Agency and communion among youth in Kosovo and Albania: An exploratory study

ABSTRACT

This study delves into gender stereotypes among young people in Kosovo and Albania, emphasizing cultural differences that are often overlooked in research. The study involved 412 students from Kosovo and 255 students from Albania who were surveyed using the Qualtrics Platform. Students rated the desirability of agentic and communal traits for men, women, and themselves. Results showed that males associated agentic traits with other males, while females associated communal traits with females. Females were still primarily associated with caring and communal roles, while males dominated achievement-oriented, agentic roles. Although some relaxation of gender stereotypes was observed, these findings highlight the need to address deeply ingrained gender stereotypes through transformative programmes that promote a more balanced and inclusive societal framework. Such programmes would encourage the participation of young males and females alike for a more equitable society.

KEYWORDS:

• Agency
• communion; prescriptive stereotypes
• gender stereotypes
• sexism
• Kosovo
• Albania

Introduction

Agency and community represent two dimensions of gender binary conceptualization according to social role theorists. Agency relates to self-concern, encompassing traits like achievement and competence, while communion pertains to self-concerning others, encompassing qualities such as caring and cooperativeness (Abele & Wojciszke, 2007). Research indicates that agency and communion are not solely components of self-description and prescription; they also hold significance for social behaviours, as well as for physical and psychological well-being (Helgeson, 1994). Particularly, the agency is more related to self-esteem, achievement orientation, life satisfaction (Abele et al., 2008; Wojciszke et al., 2011), while communion was more associated with people and relationship orientation, and relationship well-being (Le et al., 2018). These dimensions form the foundation of gender roles, with men often expected to exhibit agency traits and women to display communal traits, perpetuating gender stereotypes (Diehl et al., 2004; Fiske et al., 2002). While global trends indicate male privilege, cross-cultural variations exist (Eagly et al., 2020). Societies prioritizing economic development, gender equality, and personal growth tend to support non-traditional gender roles. Conversely, societies valuing hierarchy, uncertainty avoidance, and masculine traits tend to endorse traditional gender roles (Lee et al., 2020). The latest study, using data from 62 countries, showed that in more egalitarian societies, gender agency is smaller, while gender gaps in communality are larger (Kosakowska-Berezecka et al., 2023).

Few studies have examined gender stereotypes in Southeastern Europe, particularly Kosovo and Albania, while majority of evidence comes from Europe, US and Canada (Klaczynski et al., 2020; Martínez‐Marín & Martínez, 2019; Morawska, 2020). However, research often generalizes findings from Western countries to diverse non-Western cultures, limiting their reliability and validity (Ifegbesan, 2010). This study explores agency and communion in the unique cultural contexts of Kosovo and Albania among students, shedding light on the sociocultural changes and migration influences in Southeastern Europe.

Young people in Albania

Youth account for 23% of Albania’s population under the age of 15 and 21% between 10 and 24. Despite being a significant part of the overall population, young people in Albania consistently face a series of challenges that are directly or indirectly influenced by stereotypes and gender inequality (Muçollari, 2015).

Education is one of the challenges for young people, affected by low incomes, inadequate services, poor infrastructure, and gender norms. As enrolment of boys and girls is virtually identical in the EU28, in Albania, the gender gap slightly favours boys in lower education but reverses in tertiary education, where female graduates outnumber male graduates (Maghnouj et al., 2020). Data from various studies show that even among the highly educated, significant gender disparities persist. Young, highly educated men often face a considerably higher unemployment rate than women. Conversely, a completely different scenario unfolds when examining young men and women with a medium level of education, where women are far more likely to experience unemployment (Ramhorst, 2021).

Youth unemployment rates have remained persistent over the last decade. The position of young people in the labour market in Albania is more disappointing, as shown by the generally scanty labour market indices: high rates of unemployment and not in education, employment or training (NEET). In the past 4 years, the unemployment rate has increased (Observatory for Children and Youth Rights, 2023).

It is essential to recognize that men and women in Albania experience markedly different living and working conditions. Although metrics indicating gender parity in the labour market have improved since the economy was liberalized after the fall of communism in 1992, there is still room for improvement. Meanwhile, women also do much more domestic labour than their male counterparts, creating a second shift for women who work both in the professional and domestic spheres. The gender gap in Albania is 14.5% percentage points, where the male youth activity rate surpasses that of females (Regional Cooperation Council, 2021)

Challenges in all the sectors listed above contribute to high levels of youth migration, and high migration is the main reason for the population decline. A study on youth found that 71% consider emigration in their short- and mid-term plans. In 2022, approximately 46,460 Albanians emigrated, marking a 10.5% increase compared to 2021. Notably, most of these emigrants, numbering around 36,000, were young individuals, as revealed by the latest statistics from the Albanian Institute of Statistics (Westminster Foundation for Democracy & Civic Resistance, 2021)

Throughout the narrative of gender challenges, young people also feel underrepresented in society. Many young people in Albania feel pessimistic about their ability to influence politics and interact with elected officials. The negative examples have discouraged them from participating in politics, eroding their trust in democratic institutions and fair society (International Republican Institute, 2023). A manifestation of gender stereotypes and perceptions is child marriage as a harmful practice. According to the National Demographic Health Survey, child marriage affected 9% of girls and 1% of boys in 2019 and 11% of girls and 2% of boys in 2018. (UNICEF, 2021).Young people are aware of gender stereotypes. According to a study conducted in 2023 with the youth in Albania, 75% of them noted the absence of gender equality in their community. The youth believe that advancing gender equality would not only ensure fairness in rights and opportunities across all genders but also enrich the fabric of societies with enhanced harmony and inclusivity (Kuci, 2023).

Youth in Kosovo

Kosovo, distinguished by having the youngest demographic in Europe, is poised for significant national advancement (UNICEF, 2019). However, it faces the challenge of the highest rate of youth unemployment in the Balkans, standing at 46.4% for individuals younger than 24 (EC, 2020). Additionally, more than half of the young people who are employed find themselves in jobs that do not match their qualifications or are in positions for which they are overqualified (FES, 2018). This situation, compounded by a scarcity of opportunities and support services, has led to an increase in youth emigration (UNICEF, 2019). The ‘Youth Perspective in Kosovo’ report by the UNDP in 2021 indicates that a staggering 81% of young people perceive a critical lack of job opportunities, 68% express dissatisfaction with the economic situation, and 42% view nepotism as a considerable hurdle. Supporting these findings, Bellaqa (2021) highlights the necessity for more impactful labour market strategies to mitigate the pressing unemployment issue among the youth in Kosovo.

In Kosovo, a quarter of the young population is neither engaged in education nor employment, marking the highest such rate in the region. This disengagement disproportionately affects girls, while boys are more likely to be involved in the labour market (Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung (FES), 2018; United Nation Development Programme (UNDP), 2021). The issue of youth unemployment is particularly pronounced among those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, less educated families, and rural communities, underscoring an urgent need for improved economic opportunities and greater youth participation in decision-making processes. Despite a high enrolment rate in educational institutions in 2018, a subsequent study in 2020 revealed a concerning dropout rate of 44%, with boys often leaving school to contribute to the family income (UNDP, 2021). There is widespread discontent regarding the quality of education and its alignment with job market needs. High enrolment levels notwithstanding, young people express significant concerns about the quality of education, the likelihood of securing employment post-graduation, managing stress, and a general scepticism about the future. Additionally, strained inter-ethnic relations, still influenced by past conflicts and the attitudes of older generations, continue to challenge the youth in Kosovo (Kelmendi & Baumgartner, 2020; UNDP, 2021).

In Kosovo, the extended family plays a pivotal role in providing support and convenience to young individuals, though this close-knit familial structure also presents its set of challenges (FES, 2018). Issues such as family and gender-based violence are becoming increasingly concerning, notably impacting the youth (Kelmendi et al., 2019; UNDP, 2021). Research from 2019 indicates that 16% of young women believe violence to be justifiable, a stance more commonly found in marginalized groups (UNICEF, 2020). Moreover, violence within schools and communities adds to the difficulties young people face, leading to a high incidence of victimization (Arënliu et al., 2021; Kelmendi et al., 2023; Mustafa, 2019). The interplay between intimate partner violence and child maltreatment has a detrimental effect on adolescent mental health (Kelmendi et al., 2023). Additionally, sexual minorities face further adversity due to discrimination, underscoring the urgent need for interventions that are both inclusive and comprehensive (Kelmendi & Baumgartner, 2020; Llullaku et al., 2023).

Gender gap outcomes in Kosovo and Albania

Kosovo and Albania, like other Western Balkan countries, grapple with patriarchal dominance. Research indicates that a critical challenge in these contexts is individuals’ adherence to traditional gender norms. Albania has seen progress in gender equality within the work, power, health, and finance domains. In 2017, the Gender-Equality Index for Albania scored 60.4, lagging seven points behind the EU-28 average. However, Albania outperforms many EU member states, notably in the participation of women in political and economic spheres. Nevertheless, gender disparities persist in work, finance, and knowledge, contributing to structural inequalities (UN WOMEN Albania, 2020). While education participation is relatively equal to upper secondary levels, gender gaps emerge in higher and vocational education, influenced by gender stereotypes. Women tend to choose fields in health and wellbeing (16.3%), arts and humanities (13.0%), and business, administration, and law (28.4%) (INSTAT, 2021). A labour force survey reveals that women’s lower labour market participation is often due to unpaid domestic work (18.8%) or attending school (20.9%) (INSTAT, 2021). Conversely, men dominate in fields like business, administration, law (29.3%), engineering, manufacturing, and construction. Moreover, gender stereotypes contribute to legitimizing violence against women. Shockingly, 52.9% of women report experiencing violence at least once, with 36.6% enduring it. Sadly, women often view domestic violence as their fault, and disclosing it outside the family is seen as shameful (INSTAT, 2021).

In Kosovo, higher education sees similar participation rates between women and men (Farnsworth et al., 2018). However, women face higher unemployment rates, with 38% compared to men’s 25% and sociocultural expectations of women as caregivers hinder their labour force participation (Farnsworth et al., 2018). Regarding property ownership, women own less than 20% of properties in Kosovo, facing barriers to accessing loans, protection, and property rights (Farnsworth et al., 2018). Despite some relaxation in gender roles, men continue to dominate public, political, and social spheres, including municipal assemblies, parliament, prosecutors, judges, and police (Haug, 2015). Gender-based violence against women remains a pressing public health issue. According to OSCE (2019), 54% of women reported experiencing psychological violence, 9% faced physical violence, and 4% endured sexual violence. Alarmingly, the same report indicates a tolerance towards the use of violence.

Prescriptive stereotypes and cross-cultural differences

Social role theory underscores that differences in men’s and women’s behaviours stem from the gender roles society assigns to them, which subsequently evolved into stereotypes (Eagly et al., 2020). These stereotypes consist of descriptive elements, reflecting beliefs about typical behaviours, and authoritarian elements, dictating how people should behave. Women are often associated with communal and relational traits, while men are linked to agency and dominance. Descriptive stereotypes mirror societal expectations, while prescriptive stereotypes pressure individuals to conform to traditional gender norms (Prentice & Carranza, 2002). For instance, men are expected to be assertive and performance-oriented, while women are encouraged to be warm and people-oriented. These prescriptive stereotypes perpetuate traditional gender roles, with societal reactions pushing individuals back into these moulds when they deviate from them (Rudman & Glick, 2001). Deviation from these stereotypes results in backlash for both men and women (Rudman et al., 2012). Men who stray from traditional roles face pressure to reaffirm their masculinity by conforming to masculine stereotypes and roles (Vandello et al., 2008), sometimes resorting to endorsing violence against women (Gallagher & Parrott, 2011). On the other hand, women who defy prescriptive gender stereotypes often experience devaluation of their performance, aversion, and even discrimination in hiring decisions despite their competence (Rudman et al., 2012).

Social role theory posits that gender-based role divisions activate shared gender role beliefs regarding innate abilities. For instance, the segregation of gender roles into communal and agentic realms leads to the stereotype that women excel in communal traits (e.g. warmth, cooperativeness) but lack agentic traits (e.g. assertiveness, ambition). In contrast, men are seen as the opposite (Abele & Wojciszke, 2007). These gender role beliefs tend to be widely accepted within a society.

Cross-cultural research reveals that cultural values significantly shape stereotypes, particularly in societies emphasizing masculinity. In such societies, traditional gender roles emphasize men as providers and breadwinners and women as caregivers (Kimmel, 2004). These societies, often referred to as ‘masculine,’ according to Hofstede (2001), have well-defined gender roles that promote men’s agency and women’s communal roles. In such settings, men are expected to be assertive, competent, skilled, and aggressive, while women are encouraged to be people-oriented, passive, and compliant (Arindell et al., 2013). This upbringing in masculine societies makes men more susceptible to gender role strain when they deviate from prescriptive gender stereotypes. To reaffirm their masculinity, they often exhibit more stereotypical behaviours and resist adopting communal behaviours (Croft et al., 2015). Precarious manhood theory further suggests that manhood is a social status tied to power and dominance. Men constantly monitor their manhood status and seek to demonstrate it to their peers and society. This pressure intensifies when their masculinity is challenged, or their status is at risk, prompting more aggressive behaviour, competitiveness, risk-taking, and support for social inequality (Swami & Voracek, 2013; Weaver et al., 2013).

Another vital aspect that deserves attention pertains to the interplay of agency and communion throughout one’s lifespan. Research findings indicate that agency and independence, along with the ability to cultivate stable and enduring relationships with others, hold significant roles in individual and personality development and psychological well-being (Blass & Blatt, 1996; Ryff & Singer, 1998). Conversely, other studies suggest that as individuals age and mature, a more balanced orientation between agency and communion emerges, while striving for generativity (Ackerman et al., 2000). In particular, females tend to gravitate towards embracing agency-related traits like independence, while males adopt more communal qualities such as sensitivity and caring (Diehl et al., 2004). In a recent Koenig (2018) study, identical findings concerning prescriptive stereotypes across age groups, encompassing children, adults, and older people, were reproduced. The sole distinction observed was that boys and men exhibited more rigorous prescriptive stereotypes than girls and women, particularly about attributes related to strength and quantity. To the best of our knowledge, there is a noticeable absence of studies that have delved into the exploration of prescriptive gender stereotypes among young adults in countries such as Albania and Kosovo. Existing research indicates the existence of specific cross-cultural trends when it comes to agency and communion in university student populations (Best & Williams, 2001). Notably, in nations like Scotland, Bolivia, and Venezuela, gender stereotypes exhibit a degree of overlap. In contrast, the stereotypes associated with males and females are dissimilar in countries such as Germany, the Netherlands, and Finland. Nevertheless, despite these variations, research consistently demonstrates a high level of agreement regarding the content of these gender stereotypes, with people commonly associating females with traits like nurturance and affection and males with qualities such as independence and dominance.

Method

Participants and design

Data for this study were gathered between March and December 2019 as part of the broader cross-cultural project titled ‘Toward Gender Harmony’ (https://osf.io/fqd4p/). Undergraduate students were chosen as participants through convenience sampling, and no incentives were provided for their involvement. The study involved 165 male participants in Kosovo and 101 male participants in Albania (Table 1). All participants provided informed consent, and their confidentiality and anonymity were assured. The data collection employed the Qualtrics Platform in both Kosovo and Albania. While the project encompassed various measures (https://osf.io/fqd4p/), this paper focuses on specific measures detailed in the following section.

Table 1. Demographic characteristics.

	Kosovo (n=412)	Albania (n=255)
Gender
Males	165	101
Females	247	154
Area
Urban	209	112
Rural	208	143
Status
Single	332	175
In relationship	69	61
Married	14	24
Divorced	1	3

Measures

Prescriptive stereotypes about men and women include a focus on agency and communality. The gender prescription for men was measured by the Rudman et al. (2012) measure of agency and communality. The participants were asked to indicate on a scale from 1 to 7 how much a given trait is a desired form in their society (Albania and Kosovo). In total, 12 adjectives were included for agency [active, aggressive, ambitious, competitive], dominance [bossy, confident, arrogant, controlling], communion [compassionate, helpful to others, sensitive, cooperative] and weakness [approval seeking, unsafe, dependent]. The internal consistency for both samples for prescriptive stereotypes for men was high. Agency [KS alpha = 0.88; ALB alpha = 0.93], Dominance [KS alpha = 0.88; ALB alpha = 0.90], Communion [KS alpha = 0.89; ALB alpha = 0. 91], Weakness [KS alpha = 0.81; ALB alpha = 0.87]. Similarly, the internal consistency for both samples for prescriptive stereotypes for women was high. Agency [KS alpha = 0.95; ALB alpha = 0.95], Dominance [KS alpha = 0.79; ALB alpha = 0.81], Communion [KS alpha = 0.84; ALB alpha = 0.87], Weakness [KS alpha = 0.89; ALB alpha = 0.89].

The measures were translated and back-translated from English to Albanian by an independent translator following the procedures provided by van de Vijver & Leung (2000).

Analytic strategy

Our analysis predominantly focused on examining descriptive statistics for all variables covered in the paper, explicitly emphasizing investigating gender disparities. To do so, we conducted an exploratory analysis, calculating means and standard deviations for various characteristics. This analysis was applied to the ratings provided by Kosovan and Albanian men and women concerning men, women, and themselves. Furthermore, we utilized MANOVA (Multivariate Analysis of Variance) to assess the influence of both gender and country on prescriptive stereotypes and gender stereotypes.

Results

Prescriptive stereotypes: means and individual characteristics

Table 2 displays mean differences between genders in each country for the prescriptive stereotypes. Notable gender disparities emerged in prescribing male’s communality in Kosovo and Albania. Specifically, Kosovan male students prescribed more communality to males than females, a statistically significant difference. Conversely, Albanian female students prescribed more communality to males than Albanian males did, which is also statistically significant. Intriguingly, Kosovan female students prescribed more dominance to males than males did in their self-prescription, a distinction absent in Albania. In both countries, males prescribed more agency to males than females, a statistically significant difference. Conversely, females in both countries attributed more communality to females than to males, a statistically significant difference.

Table 2. Prescriptive stereotypes on communion and agency, by country.

Prescriptive stereotypes	Kosovo			Prescriptive stereotypes	Albania
	Gender	Mean	SD		Gender	Mean	SD
Men Communality*	Male	5.42	1.08	Men Communality*	Male	5.08	1.24
	Female	5.14	1.34		Female	5.67	0.88
Men Weakness	Male	2.09	0.82	Men Weakness	Male	2.15	0.95
	Female	1.98	0.73		Female	1.99	0.72
Men Dominance**	Male	3.43	1.20	Men Dominance	Male	3.53	1.29
	Female	3.81	1.42		Female	3.35	1.16
Men Agency*	Male	6.11	0.82	Men Agency***	Male	5.85	1.07
	Female	6.29	0.73		Female	6.23	0.66
Women Communality *	Male	5.81	0.86	Women Communality **	Male	5.61	1.03
	Female	6.01	0.75		Female	5.96	0.69
Women Weakness***	Male	2.65	1.04	Women Weakness	Male	2.84	1.30
	Female	3.19	1.46		Female	2.77	1.22
Women Dominance	Male	2.81	0.75	Women Dominance *	Male	2.94	1.01
	Female	2.70	0.97		Female	3.22	1.00
Women Agency**	Male	5.60	1.18	Women Agency**	Male	5.09	1.52
	Female	4.98	1.71		Female	5.64	1.28

*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01 ***p < 0.001.

Tables 3 and 4 present exploratory analyses of individual characteristics, revealing divergent patterns between Kosovo and Albania. Kosovan male student tended to attribute communal traits to themselves (understanding, sensitivity and awareness of other’s feeling), while both groups shared certain traits, including dependency, fearfulness and insecurity. Females in both countries rated themselves more positively in communal terms (e.g empathetic, considerate to others, dedicated) than males rated them. Notably, Kosovan female student described themselves with a higher prevalence of weak traits (timidity, dependency), potentially reflecting cultural distinctions. Albanian female student rated themselves more dominantly and proactively in agentic traits than Kosovan female student. Regarding perceptions of the opposite gender, females in Kosovo had a more favourable view of males. In contrast, Albanian female students associated more communal and agentic traits with males, including some less favourable traits. Across both countries, females consistently attributed more agentic traits to males than themselves. Males evaluated females more favourably than they evaluated themselves in terms of collaboration. However, in Kosovo, males associated females with specific agentic traits, whereas in Albania, males attributed various agentic traits to females, including competence, leadership skills, and efficiency.

Table 3. An exploratory analysis of prescriptive individual characteristic.

	Males rated themselves higher than females rated males		Females rated themselves higher than males rated females
	Kosovo	Albania	Kosovo	Albania
communal	understanding; sensitive; aware of feelings of others; trustful; dependent	fearful; insecure;	worthy for others; soft-hearted;devoted to others; weak; timid; submissive; fearful; dependent; insecure	empathic; worthy for others; understanding; aware of others feeling; collaborative; devoted to others; trustful; supportive;
agentic	Competitive	Intimidating; aggressive; arrogant	dictatorial; boastful;	Demanding; dominant; bossy; superior; strong; stubborn; decisive; ambitious; competent; self-confident; leadership’ efficient; abilities; determined; courageous; active; independent

Table 4. An exploratory analysis of prescriptive individual characteristic.

	Females rated males higher than males rated males		Males rated females higher than females rated females
	Kosovo	Albania	Kosovo	Albania
communal	Worthy for others	empathic; worthy for others; understanding; aware; collaborative; committed; warm; supportive; fearful; insecure;	Collaborative	/
agentic	superior; strong; dictatorial; aggressive; stubborn; arrogant; decisive; leadership skills; courageous; independent	Strong; secure; leadership abilities; efficient; ambitious; courageous; active; competent	demanding; controllable; fearful; dictatorial; ambitious; boastful; competitive; competent; secure; leadership skills; efficient; determined; competitive; courageous; active; capable; independent	Aggressive

Prescriptive stereotypes for men and women: the effect of gender, country, and interaction

Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted to examine the effects of country, gender, and their interaction on eight dependent variables related to prescriptive stereotypes. The results revealed significant effects for country, gender, and the interaction between country and gender (See Table 5). For the effect of the country, Pillai’s trace was significant, V = 0.02, F(8, 645) = 3.213, p = 0.03, indicating a significant difference in at least one of the dependent variables across the countries. Similarly, for the effect of gender, Pillai’s trace was significant, V = 0.07, F(8, 645) = 5.432, p = 0.001, suggesting a significant difference in at least one of the dependent variables between genders. Furthermore, the interaction between country and gender was also significant, Pillai’s trace V = 0.41, F(8, 645) = 2.123, p = 0.001, indicating a significant interaction effect between country and gender on the dependent variables.

Table 5. MANOVA analysis for all prescriptive stereotypes.

	Pillai	F Value	Approx. F	df1	df2	p-value
Country	0.02	2.06	3.213	8	645	0.03*
Gender	0.07	6.05	5.432	8	645	0.001***
Country * Gender	0.41	3.41	2.123	8	645	0.001***

*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.

In terms of prescriptive stereotypes for males, significant country effects were observed, wherein participants from Kosovo attributed more communality to females and more dominance and agency to males than did participants from Albania (see Table 6). No significant gender effects or interactions between country and gender were found regarding communality or dominance. However, a significant gender effect was noted for agency, with females attributing more agency to males than males themselves did. These findings suggest cultural differences in the ascription of gendered characteristics but also highlight a gender-based discrepancy in the perception of male agency. Results showed that when it comes to prescribing commonality to women, neither the country of origin nor the respondent’s gender had a significant effect (Table 6). This suggests that the perception of women’s communal roles is similar between the two countries and across genders.

Table 6. ANOVA analysis for prescriptive stereotypes for men.

Prescriptive stereotypes	Effect	Df	Sum Sq	Mean Sq	F value	Pr(>F)
Men Communality	Country	1	5.17	5.17	3.80	0.05*
	Gender	1	0.3	0.29	0.21	0.63
	Country * Gender	1	27.59	27.58	20.14	0.001***
	Residuals	653	894.7	1.37
Men Weaknesses	Country	1	0.09	0.09	0.1283	0.72
	Gender	1	2.03	2.02	3.4177	0.06
	Country * Gender	1	0.00	0.00	0.0012	0.97
	Residuals	653	396.14	0.60665
Men Dominance	Country	1	7.56	7.56	4.52	0.03*
	Gender	1	4.74	4.73	2.83	0.09
	Country * Gender	1	10.71	10.71	6.40	0.01**
	Residuals	653	1090.12	1.66
Men Agency	Country	1	3.01	3.00	4.73	0.02*
	Gender	1	10.19	10.18	16.04	0.001***
	Country * Gender	1	1.57	1.57	2.47	0.12
	Residuals	653	414.19	0.6343

*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.

In contrast, women’s perception of agency varied significantly based on country and gender. While there was no significant difference between Kosovo and Albania overall, the interaction effect revealed that the gender difference in prescribing agency to women was more pronounced in one country compared to the other (Table 7). Similarly, the perception of women’s dominance was not significantly influenced by country or gender alone. However, the interaction effect indicated that the gender difference in prescribing dominance to women differed between Kosovo and Albania. Lastly, the perception of women’s weakness showed a nuanced pattern. While the country alone did not significantly impact these perceptions, gender did. Moreover, the interaction effect between country and gender revealed that the gender difference in prescribing weakness to women varied significantly between Kosovo and Albania. These findings highlight the complex interplay between country and gender in shaping perceptions of women’s roles and attributes in Kosovo and Albania, shedding light on the nuances of gender belief systems in these contexts.

Table 7. ANOVA analysis for prescriptive stereotypes for women.

Prescriptive stereotypes	Effect	Df	Sum Sq	Mean Sq	F value	Pr(>F)
Women Communality	Country	1	1.90	1.89	2.90	0.1
	Gender	1	9.90	9.89	15.15	0.001***
	Country * Gender	1	0.7	0.69	1.07	0.25
	Residuals	653	894.7	1.3701
Women Weakness	Country	1	4.43	4.42	2.6	0.09
	Gender	1	14.44	14.43	8.64	0.001***
	Country * Gender	1	13.88	13.87	8.30	0.001***
	Residuals	653	396.14	0.60665
Women Dominance	Country	1	1.91	1.91	2.32	0.12
	Gender	1	0.19	0.18	0.23	0.26
	Country * Gender	1	4.97	4.97	6.08	0.01**
	Residuals	653	414.19	0.6343
Women Agency	Country	1	4.54	4.54	2.10	0.1
	Gender	1	4.47	4.46	2.06	0.13
	Country * Gender	1	53.60	54.56	24.77	0.001***
	Residuals	653	414.19	0.6343

*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.

Discussion

Gender stereotypes, encompassing both descriptive and prescriptive aspects, shape the typical behaviours expected of young females and males. These stereotypes, in turn, impact individuals’ ability to excel in social roles that necessitate agentic or communal qualities. The study’s findings align with prior research among university students, emphasizing the enduring presence of traditional prescriptive stereotypes regarding males and females. Female’s prescriptions leaned towards traditional values such as interpersonal relationships, warmth, modesty, and kindness. Conversely, male’s prescriptions emphasized assertiveness, independence, ambition, and performance. Individuals enact their gender identities through self-regulatory processes, conforming their behaviour to align with their identity. Those who value their identity as a woman, or a man experience positive outcomes when adhering to societal gender norms and damaging consequences when deviating from them (Schober & Zoch, 2019). This contributes to the persistence of gender stereotypes in various societies, upheld by the study’s data, highlighting the persistence of gender stereotypes in both countries (Nilsen et al., 2017).

Males in Kosovo attributed higher levels of communality to males than female’s assessments. This includes sensitivity, empathy, emotional awareness, dependency, and loyalty. This shift suggests changing perceptions of typical masculinity in both countries, possibly influenced by increased support and pressure for males to exhibit communal traits. A similar pattern emerged in Albania, where females prescribed more communal attributes to males than themselves. Albanian females described males as sensitive, emotionally aware, devoted, supportive, understanding, warm, and cooperative. This relaxation could be related to generativity hypotheses, suggesting that with the age and maturation, the rigid prescriptive stereotypes weaken, especially among men (Koenig, 2018). Additionally, the promotion of communality among men can also be attributed to various initiatives by local and international organizations, including efforts to encourage men’s engagement in promoting gender equality and positive fatherhood, as exemplified by Care International (Prentice & Carranza, 2002).

Various initiatives have been implemented to promote gender equality and redefine traditional gender roles in Kosovo and Albania. Albania has introduced progressive policies, such as allowing fathers to take up to 17 weeks of paid paternity leave facilitating active involvement in parenting (UNICEF, 2021). Nongovernmental organizations and state bodies are conducting awareness campaigns in both countries, focusing on positive parenting. These campaigns create parent clubs and community networks with equal gender representation.

In Kosovo, the ‘Super Dad’ campaign challenges traditional masculinity by encouraging fathers to proudly engage in childcare, express affection, and share domestic responsibilities with mothers, breaking the link between courage and physical force (Young Men Initiative, 2016). Similarly, Albania organizes activities on Father’s Day to reinforce fathers’ roles in child-raising, emphasizing love, play, protection, and good nutrition for healthy child development. Families are encouraged to share their experiences as ‘super dads’ through photos and videos (UNICEF, 2017).

These efforts underscore the importance of advocating for policies like paternity leave, family-friendly company policies, and legal changes to combat gender inequalities (Young Men Initiative, 2016). These findings collectively indicate a relaxation of prescriptive stereotypes, influenced by factors such as national initiatives to establish legal frameworks for gender equality and shifts in the division of labour. Research highlights that men desire active involvement in child-rearing, but societal pressures often prioritize their careers, leading to withdrawal from parenting responsibilities (Croft et al., 2015).

The recent study on gender self-view across 62 countries found smaller gender gaps in agency but larger gaps in communality in countries with higher gender equality and lower power distance (Kosakowska-Berezecka et al., 2023). Kosovo and Albania, characterized by high power distance and lower gender equality, may see persistent adherence to stereotypical gender roles, despite some relaxations. This context suggests that, despite progress, men and women in these countries continue to identify with traditional roles, with women, in comparison to men, more likely to accept the agentic traits in comparison to men.

Unlike in Albania, Kosovar female students gave men more dominance than male students, characterizing men as superior, dictatorial, arrogant, and autocratic. Nonetheless, female students in Kosovo and Albania ascribed agency traits to men more than male students did themselves, emphasizing the significance and desirability of agency. This gender-intensified prescription aligns with the societal preference for agentic qualities in men, given their traditional roles as breadwinners (Prentice & Carranza, 2002). Besides, research indicates that men’s perception of their social skills as weaker than women’s can undermine their performance in empathy and socioemotional tasks, reinforcing agency stereotypes (Koenig & Eagly, 2005). In contrast, studies have found little variability in men’s and women’s performance in communal traits, suggesting more similarities than differences (Hyde, 2014). Nevertheless, societal sanctions, backlash, and status concerns inhibit men from displaying communal roles (Bosson & Vandello, 2011; Rudman et al., 2012).

In both countries, female students attributed more communality to women than male students, emphasizing understanding, caring, insecurity, soft-heartedness, and devotion to others. These results underscore the societal desirability of these traits in female students. Recent research (Eagly et al., 2020) noted an increase in people’s perception of women’s competence, driven by women’s greater involvement in education and the labour market. However, this was mainly seen in roles requiring social skills, contributing to stereotypical communion. It is important to note that women and girls tend to internalize agency more quickly than men contributing to slower internalization of men’s communal roles, the existing status quo persists and is resistant to change (Croft et al., 2015).

In Kosovo, female students prescribed more weakness to women than male students, aligning with previous studies emphasizing the higher societal desirability of weakness traits for women (Prentice & Carranza, 2002). Notably, Kosovo has an intensified gender prescription, with the highest dominance prescribed to male students and the highest weakness to females. This suggests a higher level of gender inequality in Kosovo than in Albania (Regional Cooperation Council, 2021). Conversely, Kosovar male students prescribed more agency to women than female students did. They characterized women as more competent, possessing leadership abilities, being secure, efficient, competitive, determined, and confident. This indicates that the conception of typical women in both countries has evolved, suggesting some relaxation of gender stereotypes. However, it is intriguing that despite women’s increased engagement in education and employment, they still experience backlash and uncertainty about these changes (Kelmendi & Jemini, 2022).

Albania exhibited similar patterns, with female students prescribing more agency to women than male students for all traits except aggressiveness. This highlights the relaxation of gender stereotypes for women, likely due to the desirability of engaging in agentic roles. With its more significant economic and political power for women, Albania experiences fewer gender role expectations (Xhaho et al., 2021). Overall, female students in both Kosovo and Albania are expected to embody communal and agentic qualities. However, this expectation does not hold as firmly for male students, indicating that manhood is more precarious than womanhood in both countries.

In summary, the study’s findings indicate that social pressure related to the adherence to traditional prescriptive stereotypes is still present; however, the newer generation of both males and females appears to be less inclined to conform to these roles and behaviours, showing a disconnection from conventional feminine and masculine traits (Donnelly & Twenge, 2017; Helgeson, 2015). They are more comfortable embracing a blend of attributes to define themselves (Priess et al., 2009).

Kosovo and Albania, known for their high gender inequality gaps (Regional Cooperation Council, 2021), continue to grapple with these stereotypes. Kosovo, in particular, exhibits stark gender disparities in labour force participation, with only 23% of women actively participating compared to 67% of men. Albania, while showing improvements in women’s labour force participation, still faces sectoral employment segregation, with women predominantly in caregiving, education, and public administration roles. These factors, gender stereotypes, and limited access to affordable family care hinder women’s economic activity and career progression (Regional Cooperation Council, 2021, p. 7).

Implications for research, practice and policy

According to the social role theory, individuals typically express prosocial behaviours aligned with their gender roles (Eagly et al., 2020). The findings from this study highlight a trend where changes in gender roles occur more rapidly for women than for men in both countries, which aligns with previous research (Croft et al., 2015; Kosakowska-Berezecka et al., 2016).

Consequently, it becomes paramount to promote communal gender roles among men at the national level through policies that encourage men’s involvement as fathers and caregivers, facilitated by shared parental leave options. Croft et al. (2015) refer to the underrepresentation of men in communal roles as an ‘under-examined inequality’ (p. 343), emphasizing that academic scholars and policy-makers have given more attention to women’s underrepresentation in agentic roles. Encouraging men to take on communal roles would yield benefits for society, children, women, and men themselves (Croft et al., 2015).

The research underscores that participation in communal activities enhances mental health and psychological well-being for individuals of all genders (Le et al., 2013). Additionally, men’s involvement in domestic work and child care contributes to children’s mental, emotional, cognitive, and social development (Engle et al., 2006) and helps erode gender stereotypes. It’s crucial to promote communal engagement among men not only to achieve gender equality for women but also for the well-being of men. Both women and men can be constrained by gender role expectations, which can have adverse consequences. Therefore, interventions and policies are needed to address gender segregation (Omidakhsh et al., 2020). Comprehensive programmes encompassing elements like education, persuasion, role modelling, and empowerment have demonstrated success in promoting gender transformation. These programmes engage men and women and mobilize communities (Ruane McAteer et al., 2019).

The recent scholarly work by Van Laar et al. (2024) provides a detailed examination of men’s critical role in the movement towards gender equality and the transformation of gender norms. This literature review highlights the pressing need for men to participate and act as allies in the gender equality arena, suggesting that their involvement is critical to driving substantial progress. The authors argue for a comprehensive approach encompassing a series of initiatives aimed at revising formal policies and enhancing training and opportunities in diversity, equality, and inclusion (DEI).

Promoting communality among men can be achieved through various strategies. Engaging men in intervention programmes that provide a safe emotional space for collective discussions can lead to improved patterns of interaction and communication, increased openness, and greater tolerance of changing gender roles within families (Veale et al., 2022). Additionally, challenging and changing inequitable gender attitudes and behaviours can be achieved through community engagement and mobilization, which highlights the aspects of gendered attitudes and behaviours that lead to risk and helps redefine appropriate social roles for men and women (Hentschel et al., 2019). It is also important to understand the psychological barriers that prevent men’s involvement in communal roles and to promote equal opportunities for both men and women in these roles (Croft et al., 2015). By addressing these factors, men can be encouraged to embrace communality and contribute to a more equitable society.

Furthermore, the findings highlight the critical need for policy measures to foster a more equitable distribution of caregiving and household duties. Such initiatives are pivotal in challenging and altering entrenched gender stereotypes, facilitating a transformative shift in societal attitudes and norms related to gender roles (Frey & Borgonovi, 2017). This contribution is instrumental in advancing the conversation towards achieving gender equality.

Limitations

However, this study does have some limitations. Firstly, the research was conducted among college students. Specifically, the phase of emerging adulthood is marked by numerous shifts and responsibilities in their daily lives, as well as autonomous decision-making. This entails male and female students leaving their homes, managing their food, and clothing, and independently making choices regarding their education, employment, and relationships (Arnett, 2007). Supposedly, all these changes predisposed the increased perception rates of self and others in more agentic and communal terms. Moreover, a substantial portion of the participants came from social science backgrounds, a demographic known to espouse more liberal values than the broader population.

This study primarily focused on university students with binary gender identities, leading to the underrepresentation of non-binary individuals (only 3 participants were non-binary). Future studies need to expand their demographic scope to encompass gender-diverse individuals more inclusively. This would allow for more comprehensive comparative analyses between these groups and cisgender populations.

Compliance with ethical standards

Ethical Approval was obtained by the Ethical Committee at the Faculty of Philosophy, University of Prishtina ‘Hasan Prishtina’.

Informed consent

Informed consent was obtained from all participants, and participants were assured that their data would remain anonymous and confidential.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).