VII. NATO’s Maritime Domain

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Notes

1 The principal NATO military response mechanism is the NATO Response Force, backed by Follow-On Forces. Since 2016, this has been augmented by rotational Enhanced Forward Presence battlegroups in the Baltic states and Poland. See NATO, ‘NATO Response Force’, <https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_49755.htm>, accessed 7 February 2020.

2 Michael Kofman, ‘The Moscow School of Hard Knocks: Key Pillars of Russian Strategy’, War on the Rocks, 21 November 2019, <https://warontherocks.com/2019/11/the-moscow-school-of-hard-knocks-key-pillars-of-russian-strategy-2/>, accessed 20 January 2020.

3 Jim Edwards, ‘The Russians are Screwing with the GPS System to Send Bogus Navigation Data to Thousands of Ships’, Business Insider, 14 April 2019. On potential interference with underwater cables, see Cyber Security Intelligence, ‘US Accuses Russia of Interfering with Undersea Cables’, 25 June 2018, <https://www.cybersecurityintelligence.com/blog/us-accuses-russia-of-interfering-with-undersea-cables-3482.html>, accessed 31 January 2020.

4 See Chris Baraniuk, ‘How Hackers are Targeting the Shipping Industry’, BBC News, 18 August 2017.

5 See Holly Ellyatt, ‘Ukraine Guilty of Dangerous “Provocations”, Russia Says After it Seizes Ships’, CNBC, 27 November 2018, <https://www.cnbc.com/2018/11/27/ukraine-guilty-of-dangerous-provocations-russia-says-after-it-seizes-ships.html>, accessed 31 January 2020.

6 See Tim Ripley, ‘Russia Kicks off Baltic Naval Exercise’, Jane's, <https://www.janes.com/article/90253/russia-kicks-off-baltic-naval-exercise>, accessed 31 January 2020.

7 See NATO, ‘Secretary General Previews Meeting of NATO Defence Ministers’, 6 June 2018, <https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/news_155283.htm>, accessed 20 January 2020.

8 Magnus Nordenman, ‘Back to the North: The Future of the German Navy in the New European Security Environment’, Center for Security Studies, ETHzürich, 25 April 2017, <https://css.ethz.ch/en/services/digital-library/articles/article.html/0b853899-0ca6-49f6-93d2-baaf99f273df/pdf>, accessed 20 January 2020.

9 See Kathleen H Hicks et al., Undersea Warfare in Northern Europe (New York, NY: Center for Strategic and International Studies/Rowman and Littlefield, 2016); Magnus Nordenman, ‘Back to the Gap: The Re-Emerging Maritime Contest in the North Atlantic’, RUSI Journal (Vol. 162, No. 1, 2017), pp. 24−30; Rowan Allport, ‘Fire and Ice: A New Maritime Strategy for NATO’s Northern Flank’, Human Security Centre, December 2018; Magnus Nordenman, The New Battle for the Atlantic: Emerging Naval Competition with Russia in the Far North (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2019).

10 See David Hambling, ‘China’s Quantum Submarine Detector Could Seal South China Sea’, New Scientist, 22 August 2017, <https://www.newscientist.com/article/2144721-chinas-quantum-submarine-detector-could-seal-south-china-sea/#ixzz69zW3p7KB>, accessed 20 January 2020.

11 See Heinrich Lange et al., To the Seas Again: Maritime Defence and Deterrence in the Baltic Region (Tallinn: International Centre for Defence and Security, 2019).

12 US Marine Corps, Department of the Navy, ‘Commandant’s Planning Guidance’, 2019, <https://www.hqmc.marines.mil/Portals/142/Docs/%2038th%20Commandant%27s%20Planning%20Guidance_2019.pdf?ver=2019-07-16-200152-700>, accessed 20 January 2020.

13 Polish National Security Bureau, ‘Poland’s Strategic Concept for Maritime Security’, 2017, <https://en.bbn.gov.pl/ftp/dok/SKBMRPENG.pdf>, accessed 20 January 2020.

14 Edwards, ‘The Russians are Screwing with the GPS System to Send Bogus Navigation Data to Thousands of Ships’; Cyber Security Intelligence, ‘US Accuses Russia of Interfering with Undersea Cables’.

15 See NATO, ‘NATO Defence Ministers Agree on NATO Support to Assist with the Refugee and Migrant Crisis’, 11 February 2016, <https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/news_127981.htm>, accessed 20 January 2020.

16 See Reuters, ‘Several Countries have Breached Arms Embargo Agreed at Libya Summit – U.N.’, 25 January 2020, <https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-libya-security/several-countries-have-breached-arms-embargo-agreed-at-libya-summit-u-n-idUKKBN1ZO0SQ>, accessed 31 January 2020.

17 See NATO, ‘NSD-S Hub Mission’, <https://thesouthernhub.org/about-us/mission>, accessed 20 January 2020; Colin Wall, ‘NATO’s New Window to the South’, Atlantic Council, 15 August 2018, <https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/new-atlanticist/nato-s-new-window-to-the-south/>, accessed 20 January 2020.

18 Stefano Marcuzzi, ‘NATO-EU Maritime Cooperation: For What Strategic Effect?’, NDC Policy Brief Series (No. 7-18, 2019), <http://www.ndc.nato.int/news/news.php?icode=1251>, accessed 20 January 2020.

19 Megan Eckstein, ‘Foggo: U.S., NATO Naval Forces Pushing Back Against Russian Harassment’, US Naval Institute, 9 September 2018, <https://news.usni.org/2018/10/09/foggo-us-nato-naval-forces-pushing-back-russian-anti-access-behaviors>, accessed 7 February 2020.

20 Andrew Wong, ‘China: We Are a “Near-Arctic State” and We Want a “Polar Silk Road”’, CNBC, 14 February 2018, <https://www.cnbc.com/2018/02/14/china-we-are-a-near-arctic-state-and-we-want-a-polar-silk-road.html>, accessed 31 January 2020.

21 Business Standard, ‘China to Build World-Class Armed Forces by 2035: Xi Jinping’, 18 October 2017, <https://www.business-standard.com/article/international/china-to-build-world-class-armed-forces-by-2035-xi-jinping-117101800332_1.html>, accessed 31 January 2020.

22 Phil Stewart and Idrees Ali, ‘Pentagon Warns on Risk of Chinese Submarines in Arctic’, Reuters, 2 May 2019.

23 Lyle J Goldstein, ‘Chinese Nuclear Armed Submarines in Russian Arctic Ports? It Could Happen’, National Interest, 1 June 2019.

24 Keith Johnson, ‘Why is China Buying up Europe’s Ports?’, Foreign Policy, 2 February 2018.

25 NATO, ‘Warsaw Summit Communiqué Issued by the Heads of State and Government Participating in the Meeting of the North Atlantic Council in Warsaw 8–9 July 2016’, 9 July 2016, para. 48, <https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/official_texts_133169.htm>, accessed 7 February 2020.