III. Managing Neighbourhood Security

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Notes

1 Al Jazeera, ‘Car Bomb Attack Hits Somalia’s Mogadishu’, 26 November 2016.

2 Harun Maruf, ‘20 Killed in Blast Near Mogadishu Port’, VOA, 11 December 2016.

3 Al Jazeera, ‘Car Bomb Attack Hits Somalia’s Mogadishu’s Waberi District’, 12 November 2016; Shabelle News, ‘Al Shabaab Says Behind Deadly Attack in Mogadishu’, 11 December 2016.

4 Al Jazeera, 'Dozens Killed in Mogadishu Market Blast', 20 February 2017; Garowe Online, ‘4 Killed in Separate Shootings in Mogadishu and Afgoye', 6 January 2018, <https://www.garoweonline.com/index.php/en/news/somalia/somalia-4-killed-in-separate-shootings-in-mogadishu-and-afgoye>, accessed 10 January 2018.

5 AMISOM Daily Monitoring Report, ‘Minister Defends Stabilization Operation, Cites Killings in the Capital’, 5 June 2017.

6 AMISOM Media Monitoring, ‘Sweeping Security Operations in Progress in Mogadishu’, 12 June 2017.

7 OCVP, ‘Central Zone – Conflict and Security Assessment Report: Central Zone’, p. 12.

8 See also OECD, ‘Security System Reform and Governance’, DAC Guidelines and Reference Series, OECD Publishing, p. 58.

9 AMISOM Media Monitoring, ‘Mogadishu Fire Department Chief Resigns over Bakara Inferno’, 7 March 2017.

10 World Population Review, ‘Population of Cities in Somalia (2018)', <http://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/somalia-population/cities/>, accessed 31 January 2018.

11 REACH, ‘IDP Assessment in Mogadishu’, 22 February 2016; ReliefWeb, ‘Daynile IDP Settlements Overview’, January 2016, <http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/reach_som_mogadishu_factsheet_daynile_settlements_january2016_0.pdf>, accessed 4 September 2016.

12 On 4 April 2017, Farmajo’s finance minister announced the introduction of an income tax of between 6 and 12 per cent. He aims to raise around $267 million, or 60 per cent of the country’s budget of $270 million, with donors expected to meet the deficit. His ability to implement the announcement is open to question, not least because most such schemes are revenue-raising schemes for vested interests. See AMISOM Daily Media Monitoring, ‘Income Tax Shoots up as Finance Minister ups Domestic Borrowing’, 5 April 2017.

13 AMISOM Daily Media Monitoring, ‘NISA Seizes Counterfeit Dollars and Arrests Kingpins’, 17 January 2017; see also Goobjoog News, ‘NISA Seizes Counterfeit Dollars and Arrests Kingpins', 17 January 2017, <http://goobjoog.com/english/nisa-seizes-counterfeit-dollars-arrests-kingpins/>, accessed 17 January 2017

14 The account in Shabelle News of the raid refers to NISA soldiers, rather than detectives, but categorisation means little and police are commonly referred to as ‘policemen-soldiers’. Shabelle News, ‘One Dead, as NISA Storms Suspected House in Capital’, 17 January 2017.

15 Performance theory argues that the effective performance of government agencies increases people’s trust and confidence in public institutions. See Geert Bouckaert et al., ‘Identity Vs. Performance: An Overview of Theories Explaining Trust in Government’, Institut voor der Overheit and Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, 2002; Maarten Van Craen and Wesley G Skogan, ‘Differences and Similarities in the Explanation of Ethnic Minority Groups’ Trust in Police’, European Journal of Criminology (Vol. 12, No. 3, 2015), pp. 300–23.

16 Shabelle News, ‘Somali Forces Seize IEDs in Mogadishu Sweep’, 8 May 2017.

17 This reflects the fact that it is easier for internationals to speak to senior officers and officials in the regional administration than to people living in Waberi’s streets. For an emphasis on the ‘vernacular understandings’ of the poor and excluded, see Robin Luckham, ‘Whose Violence, Whose Security? Can Violence Reduction and Security Work for Poor, Excluded and Vulnerable People?’, Peacebuilding (Vol. 5, No. 2, 2017), pp. 99–117.

18 Indian Ocean Newsletter, ‘Army Under Pressure’, Issue 1441, 23 December 2016.

19 Menkhaus, ‘Non-State Security Providers and Political Formation in Somalia’, pp. 23–25.

20 Ibid., p. 6. See also Alex de Waal, The Real Politics of the Horn of Africa: Money, War and the Business of Power (Cambridge: Polity, 2015), pp. 110–11, 124–26, 128–29.

21 Daily Nation, ‘Amisom Kills more Civilians than Al-Shabaab – UN’, 18 January 2017, <http://www.nation.co.ke/video/1951480-3522110-3md90xz/_green>, accessed 18 January 2017.

22 Alice Hills, ‘Is There Anybody There? Police, Communities and Communications Technology in Hargeisa’, Stability: International Journal of Security and Development (Vol. 6, No. 1, 2017).

23 Mark Findlay and Uglješa Zvekić, Alternative Policing Styles: Cross-Cultural Perspectives (Deventer: Kluwer, 1993), p. 32.

24 OECD DAC, OECD DAC Handbook on Security System Reform (SSR): Supporting Security and Justice, 2007, p. 163.

25 Mike Brogden and Preeti Nijhar, Community Policing: National and International Models and Approaches (Cullompton: Willan, 2005); Lisa Denney, ‘Securing Communities? Redefining Community Policing to Achieve Results’, ODI, 2005; Hills, ‘Is There Anybody There?’.

26 Alice Hills, ‘Partnership Policing: Is it Relevant in Kano, Nigeria?’, Criminology & Criminal Justice (Vol. 14, No. 1, 2014), pp. 8–24; Lisa Denney, ‘Securing Communities for Development: Community Policing in Ethiopia’s Amhara National Regional State’, ODI, 2013.

27 Findlay and Zvekić, Alternative Policing, p. 33.

28 Ibid.

29 Ibid., p. 6.

30 Cooper-Knock and Owen, ‘Between Vigilantism and Bureaucracy’.

31 Neil Carrier, Little Mogadishu (London: Hurst, 2016), pp. 85–89, 171–77.

32 Findlay and Zvekić, Alternative Policing, p. 21.

33 Alice Hills, ‘What is Policeness? On Being Police in Somalia’, British Journal of Criminology (Vol. 54, No. 5, 2014), pp. 765–83.

34 Denney, ‘Securing Communities for Development’.

35 Coastweek.com, ‘Somali Security Build Mogadishu Community Policing Partnerships’, May 2014.

36 Ibid.

37 Egal, ‘Police Corruption, Radicalization and Terrorist Attacks in Mogadishu’.

38 Coastweek.com, ‘Somali Security Build Mogadishu Community Policing Partnerships’.

39 Ibid.

40 Ibid.

41 Ibid.

42 Ibid.

43 Ken Menkhaus, ‘Can Community Policing Combat Al-Shabaab?’, IPI Global Observatory, 2014.

44 Police Advisory Committee (PAC), ‘Report on the Somali Police Force, July 2011’.

45 Ibid.

46 Somaligov.net, ‘Community Policing’, <http://www.police.somaligov.net/Community%20Policing%20.html>, accessed 25 January 2018.

47 Ibid

48 Khalid Yusuf, ‘Somali Federal Government Forms Counter-Terrorism Police Unit’, Horseed Media, 7 January 2015, <https://horseedmedia.net/2015/01/07/somali-federal-government-forms-counterterrorism-police-unit/>, accessed 9 January 2015.

49 Ian Loader and Neil Walker, Civilizing Security (Cambridge: CUP, 2005), p. 205.

50 Ibid.

51 Small Arms Survey, ‘Between State and Non-state: Somaliland’s Emerging Security Order’, in Small Arms Survey 2012 (Cambridge: CUP, 2012), pp. 163–67, < www.smallarmssurvey.org/fileadmin/.../Small-Arms-Survey-2012-Chapter-05-EN.pdf>, accessed 4 March 2013.

52 In summer 2016, budget constraints led to the scheme’s funding being reallocated to complementary projects associated with the city security plan. The focus could shift again if Whitehall’s agenda changes. But budgetary issues are not the only reason for the scheme’s potential survivability; international aid (and money in particular) makes it a target for politicians. On 6 April 2017, Farmajo replaced the mayor responsible for developing the original scheme who was in turn replaced in January 2018, and it is not yet clear what the current mayor will do.

53 Author interview with UK adviser, Mogadishu, 28 July 2016.

54 NMBU, ‘Community-Based Policing and Post-Conflict Police Reform’, unpublished proposal for ‘EC CALL H2020-FCT-14-2014: Fight against Crime and Terrorism - Topic: Ethical/Societal Dimension Topic 2: Enhancing cooperation between law enforcement agencies & citizens/Community Policing’, 2014, p. 15.

55 See, for example, Lloyd Axworthy, ‘Human Security and Global Governance: Putting People First’, Global Governance (Vol. 7, No. 1, 2010), pp. 19–23.

56 Ryerson Christie gives an insightful overview of the literature on human security. See Ryerson Christie, ‘Critical Voices and Human Security’, Security Dialogue (Vol. 41, No. 10, 2010), pp. 169–90.

57 UN Trust Fund for Human Security, ‘Human Security in Theory and Practice’, 2009, <http://www.un.org/humansecurity/sites/www.un.org.humansecurity/files/human_security_in_theory_and_practice_english.pdf>, accessed 30 September 2014.

58 Roland Paris, ‘Human Security: Paradigm Shift or Hot Air?’, International Security (Vol. 26, No. 2, 2002), p. 87.

59 Giovanni Sartori, ‘Concept Misinformation in Comparative Politics’, American Political Science Review (Vol. 64, No. 4, 1970), pp. 1033–53.

60 Mark Duffield, Global Governance and the New Wars: The Merging of Development and Security (London: Zed Books, 2001), p. 7.

61 Menkhaus, ‘Community Policing’.

62 Author interview with UK adviser, Mogadishu, 17 July 2016.

63 Ibid.

64 Ibid.