A More Effective Constructive Engagement: US Policy Towards South Africa after the Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act of 1986

Abstract

As it stands, much of the historical account of US foreign policy towards South Africa ends in the mid-1980s. Little academic literature looks beyond 1986, and the imposition of US sanctions underwritten by the Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act (CAAA). This article offers an analysis of US policy in the wake of the CAAA, covering the 1986–1994 period. It charts the adaption of the Reagan Administration's constructive engagement policy, and then considers how Washington DC engaged South Africa's negotiation process and this country's transition to a new non-racial democratic state. In contrast to US policy prior the CAAA, Washington DC's post-sanctions strategy proved effective. By building a working relationship across South African society, US diplomats were able to play a useful role in apartheid's endgame. The article does caution, however, that the impact of this US assistance can be overstated, as has occurred in diplomatic memoirs. It is argued that this foreign policy netted a significant but minor contribution.

Notes

United States Public Law 99-440.

For an analysis of the Reagan administration's pre-1986 South Africa policy see Thomson (1996).

Section 401(e) of the Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act of 1986 (Public Law 99-440).

U.N. Security Council draft resolutions: S/18705, 20 February 1987; S/18785, 9 April 1987; and S/19585, 8 March 1988.

Section 501(b) of the Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act of 1986 (Public Law 99-440).

Letter, President Reagan to the Speaker of the House of Representatives and the Chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, 1 October 1987, http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1987/100187j.htm (accessed 31 December 2007).

See also Crocker's press comments: US policy-makers are marking time, The Star (Johannesburg), 25 March 1987, p. 12.

See, for example, the South African press reaction to Perkins' City Club and World Affairs Council address in Portland, Oregon, June 1987 (Braun, The Star (Johannesburg), 22 June 1987; and Dunn, The Star (Johannesburg), 28 June 1987).

See also, Row over Perkins's article is limited to media exchanges, The Star (Johannesburg), 18 December 1987; And US envoy sees hope for future in South Africa, The Star (Johannesburg), 26 January 1988, p. 15A.

See ANC spokesperson interviewed by Padraig O'Malley, 24 August 1989, http://www.nelsonmandela.org/omalley/index.php/site/q/03lv00017/04lv00344/05lv00355/06lv00388.htm (accessed 5 July 2011).

See also the US envoy at the funeral of South African journalist, New York Times, 25 January 1988, p. 1.

Pretoria foe meets 2 Western officials, New York Times, 21 September 1986, p. 3; Armacost to meet rebels, New York Times, 13 December 1986, p. 4; And Shipler (New York Times, 29 January 1987, p. A3).

When Alfred Nzo, the ANC's Secretary-General, was in Washington DC during 1986, for example, he was not to meet any executive officials. Crocker (1992b) regarded Nzo as ‘not the right person’ to talk to within the ANC.

Reagan meets Zulu leader, Washington Post, 5 February 1985. p. A7.

State Department Briefing (1987)

USAID (1983, 1986 and 1989); and United States, Department of State (1987b).

For an evaluation of the implementation of these programmes, see Tilton (1996).

The United States voted negatively on U.N. General Assembly resolution series: 27(XXXXIV), 22 November 1989; 176(XXXXV), 19 December 1990; series 79(XXXXVI), 13 December 1991; and the series 116(XXXXVII), 18 December 1992.

Herman Cohen interviewed by Princeton L. Lyman, Washington DC, 26 December 2000 (Lyman, 2002, p. 49).

See also Mrs Sisulu to ask Bush for increased sanctions. The Star (Johannesburg), 26 June 1989, p. 3.

See also Secretary Baker in South Africa. Washington Post, 25 March 1990, p. C6.

When Alfred Nzo, the ANC's Secretary-General, was in Washington DC during 1986, for example, he was not to meet any executive officials. Crocker (1992b) regarded Nzo as ‘not the right person’ to talk to within the ANC.

See statement by Press Secretary Marlin Fitzwater on South Africa, 1 February 1990, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=18104 (accessed 1 January 2008). And Dinner (Field Marshall Gen Smuts) 1 December 1946. White House Social Office Files (Social Function File): Box 35. Staff Member and Office Files. Harry S. Truman Library, Independence.

Mandela's US tour raised estimated $7 million for ANC, Washington Post, 4 July 1990, p. A2; And Kamen, Al and Ann Devroy. Mandela attains chief goal: keeping US sanctions, Washington Post, 1 July 1990, p. A6.

Section 311(a) of the Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act of 1986 (Public Law 99-440).

See Legal analysis of the government of South Africa compliance with the conditions in the comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act of 1986 for terminating sanctions. Department of State Freedom of Information Act released document collection, http://foia.state.gov/documents/foiadocs/296d.PDF; And the enclosure to memo, Davidow, Mullins and Mathason to Baker, 2 July 1991. Department of State Freedom of Information Act released document collection, http://foia.state.gov/documents/foiadocs/296d.PDF (both accessed 1 January 2008).

Executive Order 12769 Implementation of Section 311(a) of the Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act, 10 July 1991, Federal Register, 1991, 56(134), p. 31855.

See Memo, US Embassy—Pretoria to State, 28 August 1991. Department of State Freedom of Information Act released document collection, http://foia.state.gov/documents/foiadocs/2937.PDF (accessed 1 June 2008); And Ottaway (Washington Post, 11 July 1991, p. A23).

Memo, US Embassy—Mexico to State, 31 July 1991. Department of State Freedom of Information Act released document collection, http://foia.state.gov/documents/foiadocs/2930.PDF (accessed 1 June 2008).

See also letter, Mullins to Lieberman, 24 October 1991. Department of State Freedom of Information Act released document collection, http://foia.state.gov/documents/foiadocs/294b.PDF (accessed 1 June 2008).

Memo, President Bush to Baker [Presidential Determination No. 92—15], 18 February 1992, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=20614 (accessed 1 January 2008); And Cohen (1993a, p. 3). See also minutes of the Policy Coordinating Committee (PCC) for South Africa, 13 December 1991. Department of State Freedom of Information Act released document collection, http://foia.state.gov/documents/foiadocs/295e.PDF; memo, US Embassy—Pretoria to State, 12 December 1991. Department of State Freedom of Information Act released document collection, http://foia.state.gov/documents/foiadocs/29a7.PDF; And memo, Cohen to PCC members, 9 December 1991. Department of State Freedom of Information Act released document collection, http://foia.state.gov/documents/foiadocs/29a4.PDF (all accessed 1 June 2008).

National Security Directive 75, American policy toward Sub-Saharan Africa in the 1990s, 23 December 1992 http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/pdfs/nsd/nsd75.pdf. NSD 75 responded to National Security Review 30 American policy toward Africa in the 1990s, 15 June 1992, http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/pdfs/nsr/nsr30.pdf (both accessed 1 January 2008).

National Security Directive 75, American foreign policy toward Sub-Saharan Africa in the 1990s, 23 December 1992. http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/pdfs/nsd/nsd75.pdf (accessed 1 January 2008); And Lyman (2002, passim).

Herman Cohen interviewed by Princeton L. Lyman, Washington DC, 26 December 2000. Cited in Lyman (2002, pp. 61–62 and 4).

Letter, de Klerk to Bush, 25 June 1992. Cited in Lyman (2002, p. 62).

Also see Drop sanctions, Buthelezi urges Bush, The Star (Johannesburg), 21 June 1991, p. 2; Bush (1991a); Letter, President Bush to Chief Minister Buthelezi, 10 September 1992, cited in Lyman (2002, p. 129); And Letter, Lyman to Buthelezi, 29 July 1993 (Lyman, 2008).

According to F.W. de Klerk (2012), if anyone deserves this accolade, this is Kenyan academic Professor Washington Akumu. This opinion is shared by a member of the US consular staff close to the negotiations who wished to remain unidentified, interview, 21 June 2012.

South African Democratic Transition Support Act of 1993 (Public Law 103-149).

Remarks prepared for delivery by Vice President Al Gore at a US—South African Binational Commission press conference, 23 July 1996, http://usinfo.state.gov/regional/bnc/usafrica/2pcgore.htm (accessed 4 June 2004); And United States, Office of the Vice President. Press release of the US—South African Binational Commission. 17 February 1997, http://usinfo.state.gov/regional/bnc/usafrica/trade17.htm (accessed 4 June 2004).

State President's Minute 631, 26 November 1993. SAB SPM vol. 675 ref. 631/1993. National Archives of South Africa, Pretoria; and Clinton (1994a, pp. 1–2). See also US White House. Office of the Press Secretary. Fact sheet: Trade, Aid and Investment Package for South Africa, 5 May 1994, Department of State Despatch Supplement, 1994, 5(4), pp. 3–4; and Dludlu (The Star (Johannesburg), 19 January 1994).

It took some time to finalise the end of the arms embargo and nuclear transfers. See USA, after 35 years, lifts arms embargo against South Africa, New York Times, 28 February 1998, p. A4; Section 303 of the Intelligence Authorization Act of 1995 (Public Law 103-359); And Clinton (1995).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Alex Thomson

Department of International Studies and Social Science, Coventry University, UK.