Deadly catch: shrimp boat captains as United States Naval Intelligence informants, 1942–1945

Abstract

During World War II, the United States Navy’s Office of Naval Intelligence (ONI) created a confidential fishermen informants program to ensure the security of the fishing industry vital to the U.S. and its allies and to relay intelligence on enemy military and espionage activity along the coasts. In the Sixth Naval District, headquartered in Charleston, South Carolina, the program relied on shrimp boat captains who volunteered to be confidential observers. Those deemed loyal were indoctrinated, equipped with confidential grid charts and the means and procedures to communicate with case officers, and assigned code names to protect their identity as they fished the Atlantic. Although aspects of this secret domestic counterintelligence program were inherently flawed and provided limited intelligence, it reveals how ONI recruited Americans to engage in domestic spying and provide early warning without devolving into vigilantism.

Acknowledgements

Special thanks to the following colleagues from Embry-Riddle University: Michael Hickey, Dean of Research and Graduate Studies; Gary Kessler, chair of the Security Studies & International Affairs Department; William Lahneman; and James K. Libbey. Appreciation for their archival support goes to Guy Hall and Nathan Jordan, National Archives and Records Administration, Southeast Region, Morrow, GA, as well as the staff at NARA-College Park, MD.

Notes

1. Hoyt, U-Boats Offshore, 30–46; Vaeth, Blimps and U-Boats; and Morison, The Battle of the Atlantic, 268–75.

2. Dorwart, Conflict of Duty, 121, 122; and Packard, A Century of U.S. Naval Intelligence, 254, 255, 322.

3. Coastal Information Section (CIS), Correspondence and Reports, 1939–1943, Office of Naval Intelligence, box 24, folder CIS Mission & Organization, RG 38, National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, MD (NACP).

4. Coastal Information Activities in Naval Districts and Outlying Naval Stations, 16 July 1941, Ibid., box 24, folder Manual Organization; CNO to all District Commandants, 8 December 1941, Ibid.; Manual of Organization and Procedure for Coastal Information Sections, 1941, Ibid., box 25, folder Coastal Info Manual; Suggested Organization for District Coastal Information Activities, 2 September 1941, Ibid., box 17.

5. War Diary, December 1941, Eastern Sea Frontier (ESF), War Diaries, 1941–1945, box 1, RG 313, NACP; Ibid., January 1942; Ibid., February 1942.

6. Landing of Enemy Agents on Coast of the United States, 18 March 1942, General Correspondence (GC), box 17, folder 7, RG 181, National Archives & Records Administration, Southeast Region, Morrow, Georgia (NASE).

7. Fishing Industry (Italian-Americans), survey made by Italian Government, 2 August 1942, Investigation Files (IF), 6th Naval District, Charleston, South Carolina, box 1, folder 2, RG 181, NASE.

8. War Diary, March 1942, ESF, box 1, NACP.

9. War Diary, July 1942, ESF, box 2, NACP; Ibid., August, 1942.

10. “Fishing Curb Held Anti-Spy Measure,” 20.

11. Memorandum, Japanese Fishermen, Control of on West Coast, n.d., CIS, box 28, folder Fishing Vessels, NACP; State Department Conference re West Coast Fishing Industry, 29 January 1942, Ibid.; Fishing Fleets – control of to prevent subversive activities, 2 February 1942, Ibid.

12. Bourgerie to Waller, 26 January 1942, CIS, box 28, folder Fishing Vessels, NACP; Baldwin-Vickrey Telephone Conversation, 21 February 1942, Ibid. Waller to CNO, 22 February 1942, Ibid.

13. CNO to District Commandants, 28 February 1942, CIS, box 28, folder Fishing Vessels, NACP; Wickard to Knox, 9 January 1942, Ibid.

14. War Diary, August 1942, box 2, NACP; CNO to District Commandants, n.d., CIS, box 27, folder Small Craft, NACP.

15. Commercial Fishing Vessels, Outline of Procedures and Plan, April 7, 1942, CIS, box 28, folder Fishing Vessels, NACP.

16. War Diary, March 1942; Dorwart, Conflict of Duty, 163–9; and Hoyt, U-Boats Offshore, 178.

17. Bernstecker to Souers, 19 June 1942, IF, box 1, folder 1, NASE.

18. Organization and Activities of Coastal Information Section, B-8, District Intelligence Office, Sixth Naval District, 28 April 1942, CIS, box 10, folder ND6/Progress Reports, NACP; District Intelligence Organization, Sixth Naval District, 24 March 1943, Ibid.; Inspection of Coastal Information Sections, Sixth, Seventh, and Eighth Naval Districts, 21 June 1942, Ibid.

19. Boarding Report, 6th ND, 13 April 1942, CIS, box 23, folder Sub Tactics-Reports, NACP; Allen to Commanding General, Southern Sector, Eastern Coastal Frontier, 15 May 1942, Ibid., box 20, folder Aircraft, NACP.

20. Dobbs, Saboteurs; War Diary, June 1942, ESF, box 2, NACP; and Ibid., June 1943, box 5.

21. War Diary, August 1942; Selected Master Plan, 1943, IF, box 1, folder 2, NASE; Fishing Restrictions in the Sixth Naval District, 8 April 1943, Ibid.; Control Procedure for Limited Radio Communication by Commercial Fishing Vessels in Southern Group, ESF, Waters, 23 November 1944, IF, box 1, folder 7, NASE.

22. Jenkins to Abbot, 15 April 1943, IF, box 1, folder 2, NASE; Selected Masters & Informants, 26 January 1943, Ibid., box 6, folder 9; Inspection of Coastal Information Sections, Sixth, Seventh, and Eighth Naval Districts, 21 June 1942; Officers Attending Conference of B-8 Section Heads, 11–15 January 1943, CIS, box 17, NACP.

23. Selected Master Plan, 1943; Souers to Hilliard, July 1942, IF, box 1, folder 1, NASE; Selected Masters Plan-Operation of Section SM&O under Commander Eastern Sea Frontier Commercial Fishing Vessel Plan Directives, 10 April 1945, IF, box 1, folder 4, NASE.

24. Fishermen Suspected of Subversive Activities, n.d., CIS, box 28, folder Fishing Vessels, NACP.

25. Souers to Hilliard, July 1942; Enemy Aliens on Waterfront, Savannah, Georgia, 7 July 1942, IF, box 1, folder 1, NASE; Acquisition of Shrimp Boats, 4 July 1942, Ibid.; Souers to Morton, 6 July 1942, Ibid.; Souers to Port Director, 7 July 1942, Ibid.; Souers to Chief of Staff, 13 August 1942, GC, box 18, folder 3, NASE; Astor quote in War Diary, August 1942.

26. Selected Masters, 12 December 1942, IF, box 1, folder 1, NASE; Selected Masters, 19 December 1942, Ibid.; Tinesley to Supply Officer, 5 September 1942, Ibid.; Souers’ transfer is mentioned in, Record of Conference of Officers-in-Charge, Coastal Information Sections of District Intelligence Offices, Washington, DC., 11–15 January 1943, Conference Proceedings with Dist. Intl. Officers (Oct. & Dec. 42, Jan. 43), Domestic Intelligence Branch, box 4, RG 38, NACP.

27. Selected Masters, Information to be Developed From, 19 December 1942, IF, box 1, folder 1, NASE; Record of Conference of Officers-In-Charge, Coastal Information 11–15 January 1943; This is Important. Read it Carefully, 1943, IF, box 1, folder 2, NASE.

28. Selected Master Plan, n.d. 1943; Selected Master Fishing Vessels, crews of, 11 March 1943, IF, box 1, folder 2, NASE; Excerpts from ComESF Commercial Fishing Plan Directives concerning Instructions to, or control of, Movements of Selected Masters, 26 April 1943, IF, box 1, folder 7, NASE; Commercial Fishing Vessel Plan Recapitulation of Reports From Zones & Branches, n.d., Ibid.

29. Allen to CNO, 26 February 1942, CIS, box 28, folder Fishing Vessels, NACP; Selected Master Plan, 1943; Selected Masters Plan-Operation; Selected Masters, Instructions to, IF, box 1, folder 3, NASE; 6ND Fishing Vessel Observers: Situation as of 31 March 1943, IF, box 1, folder 2, NASE; Commercial Fishing Vessel Plan, Maintenance of, 27 January 1945, IF, box 1, folder 4, NASE; Radio Equipped Selected Masters, Test Calls by, 12 July 1944, Ibid.

30. Procedure for contacting confidential observers, establishment of, 1 April 1943, IF, box 1, folder 5, NASE; See outgoing classified dispatches in Ibid.

31. Excerpt from 6ND General Intelligence Bulletin, 18 September–2 October 1943, CIS, box 10, folder ND6/Progress Reports, NACP; Astor to Zacharias, 2 July 1943, Ibid., box 20, folder ESF/1.

32. Loss of Confidential Grid Charts and Confidential Revised Special Instructions Assigned to Will Baldwin, former Selected Master of Vessel ‘Elizabeth’, 27 April 1943, IF, box 6, folder 6, NASE; ESF Selected Masters Pigeon Communication Plan, establishment of in 6ND, 8 July 1943, IF, box 1, folder 2, NASE; Homing Pigeons, Plan for use of and procedure for return of, 26 August 1943, IF, box 1, folder 3, NASE; Pigeon Communication Plan for Selected Masters in 6ND, developments at Mayport, Florida, 26 August 1943, IF, box 1, folder 7, NASE. The navy was not being cynical about its estimates. In 1943, 100 pigeons were released 35–40 miles from Mayport in a driving rainstorm and all 100 birds made it to the loft.

33. Lassiter to Abbot, 21 April 1943, IF, box 6, folder 6, NASE; Selected Masters, Information to be Developed From, 19 December 1942; Excerpts from ComESF Commercial Fishing Plan Directives concerning Instructions to, or control of, Movements of Selected Masters.

34. Excerpt from DIO, 6ND, General Intelligence Brief, 12 December 1942, CIS, box 22, folder Enemy Agents, NACP; Bull’s Island, S.C. – Alleged Landing of Enemy Agents Thereon, 28 December 1942, Sixth Naval District DIO Report, 14 January 1943, Ibid.

35. Selected Masters and Coastal Informants, imminent need for and handling of, 19 March 1943, IF, box 7, folder 7, NASE; Monthly Report of Activities of S.M.&I., recapitulation of, 1 July 1943, IF, box 1, folder 7, NASE; War Diary, July 1943, ESF, box 5, NACP; Astor to Zacharias, 2 July 1943; One source puts the figure at 843. See, Morison, The Battle of the Atlantic, 288.

36. “Fishing Rated Essential,” 11; “Georgia Dumping Shrimp Catches,” 8; “Fishing Recruits Sought,” 21; Laird to Abbot, 11 June 1943, IF, box 1, folder 7, NASE; Fishing Restrictions in the Sixth Naval District, 8 April 1943, IF, box 1, folder 2, NASE; Hall to Abbot, 17 June 1943, IF, box 7, folder 8, NASE.

37. Selected Masters and Observers Activity, 1 January 1945, IF, box 1, folder 7, NASE; Commercial Fishing Vessel Plan Recapitulation; Selected Masters, Activity of, 2 January 1945, Ibid.

38. Selected Master Plan, 1943; Fishing Vessel Observers, 6ND, 31 December 1944, IF, box 1, folder 4, NASE; Sixth Naval District, Fishing Vessel Observers, 31 May 1945, IF, box 2, folder 13, NASE; Laube to Abbot, 26 April 1945, Ibid.; Record of Conference of Officers-in-Charge, Coastal Information Sections.

39. Laird to Abbot, 14 April 1943, IF, box 1, folder 7, NASE.

40. Sixth Naval District Fishing Vessel Observers BRANT and COLONA operating on radio frequency 2670, 27 November 1943, IF, box 1, folder 3, NASE; Excessive Calling and Interference on 2670 frequency, 3 December 1943, Ibid.

41. Special Observer Vessels-Test Calls, 14 April 1943, IF, box 1, folder 2, NASE.

42. Inspection Tour of SM&O Activities, 24 March 1945, IF, box 1, folder 7, NASE.

43. Abbot to Train, 12 May 1943, CIS, box 10, folder ND6/Progress Reports, NACP; Laird to Abbot, attached to Selected Masters, Radio Procedures to be followed by, 29 February 1944, IF, box 1, folder 3, NASE.

44. Illiterate Selected Masters, 2 September 1943, IF, box 1, folder 3, NASE; Abbot to Allsbrook, 17 September 1943, IF, box 7, folder 8, NASE; Wylly to Abbot, 11 September 1943, Ibid.

45. Lassiter to Abbot, 24 March 1943, IF, box 7, folder 7, NASE; Hall to Abbot, 6 April 1943, Ibid.

46. War Diary, July 1943; “U-Boats Now Prey on Fishing Boats,” 4.

47. Blair, Hitler’s U-Boat War, 573 fn; and Morison, The Battle of the Atlantic, 286–9.

48. Excerpts from ComESF Commercial Fishing Plan Directives.

49. Possible Injuries to commercial fishermen engaged in fishing in areas where obsolete ordnance has been dumped, 30 January 1945, IF, box 1, folder 4, NASE; Possible Injuries to commercial fishermen engaged in fishing in areas where obsolete ordnance has been dumped, 28 April 1945, Ibid.

50. War Diary, November 1943, ESF, box 6, NACP.

51. Confidential Fishermen Observer Plan-Discontinuance of, 25 May 1945, IF, box 1, folder 4, NASE; Confidential Fishermen Observer Plan, 2 July 1945, Ibid.; Certificates of Recognition for Services Rendered as Special Observers, delivery of, 31 May 1945, Ibid.; Holt, “News of Food,” 8.

52. Burns to Abbot, 28 November 1944, IF, box 1, folder 7, NASE.

53. Commercial Fishing Vessel Plan Recapitulation.

54. Gass to Astor, 11 April 1944, IF, box 2, folder 12, NASE.

55. Commercial Fishing Vessel Plan Recapitulation.

56. War Diary, August 1942; Ibid., November 1943; Hoyt, The U-Boat Wars, 160, 161, 201–8; For sinkings off Georgia and northeast Florida, see, Hendrick, “Close to Home”; and Syrett, The Defeat of the German U-Boats.