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Notes
1 This chapter draws on Alice Hills, ‘Is There Anybody There? Police, Communities and Communications Technology in Hargeisa’, Stability (Vol. 6, No. 1, 2017), pp. 1–16.
2 Mike Hough et al., ‘Procedural Justice, Trust, and Institutional Legitimacy’, Policing (Vol. 4, 2010), pp. 203–10; Francis Boateng, ‘Police Legitimacy in Africa: a Multilevel Multinational Analysis’, Policing & Society (20 January 2017), doi:10.1080/10439463.2017.1280034.
3 The re-emergence or restructuring of Somalia’s police forces since 2012 is not dependent on institutional structures or institutional memory either. See Alice Hills, ‘Remembrance of Things Past: Somali Roads to Police Development’, Stability (Vol. 3, No. 1, 2014), p. 11.
4 This chapter is based on a visit to Hargeisa in December 2015, and is informed by author discussions with EUCAP and Somaliland officials and officers, between 2014 and 2017. It also draws on Hills, ‘Is There Anybody There?’.
5 EUCAP Nestor (the EU Maritime Capacity Building Mission to Somalia) was renamed EUCAP Somalia (the EU Capacity Building Mission in Somalia) on 1 March 2017.
6 Indian Ocean Newsletter, ‘How an Oasis of Stability Became a Powder Keg’, 10 February 2017; Indian Ocean Newsletter, ‘A Convoluted Succession’, 8 September 2017; OilPrice.com, ‘Geopolitical Time Bomb: Chaos in Somaliland Could Trigger Regional Conflict’, 1 March 2017, <http://oilprice.com/Geopolitics/Africa/Geopolitical-Time-Bomb-Chaos-In-Somaliland-Could-Trigger-Regional-Conflict.html>, accessed 25 March 2017; Abdillahi Hussein, ‘The Rising Cost of Living in Somaliland: A Threat to Peace and Social Stability’, Hiiraan Online, 18 May 2017; see also Critical Threats, ‘The Gulf Contest for the Horn of Africa’, 26 September 2017, <https://www.criticalthreats.org/analysis/the-gulf-contest-for-the-horn-of-africa>, accessed 27 September 2017.
7 AMISOM Daily Media Monitoring, ‘Homeless Children Sniff Glue to Take “Away the Pain” of Surviving Somalia’s Streets’, 6 September 2017.
8 UNHCR, ‘Internal Displacement Profiling in Hargeisa’, 2015, p. 32, <http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/original_Hargeisa_Report_Web.pdf>, accessed 4 March 2017.
9 European Union External Action, ‘PR 31_2015: Text Alert Community Police Engagement Programme Launched in Somaliland’, 19 August 2015, <https://www.eucap-nestor.eu/en/press_office/news/1306/>, accessed 24 August 2015.
10 UNDP, ‘Somaliland Opens First “Model Police Station”’, 2012, <http://www.so.undp.org/content/somalia/en/home/ourwork/crisispreventionandrecovery/successstories/Somaliland.html>, accessed 2 March 2015.
11 See also Cynthia Lum and Nicholas Fyfe, ‘Space, Place, and Policing: Exploring Geographies of Research and Practice’, Policing (Vol. 9, No. 3, 2015).
12 Human Rights Centre, ‘Human Rights Centre: Annual Review 2015’, 2015, <http://www.hrcsomaliland.org/attachments/article/154/Official%20Annual%20Review%202015.pdf>, accessed 17 December 2015.
13 OCVP, ‘Buroa: District Conflict and Security Assessment’, 2015, pp. xii, 26, <http://ocvp.org/docs/2015/Wave4/Burao%20-%20DCSA%20Report%20-%202015.pdf>, accessed 26 January 2018; see also OCVP, ‘Borama: District Conflict and Security Assessment’, 2015, pp. 6–9, <http://ocvp.org/docs/2015/Wave7/Borama%20DCSA%202015.pdf>, accessed 9 November 2016.
14 Ibid.
15 OCVP, ‘Buroa’, p. 23.
16 Independent Commission for Aid Impact (ICAI), ‘Review of UK Development Assistance for Security and Justice’, 2015, p. 26.
17 UNDP, ‘Somaliland Opens Model Station’.
18 World Bank, ‘Information and Communication Technologies', 2016, <http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/ict/overview#1>, accessed 28 April 2017; see also Gallup, ‘Disparities in Cellphone Ownership Pose Challenges in Africa', 17 February 2016, <http://www.gallup.com/poll/189269/disparities-cellphone-ownership-pose-challenges-africa.aspx>, accessed 28 April 2017.
19 Jeffrey James and Mila Versteeg, ‘Mobile Phones in Africa: How Much Do We Really Know?’, Social Indicators Research (Vol. 84, No. 1, 2007), pp. 117–26; Lishan Adam, ‘Ethiopia ICT Sector Performance Review 2009/2010’, ResearchnetICT, <http://www.researchictafrica.net/publications/Policy_Paper_Series_Towards_Evidence-based_ICT_Policy_and_Regulation_-_Volume_2/Vol%202%20Paper%209%20-%20Ethiopia%20ICT%20Sector%20Performance%20Review%202010.pdf>, accessed 13 September 2015.
20 Budde.com.au, ‘Somalia - Telecoms, Mobile and Broadband - Statistics and Analyses’, 2015, <http://www.budde.com.au/Research/Somalia-Telecoms-Mobile-and-Broadband-Statistics-and-Analyses.html>, accessed 13 September 2015.
21 See Alice Hills, ‘Off-Road Policing: Communications Technology and Government Authority in Somaliland’, International Affairs (Vol. 92, No. 5, 2016).
22 Hills, ‘Somalia Works’, p. 97.
23 Author interviews with senior police officers, Hargeisa, 11 December 2015.
24 Author interview with international adviser, Hargeisa, 7 December 2015.
25 Author interview with senior officers, Hargeisa, 8 December 2016.
26 See Budde.com, ‘Somalia - Telecoms, Mobile and Broadband - Statistics and Analyses’, 2017, <https://www.budde.com.au/Research/Somalia-Telecoms-Mobile-and-Broadband-Statistics-and-Analyses>, accessed 2 February 2018.
27 Somalilandsun, 'Police Issue Emergency Hotline Numbers' 17 May 2013, <http://www.somalilandsun.com/2013/05/17/somaliland-police-issue-emergency-hotline-numbers/>, accessed 3 September 2015.
28 Based on focus groups conducted on the author’s behalf by Amel Saeed and Mohammed Yusuf, Transparency Solutions.
29 Cooper-Knock and Owen, ‘Between Vigilantism and Bureaucracy’.
30 Author interview with senior officers, Hargeisa, 8 December 2015.