Collaborative conversations: adolescent girls' own strategies for managing conflict within their friendship groups

Abstract

Adolescent girls' friendships are often disrupted by conflict and aggressive behaviour. Solving these difficulties is challenging as girls claim that adult intervention can make things worse. What advice would girls themselves give their friends if they were experiencing peer relationship difficulties? This study addressed this question using a narrative perspective, and a participatory action research approach. Seventy-five 14–15-year-old adolescent girls engaged in a series of interactive focus group sessions. A cyclical process of group interviews, discussions and data analysis saw the refinement of the girls' knowledge and the development of 10 key strategies for managing peer conflict. The most highly ranked strategies included: developing a wide circle of friends, having a voice, walking away from conflict, talking individually to peers, and avoiding participating in hurtful behaviours. Acknowledging adolescent girls' knowledge, creativity, and abilities creates an alternative story, enabling them to better manage peer conflict.

Keywords::

• adolescent girls
• conflict
• friendship
• narrative research
• participatory action research

Introduction

Adolescence is a critical stage in the development of young people as they begin the shift away from family and family values into the world of peers (Erwin, 1998). The early years of adolescence (10–15 years) are marked by rapid cognitive, physical, emotional and social development (Frydenberg, Care, Freeman, & Chan, 2009) with friendships becoming even more important to their social networks (Collins & Laursen, 2004). Baskin, Wampold, Quintana, and Enright (2010) named belongingness, associated with friendships, as a key factor in the emotional well-being of adolescents as it offered potential protection against the harmful effects of low self-esteem and depression. The many benefits of friendships have been well documented and they include allowing adolescents to explore a range of issues that might be regarded as personal along with the opportunity to discuss conflicting reasoning and judgements (for a summary, see Berk, 2009). Adolescents who do not have age-appropriate skills, and knowledge to assist them, struggle to function effectively in their social and school environments, particularly within their friendship groups and this, combined with an inability to problem-solve, leaves many adolescents struggling with peer relationships and ultimately vulnerable to depression (Orpinas & Horne, 2006). In the current study we set out to investigate teenage girls' peer conflicts and strategies that they suggest might be helpful to them in managing their relationships with peers.

Conflicts in girls' groups

Linden-Andersen, Markiewicz, and Doyle (2009) believed that one of the reasons for the intensity of adolescent friendships that leads, at times, to the development of conflicts is the role of intimacy and the prominence attributed to it. This is certainly the case in girls' friendship groups where intimacy plays a central role with great importance being placed on trust, loyalty, emotional closeness and acceptance (Erwin, 1998; Maccoby, 1998). Unfortunately, due to the tightly structured nature of girls' groups, indirect aggression through hurtful and manipulative behaviours such as nasty gossip, rumours, and exclusion can become the shadow side of the interaction in these groups (Erwin, 1998; Owens, 2010; Owens, Shute, & Slee, 2000).

The typical aggressive behaviours that beset girls' peer groups have been called ‘relational aggression’ (Crick, 1995; Crick & Bigbee, 1998), ‘social’ aggression (Paquette & Underwood, 1999) or ‘indirect’ aggression (Bjorkqvist, Osterman, & Kaukiainen, 1992; Owens, 1996, 2010; Owens, Daly, & Slee, 2005). Crick (cited in Noakes & Rinaldi, 2006) said that relational aggression is a strategy employed by females to inflict harm on others and the impact of this approach to conflict damages the social connections that are so important in female friendship groups. Current research on popularity is adding further knowledge about the nature of social interactions and conflicts within adolescent girls' friendship groups (Merten, 1997; Duncan, 2004; Duncan & Owens, 2011; Owens & Duncan, 2009a). One of the ways girls compete for popularity is through being mean to group members. However, as Owens & Duncan (2009b) found, being popular was not just about individual popularity; it also included the importance of being in the most popular group at school. In determining their own hierarchy, Soohoo (2009) reported that, on any given day, girls determined who was in and who was out, who counted and who did not. Any signs of competitiveness from new members were met with an aggressive response as a way of keeping them in their place. Although this could be very difficult for girls, Owens, Slee, and Shute (2000a) found that some girls remained in friendship groups even if they did not agree with what was happening as staying in the group offered a level of self-protection that girls would not necessarily have outside the group. Currie, Kelly, and Pomerantz (2007) said they were taken aback by the extent of interpersonal aggression among girls. It is therefore not surprising that the complexities of these competitive and manipulative group interactions contribute markedly to the relational damage and hurt that girls inflict on each other.

Addressing the problems

Addressing and resolving disagreements between girls is not easy as girls are often pessimistic and dismissive of adults' attempts to intervene and resolve their conflict issues, believing that intervention by teachers or parents would not always solve their problems and may, in fact, make them worse (Cross et al., 2009; Owens, Shute, & Slee, 2000). Girls were sceptical about the success of curriculum interventions and were cynical about school policy interventions as a way of addressing and reducing peer aggression (Owens, Slee, & Shute, 2000b). While adolescence is regarded as a developmentally challenging phase in a young person's life, there is evidence which indicates that adolescents have the capability of employing considered solutions to peer conflicts (Noakes & Rinaldi, 2006). Girls have spoken of the importance of relying on their friends to aid in friendship conflicts and this, said Owens, Shute, and Slee (2000), strengthens the importance of considering school intervention policies and practices that include the voices of girls (e.g. peer mediation processes).

Conflict resolution and coping styles

Managing adolescence, and in particular friendships and friendship groups, requires a range of coping skills, most importantly the ability to problem-solve. Frydenberg and Lewis (1993) devised The Adolescent Coping Scale (ACS), and from this named three fundamental styles that characterised functional and dysfunctional coping styles: productive, non-productive, and reference to others. The most important aspects of the productive coping style involved keeping calm, emotion regulation and problem-solving (Hawkins, McKenzie, & Frydenberg, 2006). The non-productive coping style may involve strategies that do nothing to resolve the situation, while the reference to others coping style typically involves seeking support from others. In a large research study with Australian adolescents in five secondary colleges in Melbourne, Frydenberg and Lewis (1993) found that non-productive strategies for coping such as wishful thinking were extensively used by girls who hoped a difficult situation would resolve itself without them having to be involved. However, the wealth of literature and research on indirect aggression and conflict within girls' friendship groups largely overlooks a significant number of girls who are highly capable of managing peer relationships and are not in conflict in their friendship groups. As Noakes and Rinaldi (2006) suggested, many girls have the ability to use higher-level solutions to effectively manage their friendships and are very capable of negotiating their way through the complexities of their friendship groups. If this is the case, how do girls manage friendship difficulties when they arise? How do they negotiate the myriad ways in which peers undermine and disrespect each other? What is their own knowledge and what are their strategies for managing peer relationships? Situating the girls as experts in their own lives and inviting them to share their knowledge, skills and strategies for managing peer conflict is one way of empowering girls to have a voice, be involved and offer solutions to counteract their difficulties.

Narrative practices

The first author's own training in narrative therapy was the basis for constructing a study that was informed by narrative practices and was inclusive, collaborative and respectful of the voices of adolescent girls. Narrative therapy posits that people's lives are lived through stories that belong to individuals, relationships and communities and it is through these that we interpret and negotiate our experiences (Morgan, 2000). It is also the way in which we connect with our beliefs, purposes, commitments, values and dreams, thereby informing the ways in which our lives are lived (Carey & Russell, 2003). Many adolescent girls are still in the process of developing and refining their relational skills with peers. However, in this study, girls were invited to consider the ways in which their own lived experiences, their own stories and their own beliefs, commitments and values supported and maintained their friendships.

Participatory action research

Participatory action research is a research design that complements and supports a narrative therapy approach. The aim of participatory action research is to engage and collaborate with stakeholders to address the problems they are experiencing (Fricke, 2006; Greenwood, 2007). The importance of the methodology in participatory action research is that voice, inclusion and collaboration of participants allows them to reflect on and articulate the issues that are important to them in their lives so that unhealthy and negative practices can be challenged. The intention is to generate new knowledge and learning in order to improve social outcomes for participants (Vickers, 2007).

The current study

The current study was conducted in a middle-class, private secondary college in western Adelaide, South Australia. The study arose due to the gradual increase in indirect aggression occurring within the Grade Nine girls' friendship groups. The student counsellor reported that she was being inundated daily by students who were distraught at their treatment by peers. The complaints made included a range of forms of harassment and aggression including having false stories told about them, being excluded from groups, and being belittled. While much has been written in relation to indirect aggression in girls' friendship groups, this study took as its departure point a strengths-based design through using a participatory action research approach set within a narrative perspective (Huntley & Owens, 2006). The girls' contribution to this study, through interviews, discussions and documentation allowed them to share common experiences and their own knowledge, thus ensuring that priority was given to their language, their ideas and their ‘framework for understanding their world’ (Kitzinger, 1994, p. 108).

Method

Ethics approvals

Formal ethics approval was obtained from the school principal. Parents and students gave informed consent, and the usual guarantees of anonymity, confidentiality and the right to withdraw from participation without prejudice were provided.

Participants

All 75 Grade Nine girls (age range 14–15 years) were divided into large and small focus groups to discuss and share their knowledge of friendship difficulties and strategies for managing indirect aggression and general conflict in their friendship groups.

Procedure

This study adopted Vickers' (2007) procedural approach to participatory action research, which involved the following three-stage cyclical process of interviews, data collection, reflection and discussion to develop actionable knowledge:

• Stage 1: identifying the social problem (building a picture) through in-depth interviews and discussions (Vickers, 2007). In this study, 75 Grade Nine girls were randomly divided into three large discussion groups of 25 girls each. Each group was asked to document the things they liked and disliked about their friendship groups. This information was collated and analysed. The girls' lists of likes and dislikes were ranked according to their frequency of occurrence For the purpose of this paper, only the friendship group dislikes are reported.

• Stage 2: this involves a continuation of in-depth interviews along with clarification of the data (Vickers, 2007). The ranked lists from Stage 1 were taken back to the three groups for comments and clarification. These discussions led to the formation of three key questions that were asked of the girls in smaller groups to ensure all could have a say and be heard. Consultations with the middle school director and class teachers led to the formation of these three smaller groups of girls (seven to nine in each group): a ‘dominant’ group of girls who were viewed as confident and outspoken; a middle of the road group who were socially knowledgeable but neither dominant nor submissive; and a shy or quiet group, some of whom lacked confidence and were known to be victimised by peers on a regular basis. The girls' responses and comments were recorded for further analysis.

• Stage 3: the final stage of a cyclical process of researcher and stakeholder working together includes analysis of the data, including checking the data with participants, devising practical solutions to the problems through the knowledge gained, implementing changes and evaluating outcomes (Vickers, 2007). The data from Stage 2 were taken to these separate groups of girls for checking and further consultation. The girls, as stakeholders, were asked to brainstorm and then rank strategies to handle conflict in their everyday group interactions. The authors compiled the lists of strategies and brought them back to the three groups in an iterative process until agreement was reached on the ranking of 10 final strategies, thus delivering a practical and considered document that provided constructive advice for the management of aggression and conflict within their friendship groups.

Results

Stage 1: identifying the social problem

The main things girls reported that they disliked about their friendship groups were what they described as ‘bitchiness’, which included spreading rumours, being excluded from the group, breaches of trust, attention-seeking and competitiveness. Ranking the girls' main points highlighted three areas of concern:

• The problems with groups with dominant leaders.

• The power of non-verbal communication to exclude and intimidate.

• Girls not feeling confident enough to have a voice and speak up for themselves.

Stage 2: interviews and data collection

After clarification was provided by the girls, the three areas of concern identified in Stage 1 were formulated into three sets of questions and presented to the groups of seven to nine girls.

First set of questions (groups with dominant leaders)

Have you been expected to obey the leader of the group or go along with the group's decision even if you did not agree? What have you done to cope with these behaviours? What strategies do you have for managing this situation?

In discussion with the girls, it was apparent that the most problematic groups were those with dominant leaders. Girls who were in, or had been in, these groups spoke of high levels of conflict and indirect aggression within these groups. Girls named leader domination, exclusion and ‘bitching’ including gossip and rumours as problems in these groups. Girls stated that the leader decided who could and could not be in the group. Girls who were excluded were left feeling hurt and humiliated as well as unsure of their place in the group. As difficult as these groups could be, girls often found it hard to walk away, stating that more problems would occur if they did. Verbatim comments from the girls are illustrative:

People want to fit in, and if you don't go along with the leader, you don't fit in.

If I don't go along with what the leader wants (and I do what I want) I will get paid out or everyone will be angry with me.

In these groups, you are told not to say something or do something.

The leader decides who can be in the group and who is not in the group.

If I don't go along with the group I get picked on and they tell others what I said.

I have been threatened and pressured into things I haven't wanted to do.

A friend was saying something that I didn't agree with but I was forced to go along with it anyway.

The leader gets everyone on her side; otherwise she always just picks on me. She thinks she is the biggest one and I am the smallest.

In primary school, where the leader of the group went, we had to go. If we didn't follow her she would get angry. Everything had to be her way.

Groups without a dominant leader had far fewer problems. Girls reported that these groups allowed members to make their own choices about where they went, what they could do and who they could befriend. Comments from girls indicated that there was a greater level of respectful behaviours and a higher level of autonomy operating between friends. A small number of girls said that they did not follow any groups; they did not care what the groups said or did and they just did their ‘own thing.’ Verbatim comments include:

My group doesn't have a leader; we do whatever we want and don't have to do what some-one tells us to do.

I would rather do my own thing and do what I think is right. I try not to get involved (in disputes) and keep my opinions to myself.

I don't follow a group, and I don't really care what they say. If I don't agree with the group they can do what they want. I don't really care.

Well when bitchiness goes on, I try to just stay out of it because involving more people will just make things worse.

Girls were consistent in their views that the key to having respectful friendships was to choose a group carefully. This included having a wide range of friends because if problems occurred within the friendship group, there were other friends available. Girls suggested that groups with dominant leaders would always have problems as the leader, who may well be a popular girl, was also a girl who could make other girls' lives difficult. The advice from girls was that if the group was affecting them, then it was time to get out, otherwise they would always be dealing with problems. Girls stated that, within friendship groups, it was important to decide what was important and what was not, adding that if a person felt strongly enough about an issue then it was worth speaking up. A number of girls stated the importance of learning to stand up for oneself; however, they said that it was also important to know when to walk away as there was no point staying to be humiliated. If conflict arose, girls suggested talking to the person concerned to see if it was possible to resolve the difficulties.

Second set of questions (exclusion and intimidation)

The second set of questions related to the power of non-verbal communication to exclude and intimidate peers Have you been easily silenced by a look, a comment or body language? What have you done to cope with these behaviours? What strategies do you have for managing this situation?

Many girls reported having experienced various levels of intimidation that have either silenced or excluded them. Common behaviours were rolling the eyes, the ‘death stare or ‘daggers’ (intimidatory glaring), the cold shoulder (turning away from people so that they are excluded from the group or standing in front of people and blocking them from the group) and silence from the group (ignoring people as though they do not exist). Comments from girls indicated the power of this negative form of non-verbal communication:

Once when I entered a conversation everyone immediately went silent. I have also been given daggers and been cut out of conversations.

When I was walking down the hallway this girl (who wasn't very nice) gave me an evil eye and I didn't even do anything wrong that I know of.

I have experienced a cold shoulder and been cut out of conversations. It happens a lot so I am used to it.

When I get the cold shoulder I usually just am quiet because I don't want them to not like me anymore.

Tactics of exclusion and intimidation were well recognised by girls. Many girls reported being on the receiving end of this form of harassment. Most of the girls reported that the best way to deal with this was to completely ignore it, naming it as ‘immature’ and ‘bitchy’ behaviour. Girls said that coping with these behaviours was best managed by not repeating what they had experienced or what they had seen operating in their groups. Girls also recommended not staying around to be humiliated if excluded from a group. They suggested that it was better to walk away and think about how to manage the situation. Girls said the benefit of having a wide circle of friends was so that if exclusion occurred, there were other people to be friends with.

Third set of questions (speaking up)

The final set of questions related to the girls having a ‘voice’ and speaking up. With your group of friends can you think of a time when you felt it was not okay to say that you disagreed or to voice your own opinion? What have you done to cope with these behaviours? What strategies do you have for managing this situation?

Many girls answered ‘yes’ to this question, saying that they were not able to speak up and voice their opinion as they did not want to offend people, upset the friendship group or hurt anyone's feelings. Girls were concerned that if they spoke up their friends might be angry with them and they were scared of the repercussions, so it was easier to remain silent. Girls who remained silent said they did so because they thought they would get picked on or laughed at if they spoke up, especially if they were in a group with a strong (dominant) leader. Girls who had tried to be assertive by speaking up reported that they had been ‘shut down’ by the group for having an opinion. These girls found it was easier to remain silent. These were also the girls who found it easier to stay in a group that had problems, thus leaving themselves highly vulnerable to negative group behaviours. Girls who have remained silent commented on their reasons for doing so:

Remaining silent can appear like you are agreeing with the group, but it is easier to remain silent than to speak up. You know you have your own opinion, but you don't have to tell them, because if you do, you don't know what will happen.

I have remained silent because I thought I would get laughed at or get a bad look.

When I get picked on by the others as they always do things to me, I don't say anything because they just answer back and the whole group goes to the other side.

Confident girls were far more likely to voice their opinions and they also had the ability to problem solve situations. Confident girls were less dependent on group approval, and were less likely to accept some of the negative behaviours displayed by groups. Girls stated that it was important to learn to be strong enough to make one's own decisions and speak up, as not doing so could mean facing the consequences of being a part of someone else's decisions. If a girl remained silent in a group, it was important for that girl to recognise that she had her own opinions and did not go along with ‘majority rules.’ If the issue was important, accessing help from a trusted friend, parent or a school counsellor were recommendations from girls.

Girls said that it was important to consider how to manage peer pressure by thinking about situations in advance; otherwise one could be pressured by the group into inappropriate activities. Using parents as an excuse was a viable option because, as one girl explained: ‘Parents’ authority over-rules group authority.’ Accessing support from school counsellors was another option. However, being able to trust one's own decision in relation to what they saw as right and wrong along with being clear about their own boundaries and limits, assisted confident girls to withstand peer group pressure. A strong recommendation from girls was to find friends ‘who are mostly like you.’ Having friends who do not drink or take drugs made it easier to withstand peer pressure at parties because a girl was not alone in having to withstand pressure to be involved in unwanted social activities. Girls also suggested working out, in advance, strategies for managing peer pressure at parties if alcohol and drugs were going to be present. Saying that you were using medication or in sports training was often accepted by peers as a satisfactory excuse for a girl not to drink or take drugs, thereby lessening the impact of peer group pressure.

Stage 3: analysing and interpreting – developing practical solutions

In order of importance, the girls' final rankings of strategies for how best to manage conflict within their groups are listed below in the girls' own words.

• ‘Develop a wide circle of friends; don't just stick with one or two people. Then if something goes wrong with your group, you have other people to hang out with.’

• ‘Decide what is important and what is not, what you will take a stand for and what you will let go. If you feel strongly enough about an issue it is worth speaking up.’

• ‘Walk away from conflict if it is getting out of hand – do not stay and be humiliated. Walk away and think about how you will deal with the situation.’

• ‘If you feel comfortable talk to whoever is upsetting you one-on-one. See if you can sit down and work it out, without involving others. Let them know that you don't like what is happening.’

• ‘Remove yourself from gossip, bitchiness and back stabbing. If you stay away from this type of behavior you cannot be accused of doing or saying something which could be seen as offensive. This also applies to texting comments, emails, My Space, Facebook and MSN.’

• ‘Be clear about where your boundaries (limits) are if you are feeling uncomfortable. Do not let the peer group make decisions for you – otherwise you will finish up participating in things that you do not want to do.’

• ‘Find friends who are mostly like you and do not do drugs or drink. That way if you go out, having a friend with you who does not drink or do drugs makes it easier to withstand the pressure from the peer group.’

• ‘If it is important to voice your opinion, ask for advice from a trusted friend outside the friendship group. Enlist help from your parents if dealing with the peer group is too difficult. Speak to the school counsellors if you don't know what to do.’

• ‘Ignore the evil eye, daggers, the stare and the cold shoulder. Do not repeat the negative behaviours that have been done to you or that you have seen operating within your group. Ignoring immature behavior is the best thing to do.’

• ‘If you are pressured by the group to do something you don't want to do or go somewhere that you don't want to go, and you don't feel comfortable voicing your opinion, you can say that your parents will not allow you out (but make sure your parents know what the situation is about).’

Discussion

This study set out to investigate girls' own strategies for managing conflict within their friendship groups. Many girls exhibited a perceptive understanding and revealed skilled language and problem-solving skills, which supports Noakes and Rinaldi's (2006) views that girls have the ability to use higher-level solutions to resolve problems in their friendship groups. Evidence of these skills was displayed in the impressive list of management strategies that the girls developed for coping with aggression and conflict in their friendship groups.

Good problem-solving skills, the ability to regulate their emotions (Hawkins et al., 2006) along with competent language skills indicated that many girls were less dependent on group approval and far less likely to accept negative group behaviours. These girls reported a range of strategies to counteract the negativity of indirect aggression through refusing to take part in gossiping, ‘bitching’, rumour-mongering, and unacceptable peer behaviour including intimidatory and exclusionary behaviour. Being certain about their beliefs, having strong personal boundaries and the ability to speak up for themselves enabled these girls to manage peer conflict with a constructive approach. Having a wide circle of friends was an important consideration for girls who coped well. Girls said that a wide circle of friends offered a level of protection against the possibility of being excluded from a friendship group, because if that did occur there were other people to have as friends. Girls also stated that finding friends who were more like themselves reduced the likelihood of group conflict. This is consistent with the findings of Daddis (2008) and Linden-Andersen et al. (2009), who suggested that similarity of personality and attitudes appeared to be an important component in the quality of adolescent friendships. These qualities in girls strengthen Owens, Shute, and Slee's (2000) and Noakes and Rinaldi's (2006) suggestions of the importance of using the girls' strengths, their close relationships and their considered solutions to peer conflict for school-based intervention policies and programmes.

However, this study also highlighted some key areas that are problematic for vulnerable girls in managing aggression and conflict in their friendships and groups, namely the impact of ineffective coping and problem-solving skills. In this study, girls were acutely aware of the problems within their friendship groups, especially groups with dominant leaders. However, it was evident from girls' comments that many girls did not have the coping skills to manage a dominant personality yet ‘hoped’ that the situation would improve without them having to do or say anything, thus leaving them vulnerable and disempowered within the group. This also applied to coping with intimidatory and exclusionary group behaviour, where girls were left feeling humiliated and vulnerable but did not know what to do about the situation. This supports the findings of Frydenberg and Lewis (1993) relating to girls' use of wishful thinking as a non-productive, dysfunctional coping strategy, indicating a girls' lack of empowerment in conflict situations.

The importance of friendship groups for adolescent girls was highlighted throughout this study. The need to belong to a friendship group was evident for almost all the girls. A limited number of girls did not belong to a particular friendship group but chose instead to move between groups. The most vulnerable girls appeared to be the most at risk in their friendship groups as they chose to remain in groups that displayed high levels of emotionally destructive behaviour. Girls believed that leaving the group would mean that they did not belong anywhere. Baskin et al. (2010) wrote of the importance of ‘belongingness’ in peer cliques for adolescents, naming it as a key factor in their well-being; however, it would appear that for vulnerable girls ‘belongingness’ may well come at a price. For these girls, belonging to a dysfunctional group was better than not belonging to a group at all. Not only were these girls lacking confidence in having a voice for themselves, they were fearful of the consequences if they did speak up in group situations. Girls said they did not speak up because they did not want to upset people, or upset the friendship group, or be laughed at in front of people, or have people become angry with them. They also did not know what people would think if they did speak up. Fear of the consequences kept these girls silent, and silence added to their vulnerability.

Conclusion

Engaging and collaborating with girls along with honouring their knowledge and experiences has highlighted the skills, abilities and competencies many adolescent girls have for managing conflict within their friendship groups. It would appear that very little research has been given to this area of adolescent development; however, there are many girls who display high levels of maturity, skills and abilities in knowing how to manage conflicts. The girls' own list of strategies in this study is evidence of their constructive approach to managing a range of situations that occur in their friendship groups. This study has also highlighted why vulnerable girls are highly susceptible to indirect aggression within their friendship groups. Girls are acutely aware of the problems within their friendship groups. However, as suggested by previous research (Cross et al., 2009; Currie et al., 2007), coming to the assistance of adolescent girls who experience indirect aggression can be very difficult due to the very nature of this form of aggression (e.g., it is difficult to know who exactly started a nasty rumour and how does one separate out deliberate exclusion from the group from girls' rights to choose their own friends). One of the keys to addressing indirect aggression is to actively teach vulnerable girls problem-solving skills, effective coping strategies, and ways in which to regulate their emotions. Assisting girls to build confidence in their own abilities to manage a wide range of peer behaviours is critical for girls to develop better relationships within their peer groups. Future studies may examine the ways in which these issues are addressed with vulnerable adolescent girls.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Jillian Huntley

Jillian Huntley is director of Student Services at St Michael's College, Adelaide, South Australia. She has completed a Bachelor of Education (special education) and a Master of Education (educational research, assessment and evaluation). She has a Graduate Diploma in narrative therapy which supports her everyday work in counselling students. She is interested in applied research especially in the use of narrative approaches to assist teenage girls to have a voice for themselves and to find solutions to solve their peer relationship difficulties.

Larry Owens

Larry Owens is the associate head of Teaching and Learning in the Faculty of Education, Humanities and Law at Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia. In 2010, Professor Owens was honoured with the Australian Learning and Teaching Council Award for Outstanding Contribution to Student Learning, for his work relating to student centred teaching. His research is concerned with: peer relationships among school students including gender and age differences in aggression (and particularly indirect aggression among teenage girls); bullying behaviours; and conceptions of popularity and social power among adolescents.