‘Federal, Confederal, and Consociational Options for the South African Plural Society’, in R. Rotberg and J. Barratt, eds, Conflict and Compromise in South Africa (Cape Town: David Philip, 1980), 51–75; D. Welsh, ‘Constitutional Changes in South Africa’, African Affairs, 83, 331 (1984), 147–162.

161 Jabavu, The Segregation Fallacy, 11.

162 Geldenhuys, ‘South Africa's Black Homelands’, 57.

163 Quoted in Omond, ‘South Africa's Post-apartheid Constitution’, 633.

164 Rhoodie, Apartheid and Racial Partnership, 359.

165 Van Jaarsveld, ‘Recent Afrikaner Historiography’, 98; on Scholtz, see A. Mouton, ‘“The Good, the Bad and the Ugly”: Professional Historians and Political Biography of South African Parliamentary Politics, 1910–1990’, Journal for Contemporary History, 36, 1 (2011), 65.

166 S.B. Greenberg, Legitimating the Illegitimate: State, Markets, and Resistance in South Africa (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987), 123. On the shifting meaning of ‘apartheid’, see Dubow, Apartheid, 274–280, 290–294.

167 L. Koorts, ‘Palatable and Unpalatable Leaders: Apartheid and Post-apartheid Afrikaner Biography’, in H. Renders, B. de Haan, and J. Harmsmap, eds, The Biographical Turn: Lives in History (London: Routledge, 2017), 151.

168 SABC Radio, 6 January 1985, quoted in Greenberg, Legitimating the Illegitimate, 188.

169 Geldenhuys, ‘South Africa's Black Homelands’, 52.

170 Quoted in E. Leistner, ‘Auf dem Weg zu einer neuen Ordnung in Südafrika’, Hamburger Jahrbuch für Wirtschafts- und Gesellschaftspolitik, 22 (1977), 191.

171 A. du Toit, ‘“Afrikaander circa 1600”: Reflections and Suggestions Regarding the Origins and Fate of Afrikaner Nationalism’, South African Historical Journal, 60, 4 (2008), 563. This refers to A. du Toit and H. Giliomee, eds, Afrikaner Political Thought: Analysis and Documents: Vol. 1, 1780–1850 (Cape Town: David Philip, 1983). See Tony Kirk’s angry review of this book for the exclusion of ‘all Coloured people […] from their definition of “Afrikaner”’; T. Kirk, review of A. du Toit and H. Giliomee, Afrikaner Political Thought, Analysis and Documents, Vol. 1, 1780–1850 (Cape Town: David Philip, 1983), Journal of African History 25 (1984), 497; see J.A. van Jaarsveld, Wie en wat is die Afrikaner? (Cape Town: Tafelberg, 1981).

172 Omond argued sarcastically: ‘“Cultural rights” translated means “group rights” – the insistence, usually by whites, that the group must be regarded as more important than the individual.’ Omond, ‘South Africa's Post-apartheid Constitution’, 634.

173 R.H. Wagner, ‘What was Bipolarity?’, International Organisation, 47, 1 (1993), 77–106.

174 Sulzberger, ‘Staying out of the Last Ditch’, 4.

175 Cowen, The Foundations of Freedom, 70–71, 159–160; similar Maasdorp, ‘Forms of Partition’, 139.

176 K. Nkrumah, ‘Racialism and the Policy of Apartheid’, in K. Nkrumah, I Speak of Freedom: A Statement of African Ideology (London: Heinemann, 1961), 226.

177 N.M. Stultz, ‘On Partition’, Social Dynamics, 5, 1 (1979), 2.

178 Mander, ‘South Africa’, 14, 19.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Jakob Zollmann

Jakob Zollmann read history, philosophy, and law in Berlin, Paris, and San Francisco. He has taught at the University of Namibia where he also undertook research and at the Freie Universität Berlin, Germany. He was a visiting fellow at the German Historical Institute Paris and is researcher at the Center for Global Constitutionalism of the WZB Berlin Social Science Center. His research focuses on the history of international law and on the legal and social history of colonial Africa. He has published Koloniale Herrschaft und ihre Grenzen: Die Kolonialpolizei in Deutsch-Südwestafrika (Göttingen: Vandenhoek & Ruprecht, 2016) and Naulila 1914: World War I in Angola and International Law (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2016).