VI. Silk Road Security

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Notes

1 Authors' interview with representative from the Chinese Academy of International Trade and Economic Cooperation (CAITEC), July 2016; authors' interview with Control Risks participant at Shanghai Conference.

2 Ben Marino, ‘China's Public Sector Looks to Private Security for Help', Financial Times, 26 November 2013.

3 Authors' interview, China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations, Beijing, November 2013.

4 Authors' interview with Chinese businessman in Bishkek on the murder of glasses salesman in Bishkek.

5 This has been a repeated concern raised in Beijing during author conversations with think tank analysts, officials and academics since 2009.

6 Authors' interview with representative from Chinese Embassy in Central Asia, October 2014.

7 Authors' interview with Western Ambassador, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan, November 2013.

8 Dawn, ‘Chinese Diplomat Shot Dead in Kyrgystan', 1 July 2002.

9 Olga Dzyubenko, ‘Kyrgyzstan Says Uighur Militant Groups Behind Attack on China's Embassy', Reuters, 7 September 2016.

10 Author contacts in the wake of the Bishkek bombing – a number of Chinese experts got in touch enquiring about the state of Tajikistan's security and stability and potential threats to Chinese interests.

11 International Crisis Group, ‘China's Central Asia Problem', 27 February 2013.

12 Sébastien Peyrouse, ‘Military Cooperation Between China and Central Asia: Breakthrough, Limits and Prospects', China Brief (Vol. 10, No. 5, March 2010).

13 Asia Plus, ‘China to Supply Military Equipment to Kyrgyzstan for $17.5 Million', 14 November 2013.

14 Joshua Kucera, ‘China Promises Tajikistan “Hundreds of Millions of Dollars” in Military Aid', Eurasianet, 1 April 2014.

15 Joshua Kucera, ‘China Boosts Military Aid to Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan', Eurasianet, 5 September 2014.

16 Makhinur Niyazova, ‘Kyrgyz and Chinese Border Guards Have Started Joint Patrolling Border', 24, 26 June 2013.

17 Lenta.ru, ‘Switching to Soft Power: New Round in the Fight against Drugs', 24 April 2015.

18 China Military Online, ‘Border Defense Departments of China and Kyrgyzstan Build Law Enforcement Cooperation Mechanism’, 2 November 2014.

19 Authors' interview with Kyrgyz security official, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan, April 2014.

20 Tatiana Kudryavtseva, ‘Kyrgyzstan and China Have Agreed on the Joint Protection of Air Borders', 24, 27 October 2015.

21 Nazarali Pirnazarov and Olzhas Auyezov, ‘China to Build Outposts for Tajik Guards on Tajikistan-Afghanistan Border', Reuters, 26 September 2016.

22 Olzhas Auyezov, ‘Russia to Cut Troop Levels in Tajikistan amid Questions about its Influence', Reuters, 4 February 2016.

23 US–China Economic and Security Review Commission, ‘2015 Annual Report to Congress', 17 November 2015, p. 409, <http://origin.www.uscc.gov/Annual_Reports/2015-annual-report-congress>, accessed 11 April 2017.

24 zakon.kz, ‘Pogranichniki Kazakhstana i Kitaya vveli v praktiku sovmestnuyu okhranu granitsi' [‘Border Guards of Kazakhstan and China Have Brought into Practice Joint Border Security'], 18 October 2008, <http://www.zakon.kz/123588-pogranichniki-kazakhstana-i-kitaja.html>, accessed 12 December 2016.

25 Pakistan Defence, ‘Chinese and Kazakhstani Militaries Hold 1st Joint Border Patrol in 2011', 10 February 2011, <http://defence.pk/threads/chinese-kazakhstani-militaries-hold-1st-joint-border-patrol-in-2011.93195/>, accessed 12 December 2016.

26 Aiman Turebekova, ‘Kazakhstan, China Strengthen Defence Cooperation', Astana Times, 16 October 2015.

27 Niklas Swanstrom, ‘The Security Dimension of the China–Central Asia Relationship: China's Military Engagement with Central Asian Countries', testimony before the US-China Economic and Security Review Commission, 18 March 2015, <http://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/Swanstrom%20Testimony_3.18.15.pdf>, accessed 11 April 2017.

28 Peyrouse, ‘Military Cooperation Between China and Central Asia'.

29 Joshua Kucera, ‘Has China Made its First Big Military Sale in Central Asia?', Eurasianet, 6 February 2015.

30 Richard Fisher, ‘Kazakhstan Purchases Two Chinese Wing-Loong UCAVs', IHS Jane's Defence Weekly, 7 June 2016.

31 John C K Daly, ‘Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan to Acquire Chinese Anti-Aircraft Missile Systems', Silk Road Reporters, 3 February 2015; Joshua Kucera, ‘Turkmenistan Shows Off New Chinese Rockets', Eurasianet, 2 April 2016

32 ‘Vistupleniye i otvety na voprosi SMI Ministra inostrannikh del Rossii S. V. Lavrova po itogam peregovorov s zamestitelem Predsedatelya Kabineta ministrov, Ministrom inostrannikh del Turkmenistana R.O. Meredovim, Ashkhabad [‘Speech and Answers and Questions SMI of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Russia, S.V. Lavrov Following Talks with Deputy Chairman of the Cabinet of Ministers, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Turkmenistan R.O. Meredov’], Ashgabat, 28 January 2016, <http://www.mid.ru/foreign_policy/news/-/asset_publisher/cKNonkJE02Bw/content/id/2038628>, accessed 12 December 2016.

33 ‘Berdymukhamedov otkazalsya ot pomoshchi Rossii' [‘Berdymukhamedov Refuses Help from Russia'], 2 February 2016, <http://www.ng.ru/cis/2016-02-02/8_turkmenia.html>, accessed 12 December 2016.

34 Reuters, ‘Turkmeniya otritsaet intsidenty na granitse c Afghanistanom' [‘Turkmenistan Denies Incidents on the Border with Afghanistan'], 16 October 2015.

35 John C K Daly, ‘Amid Rising Regional Tensions, Turkmenistan Reevaluates Neutrality Policy', Eurasia Daily Monitor (Vol. 12, No. 47, March 2015).

36 Bruce Pannier, ‘Afghan Fighting Reaches Turkmenistan's Border', Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, 23 October 2015.

37 Qishloq Ovozi, ‘Turkmenistan's Afghan Policy Revealed', Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, 27 October 2015.

38 Qishloq Ovozi, ‘Turkmenistan's New Afghan Border Policy', Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, 27 October 2015.

39 Gundogar News, ‘Vsekh pod ruzhyo? Ostavit, volno, otvet ne verniy!' [‘Call to Service? At Ease, the Answer is Not Correct!'], 13 February 2015, <http://gundogar-news.com/index.php?category_id=3&news_id=4522>, accessed 12 December 2016.

40 Very little accurate information is available about Turkmenistan's security affairs.

41 Xinhua, ‘China, Kyrgyzstan Hold Joint Anti-terror Exercises', 13 August 2013.

42 Xinhua, ‘China–Russia Start Joint Navy Drill in South China Sea', 13 September 2016.

43 Fisher, ‘Kazakhstan Purchases Two Chinese Wing-Loong UCAVs'.

44 Asia Plus, <http://news.tj/ru/newspaper/article/kitai-i-tadzhikistan-vzaimodeistvie-2006>, accessed 12 December 2016.

45 Martin Sieff, ‘SCO Exercises Wrap Up with Significant Advances in China's Air Power', Central Asia Newswire, <http://www.universalnewswires.com/centralasia/viewstory.aspx?id=1809>, accessed 12 December 2016.

46 Richard Weitz, ‘China's Growing Clout in the SCO: Peace Mission 2010', Jamestown Foundation China Brief, 8 October 2010.

47 Associated Press, ‘China's Military Shows Off its Newest Helicopters, Tanks in SCO Exercises', 29 August 2014.

48 Christopher Bodeen, ‘China and Kyrgyzstan to Hold First-Ever Border Anti-Terrorist Exercises in October', Associated Press, 17 October 2002.

49 Xinhua, ‘Backgrounder: SCO Anti-terror Military Drills', 10 September 2010.

50 Authors' interview with representatives at RATS, Tashkent, Uzbekistan, October 2014. The detail also reflected conversations one of the researchers had had at the centre two years earlier.

51 Joshua Kucera, ‘SCO Investigating “Russian Traces” in Bishkek Chinese Embassy Attack', Eurasianet, 13 September 2016.

52 Xinhua, ‘China, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan Conduct Joint Anti-Terror Drill’, 6 May 2011.

53 Afghanistan.ru, ‘ShOS i Afganisatan sozdali kontaktnuyu gruppu' [‘SCO and Afghanistan Have Created a Contact Group'], 4 November 2005, <http://afghanistan.ru/doc/4477.html>, accessed 12 December 2016.

54 Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, ‘Tajik Lawmakers Back Tajik-Chinese Extradition Deal', 20 May 2015.

55 Reuters, ‘China Confirms Extradited Uighur Facing Terror Charges', 14 June 2011.

56 Radio Free Asia, ‘11 Uyghurs Killed at Kyrgyzstan Border, Triggering Call for Probe', 24 January 2014.

57 Brynjar Lia, Architect of Global Jihad: The Life of Al-Qaida Strategist Abu Mus‘ab Al-Suri (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 2009).

58 John Pomfret, ‘China Strengthens Ties with Afghanistan', Washington Post, 13 September 2001.

59 Wang Qingyun, ‘Afghan Diplomat Looks to China for Greater Regional Security', China Daily, 29 April 2016.

60 Kane Luo and Raffaello Pantucci, ‘Understanding the Cultural Fabric: The Missing Piece in China's Outreach to Bring Peace in Afghanistan', UK–China Strategic Communications Initiative, May 2015, <https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/423503/China_Afghanistan_Kane_V5.pdf>.

61 Afghanistan.ru, ‘ShOS i Afganisatan sozdali kontaktnuyu gruppu' [‘SCO and Afghanistan Have Created a Contact Group'].

62 Zhao Huasheng, ‘Afghanistan and China's New Neighbourhood Diplomacy', International Affairs (Vol. 92, No. 4, July 2016).

63 Afghanistan.ru, ‘ShOS i Afganisatan sozdali kontaktnuyu gruppu' ['SCO and Afghanistan Have Created a Contact Group']; Daily Outlook Aghanistan, ‘China to Extend $72m in Military Aid to Afghanistan', 2 March 2016.

64 Ministry of National Defense, ‘Afghanistan, China, Pakistan, Tajikistan Issue Joint Statement on Anti-terrorism', 4 August 2016.

65 Xinhua, ‘SCO Members Support Afghan-Led Reconciliation Process', 12 September 2014.

66 Alisher Shahir, ‘China's Growing Presence in Afghanistan: From Economic Aids to Security Engagements', Khabarnama, 7 August 2016.

67 Participant at RUSI-VIF New Delhi workshop, March 2016.

68 Michael Martina, ‘China Says Afghan President Vows to Help China Fight Militants', Reuters, 29 October 2014.

69 Reuters, ‘China's Xi Pledges Security Equipment, Training for Afghanistan’, 10 July 2015.

70 Authors' interviews in Delhi and RUSI–VIF roundtable, March 2015.

71 Dawn.com, ‘Train Linking China to Afghanistan Leaves for Mazar', 29 August 2016.

72 Erica Downs, ‘China Buys into Afghanistan’, SAIS REVIEW (Vol. 32, No. 2, Summer/Fall 2012).

73 Frank Jack Daniel and Mirwais Harroni, ‘Chinese Demands, Rebels and Buddhist Ruins Stall Afghan Copper Dream', Reuters, 11 April 2015.

74 Ben Piven, ‘Chinese Company and Taliban Battle over Afghanistan's Underground Riches', Al Jazeera America, 11 July 2015.

75 Jessica Donati, ‘UPDATE 1 – Missing Refinery Deal Halts Landmark China-Afghan Oil Project', Reuters, 18 August 2013.

76 Ibid.

77 Nick Bryant, ‘China's Long Game in Afghanistan', Lowy Interpreter, 8 February 2012.

78 Michael Martina and Mirwais Harooni, ‘Slow Road from Kabul Highlights China's Challenge in Afghanistan', Reuters, 22 November 2015.

79 Saud Mehsud and Maria Golovnina, ‘From His Pakistan Hideout, Uighur Leader Vows Revenge on China', Reuters, 14 March 2014.

80 Imtiaz Ahmad, ‘Pak–China Economic Corridor Problems Over Disputed Kashmir Region', Hindustan Times, 11 January 2016.

81 Kiyya Baloch, ‘Chinese Operations in Balochistan Again Targeted by Militants', The Diplomat, 27 March 2015.

82 Syed Raza Hassan, ‘Attacks Have Killed 44 Pakistanis Working on China Corridor since 2014', Reuters, 8 September 2016.

83 Mayank Pratap Singh, ‘Baloch Rebels Attack Dudher Project Site, 2 Chinese Engineers Killed, Many Hurt', India Today, 28 September 2016. It is worth pointing out that this report was provided with a byline in Balochistan, something that would presumably have been difficult for an Indian paper to reliably source.

84 Andrew Small, The China–Pakistan Axis (London: Hurst, 2015).

85 BBC News, ‘Abducted Chinese Cyclist Hong Xudong Released in Pakistan', 23 August 2015.

86 Nihao–Salaam, ‘Scholars from China and Pakistan Discuss Opportunities and Challenges of China Pakistan Economic Corridor', 5 August 2013.

87 Hu Weijia, ‘Increased Ties with Southeast Asia Don't Detract from China's Goals in the CPEC', Global Times, 13 September 2016.

88 Raza Khan, ‘15,000 Troops of Special Security Division to Protect CPEC Projects, Chinese Nationals', Dawn.com, 12 August 2016; see also Zahid Gishkori, ‘Economic Corridor: 12,000-Strong Force to Guard Chinese Workers', Express Tribune, 30 March 2015.

89 For further information see the website of the Frontier Works Orzanisation, <http://www.fwo.com.pk/>.

90 Farhan Bokhari, ‘China Urges Pakistan to Give Army Lead Role in Silk Road Project', Financial Times, 21 July 2016.

91 Matten Haider, ‘PAF Eyes Induction of JF-17B Fighter Jet by April 2017', Dawn, 28 April 2016.

92 The Nation, ‘China Confirms Sale of 8 Attack Submarines to Pakistan', 16 October 2016.

93 Economic Times, ‘China will Intervene if India Creates Tension in Balochistan: Chinese Thinktank', 29 August 2016.

94 Jonas Parello-Plesner and Mathieu Duchâtel, China's Strong Arm: Protecting Citizens and Assets Abroad, IISS Adelphi Paper 451 (London: IISS and Routledge, May 2015).

95 Xinhua, ‘China Voice: Yemen Rescue Mission Demonstrates China's Constructive Role', 6 April 2015.

96 Jonas Parello-Plesner and Mathieu Duchâtel, ‘How Chinese Nationals Abroad are Transforming Beijing's Foreign Policy', Caixin Online, 19 June 2015.

97 Olivier Bräuner, ‘Baohuzai Jierjisisitan de Zhongguo Gongmin: 2010 nian Cheli Xingdong' [‘Protecting Chinese Nationals in Kyrgyzstan: The 2010 Evacuation Operation’], Guoji Zhengzhi Yanjiu [International Politics Quarterly] (Vol. 2, 2013), pp. 30–35.

98 China Daily, ‘China Completes Evacuation of Nationals in Kyrgyzstan', 17 June 2010.

99 Relief Web, ‘Kyrgyzstan Asks Russia to Help Quell Ethnic Clashes', 12 June 2010.

100 Reuters, ‘China to Build Outposts for Tajik Guards on Tajikistan-Afghanistan Border', 26 September 2016.

101 Ben Blanchard, ‘China Passes Controversial Counter-terrorism Law', Reuters, 28 December 2015.

102 China Law Translate, ‘Counter-Terrorism Law’, 8 November 2014.

103 Wang Jisi, ‘China in the Middle', American Interest (Vol. 10, No. 4, February 2015).