Social support experiences by pupils in finnish secondary school

ABSTRACT

The study explores the schoolwork social support experiences of teachers, peers and parents. The data were collected from 1529 Finnish seventh-grade (age 13–14 years) pupils using The Students’ Learning Agency inventory (SLA). The results indicate that social support is a dynamic system in which adult support is an important resource for pupils’ schoolwork, regardless of the pupils’ gender and sosio-economic status of the school. In particular, support from teachers increased the likelihood of support sharing between peers. However, there were differences in this teachers’ effect on peer support in terms of gender; the connection was weaker for girls than for boys. Hence, teacher support appeared to affect boys’ peer relations more than girls’.

KEYWORDS:

• Social support
• schoolwork
• teacher-pupil interaction
• peer interaction

Introduction

A significant body of prior research on pupils’ school experiences indicates that the social support for school work, creating positive relationships in the school context (House et al., 1988), plays a central role in pupils’ study trajectories (Pyhältö, 2018, see also Wang & Eccles, 2012; Goodenow, 1992; Estell & Perdue, 2013). A supportive social environment has for example, been shown to increase pupils’ willingness to invest time and effort in their studies (Estell & Perdue, 2013; D. P. Martin & Rimm-Kaufman, 2015; Ulmanen, 2017; Urdan & Schoenfelder, 2006; Wentzel et al., 2017), to support their social and academic adjustment (Demaray & Malecki, Demaray and Malecki, 2002a, 2002b) and to facilitate good learning outcomes and school satisfaction in school (Danielsen et al., 2009; Richman et al., 1998; Wang & Eccles, 2012). Particularly support from teachers in schools and adults at home has been shown to have both direct and indirect positive consequences, such as building positive attitudes towards schoolwork and a constructive classroom climate (Ahmed et al., 2010; Chen, 2005; Rice et al., 2013; Wang & Eccles, 2012; Wentzel, 1999; Woolley & Bowen, 2007; Woolley et al., 2009). Furthermore, peer social support plays a central role in school experience (A. J. Martin & Dowson, 2009; Ulmanen, 2017; You, 2011), promoting pupils to develop their social skills and achieve learning goals (A. J. Martin & Dowson, 2009; Juvonen, 2006; Juvonen et al., 2000). Experiences of social support for schoolwork have been shown to differ in terms of gender (Wentzel et al., 2016) and socio-economic background (Malecki & Demaray, 2006). However, functional support for schoolwork cannot be taken for granted. In fact, a considerable number of pupils appear to struggle with their studies due to the lack of sufficient support (e.g. Marion et al., 2014; Salmela-Aro et al., 2009; Salmela-Aro & Upadaya, 2012; Ulmanen et al., 2016). Moreover, both study engagement and achievement tend to decrease in adolescence (Marks, 2000; Moreira et al., 2018; Wang & Eccles, 2011).

Although the relationship between social support and success in school work has been studied quite extensively, there is a gap in the literature concerning the anatomy and dynamics of the social support from different sources as perceived by pupils. This study explores the experiences of 7^th graders of social support for school work from teachers, peers and parents. It is hypothesized that support from teachers and parents enhances pupils’ peer support (e.g. Farmer et al., 2011; Newton et al., 2014). In addition, interrelation between the experienced social support and the socio-economic status of the school district and gender are analysed.

Social support for schoolwork

Social support refers to the social resources perceived to be available and used (see the seminal work of Cohen et al., 2000) by pupils. It is related to an individual’s experience of being liked, cared for (Goodenow, 1993; Murdock & Miller, 2003) and valued and a feeling of social cohesion (Cobb, 1976). Such experiences are shown to buffer adverse outcomes, such as alienation from school work (Malecki & Demaray, 2002). Social support for school work is composed of the sources and forms of the support, support dynamics and support fit (see Cohen & Syme, 1985; Pyhältö, 2018; Wang & Eccles, 2012). In literature, distinctions between three complementary forms of support, including emotional, informational and instrumental support have been made (e.g House, 1981; Tardy, 1985). Emotional support refers to empathy, trust, listening, esteem, caring, encouragement and belonging to the school community, while informational support is characterized by information such as advice, feedback and suggestions (Cobb, 1976; House, 1981; Thoits, 2011) that enable a student for example, to solve a school-related task. Finally, instrumental support is usually directed to practical tasks or problems and offers both behavioural and material assistance (Chen, 2005; Thoits, 2011). This study focuses on emotional and informational support for school work.

The support dynamics refers to whether the support is received, given or reciprocal. Roles of the giver and receiver may vary over time, even benefitting both sides (Breines & Chen, 2013; Feeney & Collins, 2015). An individual’s ability to give or receive social support and to utilize the support that is available is related to several individual and environmental attributes (see House, 1981). For example, a pupil’s willingness to seek help is dependent on their social efficacy and social skills (see A.M. Ryan & Pintrich, 1997; Segrin et al., 2016). Similarly, willingness to give support requires skills and resources to act in a responsible way (Feeney & Collins, 2015). Pupils’ aspiration and willingness to support others is highly dependent on their perceptions of the availability of resources provided for them. For example, Capella et al. (2012) showed that the high emotional support in the classroom was related to the increased emotional well-being, secure friendships and experienced enjoyment.

Some sources of social support can be more important than the others, depending on the pupil (e.g. individual differences in need or desire for support) and the support needed in the situation (Cohen & Syme, 1985; House, 1981; Pyhältö, 2018; Tanigawa et al., 2011; Wang & Eccles, 2012). There is also some evidence, that social support from several complementary sources may be more beneficial than from only one or two sources (e.g. Marks, 2000; Woolley & Bowen, 2007). It is also known, that a pupil’s sense of social support is constructed through representations of self, important others, the nature of interpersonal relationships and the observable features of relationships in which supportive behaviour occurs (Sarason et al., 1990; see also Feeney & Collins, 2015).

Sources of support for schoolwork

The social support provided by the school consists of official and unofficial relationships within the school community (e.g. House, 1981; Malecki & Demaray, 2002; Tardy, 1985). At school, teachers and peers provide the primary sources of support for the schoolwork (Kiefer et al., 2015; Liu et al., 2016). Although peer support has been found to contribute to pupils’ school adjustment, and reduced risk of study burnout, the negative behaviours and emotions have also been found to accumulate in close relationships (e.g. Guay et al., 1999; A. M. Ryan & Patrick, 2001; Salmela-Aro et al., 2008). For example, close relationships with peers having a cynical attitude towards school work may also have a negative impact on the pupil’s friends (Nesdale et al., 2014; Wentzel et al., 2004). Reciprocal support in peer relations, such as mutual help, is an essential part of classroom work and a valuable resource in various social and academic tasks (e.g. Sieber, 1979; Wentzel, 1998), and hence favours engagement in school work. Peer support may consist of both informational and emotional support, such as advice, appraisal feedback and encouragement (Thoits, 2011), which can be powerful motivators for studying (Estell & Perdue, 2013; Jelas et al., 2016; Wentzel & Watkins, 2002), and can facilitate feelings of competence, interest and enjoyment of learning (Ahmed et al., 2010).

Supportive and nurturing relationships with teachers and with adults at home may have both direct (e.g. academic) and indirect (e.g. peer support, classroom atmosphere, social skills development) impact on learning (e.g. Vollet, 2017). Particularly, teacher support has been found to have a significant impact on pupils’ school achievement and adjustment (Chen, 2005; T. F. Hughes et al., 2008; Kiefer et al., 2015; King & Ganotice, 2014; Malecki & Demaray, 2003; Wentzel et al., 2016). For example, creating a warm and supportive classroom environment enables students to cultivate both their academic and the interpersonal skills (Farmer et al., 2011; Gest & Rodkin, 2011; Howes, 2000; Hughes & Chen, 2011; J. N. Hughes et al., 2001). Moreover, the teacher support creates a foundation for other supportive behaviour (e.g. sharing support) among the peer group by e.g. modelling caring relationships, establishing dialogues characterized by a search for common understanding, empathy or appreciation and hence providing practice and opportunities for pupils to gain these skills (Noddings, 2005), in addition to directly promoting school adjustment (e.g. Gest et al., 2014; Hamm et al., 2011).

Social support from home is also a significant predictor of school success (Chen et al., 2015; Vasques et al., 2016; C. W. Wang & Neihart, 2015). For example, family support and guidance has been shown to predict maths grades (Azmitia et al., 2009). High levels of guardian support, such as showing interest in academic goals and higher expectations in studying, are associated with higher achievement (Hopson et al., 2014; Kay et al., 2016; Lukin, 2013). It has been shown, that support from adults at home is also positively related to the adolescents’ communication, emotional support and relationship satisfaction within their close peer relationships (Tuggle et al., 2014). Hence, a child’s prosocial and responsive behaviour, engendering bidirectional interaction patterns with peers, is promoted by the guardian’s warm and responsive behaviour towards their child (Hart et al., 2003; Newton et al., 2014), and further enhances the pupil’s ability to use peers as a resource of social support in school work (e.g. Wentzel, 1996) and also to provide support for others.

Age, gender and socio-economic status

The experiences of social support for schoolwork have been shown to be influenced by a pupil’s age, gender and socio-economic background. Social support, especially from peers, is crucial in adolescence when the need for belonging and for receiving acceptance and valuation increases (Connell, 1990; R. M. Ryan & Deci, 2002; Wentzel, 1998). In adolescence, peers become increasingly important, whereas the teacher’s influence declines (Buhrmester & Furman, 1987; Rice et al., 2013). At the same time, teacher-student relationships typically become less close (0ʹConnor, 2010; Baker, 2006; Ulmanen, 2017; Wigfield et al., 2015), partly due to the transition from primary school, with one primary teacher, to secondary school with separate subject teachers. Hence, the need for social support remains, but responsiveness to support may decrease. A need to form and maintain supportive relationships that facilitate adolescents’ sense of connectedness, reinforcing their willingness to make an effort and their commitment to studying, is essential (Juvonen, 2007).

Gender differences in experienced social support for studying have been detected (Marks, 2000; Rueger et al., 2010; Wentzel et al., 2016). In general, girls’ adjustment to the school environment is found of be better than that of boys (e.g. Liu et al., 2016; Virtanen et al., 2014; Wang & Eccles, 2012), and they are more capable of utilizing peer support in studying (Rueger et al., 2010). Girls also tend to be better sources of mutual support and use more emotional support strategies than boys (Camara et al., 2017; Wentzel et al., 2017). They also rely on their best friend more heavily than boys (Furman & Buhrmester, 1985), and they exhibit a lot of strengths in their friendships, for example, in terms of shared intimacy and emotional support (MacEvoy & Asher, 2012). Girls have been shown to share their worries, to expect and receive support and to offer it to each other more actively than boys (Blyth & Foster-Clark, 1987; Weigel et al., 1998). Girls also report more support from various sources than boys (Demaray & Malecki, Demaray and Malecki, 2002a; Rueger et al., 2010). However, the sense of belonging to the school community is strengthened when moving to the older classes, especially among boys (Halme et al., 2018).

A pupil’s socioeconomic status (SES) is related to social support for schoolwork (Malecki & Demaray, 2006; Plunkett et al., 2009; Wang et al., 2012). It has been shown that pupils from low-income families and those with low readiness skills may be especially responsive to social support for studying (e.g. Baker, 2006; Hamre & Pianta, 2005). SES is also a significant predictor of academic achievement and other pupil outcomes, including e.g. effort and persevering in learning (J.-S. Lee, 2014). The social support of teachers and parents contributes to the academic achievement, especially among pupils with disadvantaged backgrounds (Malecki & Demaray, 2006). The impact of socio-economic background of the school district or the pupils’ socio-economic background on achievement e.g. in literacy has been less influential in the Finnish context (Sulkunen et al., 2010). However, the influence of home background on a pupil’s school outcomes has increased in Finland, whereas it has remained unchanged in other OECD countries (Vettenranta et al., 2016). Family SES directly predicts adult education level in Finland (Lindfors et al., 2018). There has also been increasing evidence for socio-economic segregation across and within schools in bigger cities in Finland, for example, diversification in learning outcomes (Berisha & Seppänen, 2017; Tikkanen, 2019) and urban segregation around schools (Bernelius & Vaattovaara, 2016; Vilkama et al., 2013).

Aim of the study

The study aims to gain better understanding of the social support from teachers, peers and guardians for studying among Finnish 7^th graders. The interrelations between the perceived support from these sources and gender and school SES were also explored.

The following hypotheses were addressed:

Hypothesis 1: Social support from teachers and guardians is positively related to perceived peer support (Estell & Perdue, 2013; Kiefer et al., 2015).

Hypothesis 2: Effects of experienced social support from teachers and guardians on the social support between peers differ in strength (Wang & Eccles, 2012)

Hypothesis 3: Effects of experienced social support from teachers and guardians on the social support between peers are different in terms of gender (Demaray & Malecki, Demaray and Malecki, 2002a; Liu et al., 2016).

Hypothesis 4: Effects of experienced social support from teachers and guardians on social support between peers are different in schools in high and low SES neighbourhoods (e.g. Marks, 2000).

Methods

Lower secondary school

In Finland, children begin school at the age of seven. Compulsory comprehensive education lasts for nine years. It is divided into primary school (grades 1–6) and secondary school (grades 7–9). This basic education has the two main goals of promoting simultaneously high quality learning outcomes and children’s personal growth and well-being (Pyhältö et al., 2010). There is no private school system. Since 1998, parents have had the right to choose a school for their children. However, most parents want that their children go to the neighbourhood school. Most of them are highly satisfied with the teaching, cooperation and assessment in school (Y. Lee, 2010).

The Finnish teachers have an MA degree and they can operate quite independently in their work. During primary school, the pupils have their own class teacher, who usually teaches them several subjects. In upper class teachers’ role is more like that of a supervisor. Other teachers are mainly subject teachers, who teach their own specific subjects. Despite the overall rather small differences between schools in the pupils’ academic performance and well-being (Halme et al., 2018; Vettenranta et al., 2016), regional differences have been found to have increased in recent years (Bernelius & Vaattovaara, 2016; Vettenranta et al., 2016). Transition to the secondary school is risky for pupils in many ways. In this context, teachers have a strong influence on creating the conditions for a supportive atmosphere in the classroom work.

Participants and data collection

The data for this study was drawn from the School matters -research project. Before conducting the study, parents gave informed consent for their children to participate in the study. The pupils were informed that participating in the research was voluntary. The data was collected from the pupils in whole class settings and research group members organized and guided the whole study situation. The pupils’ teachers did not see their pupils’ answers. A trained research assistant coded the responses into SPSS -files later. Altogether 1529 seventh-graders (girls n = 781; 51.1% and boys n = 748; 48.9%) from 28 lower secondary schools around Finland completed the survey in autumn 2017. Each school’s SES variable indicated the socio-economic characteristics of the residential area surrounding the school (see sampling strategy): 0 = low (n = 36), 1 = high (n = 38).

Instrument

The data were collected using a survey measuring pupils’ experienced social support in terms of their schoolwork, the Students’ Learning Agency -inventory (SLA), which was developed and piloted by the research group. The scales assessing social support from teachers, parents and peers were used in this study. The scale consisted of 20 statements about different aspects of social support describing the nature of supportive behaviours. The reliability analysis and the used scales with items are presented in Appendix A1.

Social support between peers was assessed with a sub-scale consisting of ten items with a seven-point Likert-scale ranging from 1 to 7. The items of peers’ support included items on both receiving and giving support, including aspects of socially responsive behaviours, such as taking care of others, and being encouraging and helpful. Social support from teachers was assessed with a sub-scale consisting of eleven items with a seven-point Likert-scale ranging from 1 to 7. The items measure emotional and instructional support from teachers, for example, items including the pupils’ perception of their teachers’ caring, encouragement and helpfulness. Social support from adults at home was assessed with a sub-scale consisting of seven items with a five-point Likert-scale ranging from 1 to 5. The scale (based on Lukin, 2013, p. 77) measures pupils’ experiences of daily parental practices and parents’ involvement in schoolwork, for example, how often parents show interest, encourage and help with school tasks.

Sampling of the schools based on SES

The selection of the schools (SES-sample) included three phases. Firstly, six different school districts representing the geographical variation (urban/rural) in Finland were selected in the sample (Pyhältö et al., 2018; Soini et al., 2017; Pietarinen et al., 2017). Secondly, on the basis of national statistics (Basic Statistics Finland, 2014), schools with upper grades in the districts were profiled in terms of socio-economic status (SES) of the living area. More specifically, the school’s SES index was established on the basis of six different socio-economic indicators: the proportion of adults with a higher education degree, the proportion of adults with only basic education, the median income of the residents, the median income of the households, the unemployed-employed ratio, and the unemployment percentage in the living area surrounding each school.

Thirdly, based on the combination of the six SES indicators, the comparable SES index/school was calculated and 50% of the lower secondary schools (>50 students), posited in the upper- and lower quarters in terms of the SES index, were included in the study sample (N = 28). The school authorities of the respective districts granted a general research permit. On the basis of district- and city-level permissions those schools in the area were contacted and invited to collaborate for data collection during the autumn term 2016. Of the lower secondary schools, 11 schools were from high SES areas and 17 from low SES areas. All in all, 75 out of 94 schools accepted the invitation and participated in the study (i.e. school-level response rate was 80%).

Data analyses

Our purpose was to determine whether social support from teachers and parents promotes the social support that pupils experience between peers (as a relational system) and are there differences in the strengths of these relations in terms of gender and school SES (high/low). Linear regression analyses were performed. The support from teachers and home were analysed as predictors of the shared support between peers (Model 1). The support from teachers and homes as predictors of the shared support between peers was analysed separately for the girls and boys (Model 2). In the third model, the support from teachers and homes as predictors of shared support between peers was analysed separately for the pupils of schools in the low-SES and high-SES areas. Finally, the statistical significance between the regression coefficients of different effects (Models 2 and 3) was tested with an additional set of linear regression models. These included the original predictors, a dummy coded grouping variable (gender in Model 2 and school SES in Model 3) and the corresponding interaction terms of social support and dummy variables. For the regression analyses, the support from home variable was rescaled as 1–7. All analyses were performed with SPSS Statistics (version 26).

Intra-class correlations (ICC) of each variable were calculated. Class-level clustering appears to have some effect on social support received from teachers [ICC = .066], peers [ICC = .052] and guardians [ICC = .027]. Missing values in each variable as social support from teachers, peers and guardians was 1.1%.

Results

Experienced social support in seventh graders

The means, standard deviations and intercorrelations of all sub-scales are presented in Table 1. The results revealed that the pupils experienced a good level of social support for schoolwork from peers [M = 5.13, SD = 1.16], teachers [M = 4.80, SD = 1.26] and guardians [M = 3.76, SD = 0.78]. The t-tests show statistically significant differences [p < .001, Cohen’s d = .46] between boys and girls in the level of experienced social support from peers. The girls [M = 5.39] experienced more shared support among peers compared to the boys [M = 4.86]. However, the results show that there were no statistically significant differences in received support from teachers [p = .66] or guardians [p = .09] between genders. The result revealed that the experienced social support from peers in high-SES [M = 5.12] and low-SES [M = 5.14] area schools was at good level. Accordingly, the pupils experienced that they received a good level of social support from teachers in high-SES [M = 4.81] and low-SES [M = 4.78] area schools and also from guardians in high-SES [M = 3.78] and low-SES [M = 3.72] areas. There were no statistically significant differences in the level of support between peers [p = .80], teachers [p = .68] and guardians [p = .12] in terms of SES schools (high/low).

Table 1. Descriptive statistics and t-test results for gender and SES differences in social support

		Correlations					Girls Boys		Cohen’s d (gender diff.)	High SES Low SES		Cohen’s d (SES diff.)
		1	2	3	N	α	M (SD)	M (SD)		M (SD)	M (SD)
1	Teacher support	-			1494	.95	4.79(1.26)	4.82(1.28)	−.02	4.81(1.26)	4.78(1.27)	.02
2	Peer support	.59**	-		1542	.93	5.39 (1.05)	4.86 (1.22)	.46*	5.12 (1.15)	5.14 (1.18)	−.02
3	Guardian support	.35**	.31**	-	1544	.85	3.73 (.81)	3.80 (.75)	−.09	3.78 (.76)	3.72 (.81)	.03

at-Tests were statistically significant at the level p < .001

Guardian support was measured on a five-point scale, whereas teacher and peer support were measured using seven-point scales.

The results show (Table 2) that all the correlations between the sub-scales were positive and statistically significant [p < .001] at the level p < .05 (confirmed Hypothesis 1). Social support from teachers and between peers correlated with each other [r = .59]. Moreover, the social support from guardians had a connection with teacher [r = .35] and peer [r = .31] support. The results indicated that the higher the level of experienced support from teachers and guardians, the higher is the level of experienced peer support.

Table 2. Correlations between three sources of support (1–3), gender and school SES

	Variable	1	2
1	Peer support
2	Teacher support	All	59**
		Girls	597**
		Boys	625**
		SES-high	582**
		SES-low	602**
3	Guardian support	All	31**	35**
		Girls	368**	380**
		Boys	301**	322**
		SES-high	302**	348**
		SES-low	323**	351**

All correlations were significant at the level p < .001

The effect of experienced social support from teachers and guardians on the social support between peers in terms of gender and school SES (high-low) was also analysed. The results are presented below (Table 3):

Table 3. Predictors of social support: Results of Linear Regression Analyses

Predictors	β	unstandardized β	t =	p =	R^2(Adjusted R Square)
Model 1: All 7^th graders (N = 1529)
Dependent variable: Social support -peer. Adjusted R square					.360
Social support – teacher	.549			.000
Social support – guardian	.118			.000
Model 2: Interaction effects of gender
Dependent variable: Social support -peer. Adjusted R square					.405
2.a Social support – teacher	.653	.596	22.708	.000
Girl	.444	1.021	5.602	.000
Girl x social support – teacher	−.229	−.103	−2.803	.005
Dependent variable: Social support -peer. Adjusted R square					.154
2.b Social support – guardian	.328	.488	9.347	.000
Girl	.262	.610	2.250	.025
Girl x social support – guardian	−.023	−.014	−.192	.848
Model 3: Interaction effects of school SES
Dependent variable: Social support -peer. Adjusted R square					.348
3.a Social support – teacher	.612	.559	18.785	.000
SES	.066	.154	.800	.424
SES x social support – teacher	−.074	−.033	−.862	.389
Dependent variable: Social support – peer. Adjusted R square					.095
3.b Social support – guardian	.316	.471	8.623	.000
SES	.003	.007	.026	.979
SES x social support – guardian	−.023	.014	−.192	.848

The results of regression analyses (Model 1) supported Hypothesis 2: A strong effect [β = .549] of social support from teachers and a weaker effect from home [β = .118] were detected in social support between peers. However, both sources of support were statistically significant [p = .000] positive predictors of the peer support [R² = .360]. Teacher support has a stronger positive effect on shared support between peers than social support from guardians.

Further, the results of regression analyses (Model 2) partly supported Hypothesis 3. The interaction-effects in experienced social support from teachers and guardians on the social support between peers in terms of gender were tested. Statistically significant gender differences [β = −.229, t = −2.803, p = .005] in the effect of perceived support from teachers on the social support between peers were observed. This means that the effect of experienced social support from teachers on the social support between peers is weaker for girls than for boys. Statistically significant gender differences [β = −.023, t = −.192, p = .848] between the effect of perceived support from guardians on the social support between peers were not observed.

The results of regression analyses (Model 3) did not support Hypothesis 4: The interaction-effects of experienced social support from teachers and guardians on the social support between peers in terms of school SES (high-low) were also tested. Statistically significant differences in degree in the effects of experienced social support from teachers [β = −.074, t = −.862, p = .389] and from guardians [β = −.023, t = −.192, p = .848] on the social support between peers in high SES schools were not observed.

Discussion

The aim of this study was to gain better understanding about social support for schoolwork from teachers, peers and guardians as perceived by 7^th graders in Finland. A positive finding was that adolescent pupils experience relatively strong support from inside school (teachers and peers), as well as from home. Especially the experienced support from peers was rated quite high. Since the study focused on the social support for schoolwork and learning in school, not just for example, on a good atmosphere or friendship, this could indicate that there is a significant resource in the form of peer support for engaging in schoolwork, even though overall engagement in school is often shown to decrease in adolescence (Alexander et al., 2001; Finn, 1989). However, in line with previous research, our study shows that gender has an impact on the perceived support, especially from peers (Gherasim et al., 2013). Previous studies show that girls and boys may attach different meanings to peer relations in the context of schoolwork. For example, the members of girls’ peer groups are similar in terms of adjustment and educational expectations, whereas with boys only problem behaviour is associated with the group members’ educational expectations (Kiuru et al., 2007; Wentzel, 1997). This may imply that boys experience more challenges in creating a collective, positive attitudes towards schoolwork and hence, receive less support from each other in learning in school.

The results indicate that teachers and parental support is positively related to the perceived peer support. This is in line with some previous findings (Rautanen et al., 2020) and appears to imply that social support is a dynamic system of interrelated support arising from various sources where support is given, received and shared (see also Estell & Perdue, 2013; Kiefer et al., 2015). Moreover, our results showed that the social support from teachers and guardians are both positive predictors of experienced peer support and that the strongest relationship is found between support from teachers and peers, i.e. the actors inside the school context. More precisely, support from teachers increased the likelihood of support sharing between peers, implying that teachers’ support paves the way and acts as an example for good peer relations by creating a supportive atmosphere in the classroom (Farmer et al., 2011; Hughes & Chen, 2011; Rautanen et al., 2020; K. Wentzel et al., 2018). However, there are differences in this teachers’ effect on peer support in terms of gender; the connection was weaker for girls than for boys. In other words, teacher support appeared to affect boys’ peer relations more than girls’.

We found no significant differences between experienced support from teachers, guardians and peers related to the socio-economic status of the school which the pupils was attending. Pupils’ reported social support for schoolwork was equally high in different areas (not confirmed Hypothesis 4). Hence, the results show that, support from adults has an influence on support sharing between peers. Especially, the significance of the teachers’ support is high, regardless of the school’s SES. Even though the socio-economic status of the guardians has shown to influence pupil’s school achievement (Barr, 2015; M. Wang & Sheikh-Khalil, 2014) there are also some previous studies showing that SES is not a significant factor for the school achievement for adolescents (e.g. Marks, 2000). A growing body of research indicates that an important protective factor for a- risks pupils is the presence of supportive, attentive and caring adults (e.g. Scales & Gibbons, 1996; Wentzel, 1999), which might surpass the effects of economic or other challenges within families. In terms of this, our result is a very positive sign indicating that Finnish homes are able to support school work in adolescence regardless of their income or level of parental education. However, in Finland there are relatively small differences in socio-economic status between areas and municipalities (Karvonen et al., 2018; Yang Hansen et al., 2014). There is also a very strong emphasis on the equality of education, teacher and guardian social support and on the principle of neighbourhood schools.

In adolescence, the significance of engaging in peer relations increases and can even challenge engagement in schoolwork. Adults have a great responsibility to help develop an atmosphere, in which everyone is respected and accepted. This kind of supportive atmosphere may also trigger positive behaviour, such as effort, persistence, and participation that may reflect positively on schoolwork (Furrer & Skinner, 2003; see also King, 2015). For example, guardian involvement in daily practices (e.g. instrumental support) may directly impact pupils’ study habits and indirectly foster a sense of trust in others, e.g. peers (Vollet, 2017). Moreover, social support (e.g. emotional and instrumental) from teachers may promote the social support that pupils share between peers. Teachers’ a high level of support, respect, care and sensitivity encourage active participation in peer groups, i.e. discussing opinions and thoughts (Furrer & Skinner, 2003; Woolley et al., 2009; Wang & Holcombe, 2010; Wang & Eccles, 2011, p. 2012; Wang & Fredricks, 2014). Especially, the quality of teacher-pupil interactions is linked to pro-social goal pursuit (K. Wentzel & R, 1994, p. 1997) and pupils’ engagement such as working hard, enjoyment of learning and a willingness to share ideas and materials with others (Rimm-Kaufman et al., 2015). Previous studies have shown that boys are more at risks of having insufficient support for schoolwork than girls (Kerr et al., 2006; Murberg & Bru, 2004). However, we found that the relationship between support from adults to peer support was even stronger for boys than for girls, which led us to believe that adult support is a powerful tool in constructing a more supportive school experience for boys especially.

Methodological reflections

Our study aimed to explore the social support for schoolwork from teachers, between peers and from adults at home. The results are based on the data that were collected from pupils with a questionnaire. Therefore, the results are based solely on the pupils’ self-reports which are influenced by the way they have understood to the questions. There are also individual differences in the social support experiences between the pupils. For example, the words may have different meanings for different pupils. The pupils’ experiences may vary notably also. Our results provide only partial explanations of the relations between social support from different sources, i.e. some of the variance remained unexplained by the variables.

Disclosure statement

We have no known conflict of interest to disclose.

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by the Finnish Ministry of Education and Culture under Grant 6600567 and The Finnish Cultural Foundation under Grant 00180135. The funding sources were not involved in study design; in the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data; in the writing of the report; or in the decision to submit the article for publication.

Appendix A1.

Reliability analyses and SLA sub-scale items (translated from Finnish)

Table

Scale	α	Items	Range
Social support among peers	0.916	I want to help others in their studies. My classmates’ encouragement inspires me in my studies. I want my friends to do well in school. I have the courage to ask others for help with my studies. I have the courage to offer my friends help with their studies. I feel it is easy for others to ask me for help. I am sure that my classmates think of me as helpful. I support my friends in their studies. I know when my friends need help with their studies.	1.00–7.00
Social support from teachers	0.940	My teachers give me encouragement and support. Problems are addressed in a constructive manner at my school. I am treated with respect. I often receive constructive feedback from teachers. I am treated equally. I can openly discuss problems related to my studies with teachers. I feel that my teachers appreciate the work I have done for my studies. The teachers are interested in my opinions. I feel that my teachers care about me. I often receive encouraging feedback from my teachers. The teachers listen to the students at my school.	1.00–7.00
Social support from guardians	0.827	How often has an adult at home … wanted to see what kind of homework you have? How often has an adult at home … asked what you have been recently taught? How often has an adult at home … asked how you are doing in your studies? How often has an adult at home … asked if you need help with your homework or in preparing for an exam? How often has an adult at home … told you that school is important? How often has an adult at home … asked you if you are satisfied with your studying? How often has an adult at home … praised you for doing well in your studies?	1.00–5.00