Where is Here? An Issue of Deictic Projection in Recorded Song

Abstract

This article develops a theoretic base for the hermeneutics of spatialization in recorded popular song, drawing from work in ecological perception, cognitive linguistics, proxemics and some music semiotics. It uses this base in order specifically to observe a range of uses of the deictic expression ‘here’ in the lyrics of popular songs, and from this observation to construct a typology. It draws from a very wide range of Anglophone genres, stretching across most of the previous century and beyond, exploring the varying extents to which the music that encompasses such lyrics helps to fix a type of location indexed by ‘here’. Such an exercise forms part of a larger programme to establish a grounding that permits a reasoned response to Ricoeur's call to interpret the text by means of disclosing a ‘possible way of looking at things'.

Notes

¹Paul Ricoeur, Interpretation Theory: Discourse and the Surplus of Meaning (Fort Worth, TX, 1976), 92.

²I am exceedingly grateful to my co-workers on that project, Patty Schmidt and Ruth Dockwray, for their penetrating critiques of earlier versions of this essay, and to members of the project workshop for further insightful comments and ideas; and I have also learnt much (and incorporated perhaps a few of the ideas) from this article's referees, Ian Biddle and Robert Fink.

³Murray Forman, The 'Hood Comes First: Race, Space, and Place in Rap and Hip-Hop (Middletown, CT, 2002), 82.

⁴Adam Krims, Music and Urban Geography (New York, 2007), 28.

⁵Jody Berland, ‘Locating Listening: Technological Space, Popular Music, and Canadian Mediations’, The Place of Music, ed. Andrew Leyshon, David Matless and George Revill (New York, 1998), 129–50 (p. 130).

⁶ Jody Berland, ‘Locating Listening: Technological Space, Popular Music, and Canadian Mediations’, The Place of Music, ed. Andrew Leyshon, David Matless and George Revill (New York, 1998), 133.

⁷Jody Berland, ‘Locating Listening: Technological Space, Popular Music, and Canadian Mediations’, The Place of Music, ed. Andrew Leyshon, David Matless and George Revill (New York, 1998), 130.

⁸Allan F. Moore, Patricia Schmidt and Ruth Dockwray, ‘The Hermeneutics of Spatialization in Recorded Song’ (forthcoming).

⁹Allan F. Moore, Rock: The Primary Text (2nd edn, Aldershot, 2002), 120–6.

¹⁰Peter Doyle, Echo and Reverb: Fabricating Space in Popular Music Recording 1900–1960 (Middletown, CT, 2005).

¹¹See Ruth Dockwray and Allan F. Moore, ‘Configuring the Sound-Box 1965–72’, forthcoming in Popular Music, 29 (2010), on the diagonal mix; and David Gibson, The Art of Mixing (2nd edn, Boston, MA, 2005), for the cross-genre norm.

¹²Schemas are ‘mental representations of the properties that concepts usually have’. Mike Rinck, ‘Spatial Situation Models’, Cambridge Handbook of Visuospatial Thinking, ed. Priti Shah and Akira Miyake (New York, 2005), 334–82 (p. 337).

¹³David Huron, Sweet Anticipation: Music and the Psychology of Expectation (Cambridge, MA, 2006), 103.

¹⁴Huron, Sweet Anticipation, 104. Azimuth, in this context, refers to what I am calling laterality.

¹⁵Elena Rusconi et al., ‘Spatial Representation of Pitch Height: The SMARC Effect’, Cognition, 99 (2006), 113–29 (p. 113). The experiments reported in this article dealt with the apparent misdirection of decades of earlier studies, where respondents had generally been asked to estimate the spatial height of pitches, thereby prejudging the conclusion. I am very grateful to Nicola Dibben for bringing this area of research to my attention. Peter Doyle is typical of writers who state that ‘to call shorter wavelength, higher frequency sounds “high” is mostly convention’ (Echo and Reverb, 27). It appears that simple convention may play less of a part than we hitherto supposed.

¹⁶This concept forms part of Philip Tagg's interpretative apparatus: Introductory Notes to the Semiotics of Music, <http://www.tagg.org/xpdfs/semiotug.pdf> (accessed 17 April 2008).

¹⁷For example, James J. Gibson, The Senses Considered as Perceptual Systems (Boston, MA, 1966) and The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception (London, 1979).

¹⁸Eric F. Clarke, Ways of Listening: An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning (New York, 2005).

¹⁹As argued in Allan F. Moore, ‘Interpretation: So What?’, Ashgate Research Companion to Popular Musicology, ed. Derek B. Scott (Aldershot, 2009), 411–25.

²⁰Eric F. Clarke, ‘Subject-Position and the Specification of Invariants in Music by Frank Zappa and P. J. Harvey’, Music Analysis, 18 (1999), 347–74.

²¹Allan F. Moore, ‘The Persona/Environment Relation in Recorded Song’, Music Theory Online, 11 (October 2005), <http:www.music-theory.org/mto/issues/mto.05.11.4/mto.05.11.4.moore_frames.html>.

²²I refer for instance to issues of cadence, of modulation, of melodic contour, of speed and direction of harmonic motion, and of how they are read in the light of the specifics of a song's narrative.

³¹Johnson, The Body in the Mind, 29 (emphasis original).

²³Edward T. Hall, The Hidden Dimension: Man's Use of Space in Public and Private (London, 1969), 110–19. The term ‘interpersonal distance’ is currently more common than proxemics in the psychology literature, referring to the conceptual area which Hall initiated, and which continues its useful life almost in its original formulation.

²⁴Doyle, Echo and Reverb, 57, incorporating his quotation from Oliver Read and Walter L. Welch, From Tinfoil to Stereo: Evolution of the Phonograph (2nd edn, Indianapolis, IN, 1976).

²⁵Contra George Lakoff (Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things (Chicago, 1987), 215–16), we do not see that ecological perception and cognitive sciences are at odds: see Moore, Schmidt and Dockwray, ‘The Hermeneutics of Spatialization in Recorded Song’. See also Zoltán Kövecses, Metaphor in Culture: Universality and Variation (Cambridge, 2005), who has recourse to both ‘affordance’ and ‘image schemata’ (pp. 19–20).

²⁶Gilles Fauconnier, Mental Spaces: Aspects of Meaning Constructions in Natural Language (Cambridge, MA, 1985).

²⁷Gilles Fauconnier, Mappings in Thoughts and Language (Cambridge, 1997).

²⁸This model has been employed for musicological discussion in Lawrence M. Zbikowski, Conceptualizing Music: Cognitive Structure, Theory, and Analysis (Oxford, 2002).

²⁹Mark Johnson, The Body in the Mind: The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination, and Reason (Chicago, IL, 1987) and The Meaning of the Body: Aesthetics of Human Understanding (Chicago, IL, 2007); George Lakoff and Mark Turner, More Than Cool Reason: A Field Guide to Poetic Metaphor (Chicago, IL, 1989), 90ff.

³⁰Leonard Talmy, Toward a Cognitive Semantics, 2 vols. (Cambridge, MA, 2000).

³²By convention, in the literature, individual schemas are capitalized.

³³Johnson, The Body in the Mind, 87. His discussion of BALANCE can be found on pp. 73–98.

³⁴George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Metaphors We Live By (Chicago, IL, 1980) and Philosophy in the Flesh: The Embodied Mind and its Challenge to Western Thought (New York, 1999).

³⁵For instance, Janna Saslaw, ‘Forces, Containers, and Paths: The Role of Body-Derived Image Schemas in the Conceptualization of Music’, Journal of Music Theory, 40 (1996), 217–43, and Mark Johnson and Steve Larson, ‘“Something in the Way She Moves” – Metaphors of Musical Motion’, Metaphor and Symbol, 18 (2003), 63–84.

³⁶Susan Fast, In the Houses of the Holy: Led Zeppelin and the Power of Rock Music (Oxford, 2001), esp. pp. 132ff.

³⁷‘Gone, Gone, Gone (Done Moved On)’, Raising Sand (Rounder, 2007).

³⁸In the sense given by Clarke, Ways of Listening.

³⁹Naomi Cumming, The Sonic Self: Musical Subjectivity and Signification (Bloomington, IN, 2000), 93.

⁴⁰Operative distinctions between these characteristics are explored in Allan F. Moore, ‘Categorical Conventions in Music-Discourse: Style and Genre’, Music and Letters, 82 (2001), 432–42, and in Franco Fabbri, ‘Browsing Music Spaces: Categories and the Musical Mind’, Critical Essays in Popular Musicology, ed. Allan F. Moore (Aldershot, 2007), 49–62. I do not accept the common assumption that style is an aspect of genre, but consider that each operates relatively autonomously.

⁴¹For example, I have in mind the extended demonstration of such genre characteristics offered in Wendy Fonarow, Empire of Dirt: The Aesthetics and Rituals of British Indie Music (Middletown, CT, 2006).

⁴²Originally 1956. The Best of the Sun Sessions (Music Club, 1994).

⁴³Doyle, Echo and Reverb, 199.

⁴⁴From Doyle's subtitle; see note 10 above.

⁴⁵Paul Théberge, Any Sound You Can Imagine: Making Music/Consuming Technology (Hanover, NH, 1997).

⁴⁶Steve Jones, Rock Formation: Music, Technology and Mass Communication (London, 1992).

⁴⁷Albin J. Zak III, The Poetics of Rock: Cutting Tracks, Making Records (Berkeley, CA, 2001).

⁴⁸For example, William Moylan, The Art of Recording: Understanding and Crafting the Mix (Woburn, MA, 2002).

⁴⁹For example, Maureen Droney, Mix Masters: Platinum Engineers Reveal their Secrets for Success (Boston, MA, 2003).

⁵⁰I am grateful to Ian Biddle for pointing out the importance of this direction of thought.

⁵¹See Marina Yaguello, Language Through the Looking Glass: Exploring Language and Linguistics (Oxford, 1998).

⁵² Blood on the Tracks (Columbia, 1975). A similar comment could be applied to the remainder of the tracks on the album, although ‘Jack of Hearts’ is particularly extreme.

⁵³David Boucher, Dylan and Cohen: Poets of Rock and Roll (New York, 2004), 93.

⁵⁴Originally 1956. The Magic of Alma Cogan (EMI, 1997).

⁵⁵Of course, at the time, it would have been a tape recording of a train, but it functions in the same way as the samples with which we are nowadays familiar.

⁵⁶Well, I hear it left to right, which I suspect is a factor of the localization of brain functions with respect to left and right hemispheres.

⁵⁷ Roxy Music (Virgin, 1972).

⁵⁸Howard Horne and Simon Frith, Art into Pop (London, 1987), 118.

⁵⁹Examples of such stereotypical oboe description in relation to ‘Laugh! Faithless one!’ from Act 2 of Handel's Ariodante may be found at <http://www.eno.org/src/baylis_ariodante.pdf>; to Saariaho's La passion de Simone at <http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/stage/opera/article2061246.ece>; and to Barber's Violin Concerto at <http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9503E2DA133AF935A25751C0A96F958260> (all accessed 22 April 2008). Many others could be cited. I make these references as a telescoped form of Philip Tagg's interobjective comparison technique.

⁶⁰PENDULUM is not a widely referenced image schema (as far as I am aware, it does not appear in the work of Mark Johnson, Mark Turner or George Lakoff), but it is discussed in Christopher Schmidt, ‘Metaphor and Cognition: A Cross-Cultural Study of Indigenous and Universal Constructs in Stock Exchange Reports’, Intercultural Communication, 5 (2002), <http://www.immi.se/intercultural> (accessed 22 April 2008), and elsewhere. I return to this schema below.

⁶¹ Skylarking (Virgin, 1986).

⁶²‘The clock at Waterloo station is well known as a meeting place for people going on blind dates’, <http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A11682317>; ‘the landmark meeting point, like the famous clock at Waterloo station […]’, <http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/story/0,,2030682,00.html> (both accessed 22 April 2008).

⁶³ Vehicles and Animals (EMI, 2003).

⁶⁴ Bells, Boots and Shambles (Castle, 1973).

⁶⁵Phasing is a production technique that was widely used in the 1960s to connote psychedelia.

⁶⁶Johnson, The Body in the Mind, 207.

⁶⁷Susan Henking, review of Johnson, The Body in the Mind, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 58 (1990), 503–6 (pp. 505–6). My thanks to Patty Schmidt for this reference.

⁶⁸David Sless, In Search of Semiotics (London, 1986), 158.

⁶⁹David Sless, In Search of Semiotics (London, 1986), 99.

⁷⁰Clarke, Ways of Listening, 51.

⁷¹Clarke, Ways of Listening, 40.

⁷²Philip Tagg and Bob Clarida, Ten Little Title Tunes (New York, 2003). Unfortunately, in their experiments, they did not note differences of response according to gender (p. 117), since they were interested simply in the degree of similarity of response within a shared culture.

⁷³Diane F. Halpern and Marcia L Collaer, ‘Sex Differences in Visuospatial Abilities’, Cambridge Handbook of Visuospatial Thinking, ed. Shah and Miyake, 170–212 (pp. 176–7). Note that this is no more than a (statistical) tendency; though male, I use landmarks almost exclusively.

⁷⁴Stephen C. Levinson, Space in Language and Cognition: Explorations in Cognitive Diversity (Cambridge, 2003).

⁷⁵Stephen C. Levinson, Space in Language and Cognition: Explorations in Cognitive Diversity (Cambridge, 2003), 20.

⁷⁶See, for instance, Alan Durant, Conditions of Music (London, 1984), 203–4.

⁷⁷Gillian Brown, Speakers, Listeners and Communication: Explorations in Discourse Analysis (Cambridge, 1995), 108.

⁷⁸Sally McConnell-Ginet, ‘Language and Gender’, Language: The Socio-Cultural Context, ed. Frederick J. Newmeyer (Cambridge, 1995), 75–99 (p. 82).

⁷⁹Allan F. Moore, ‘The Act You've Known for All These Years: A Re-Encounter With Sgt. Pepper’, Sgt. Pepper and the Beatles, ed. Olivier Julien (Aldershot, 2008), 139–46.

⁸⁰Levinson, Space in Language and Cognition, 294.

⁸¹Brown, Speakers, Listeners and Communication, 110.

⁸²Explored in Robert S. Hatten, Musical Meaning in Beethoven: Markedness, Correlation, and Interpretation (Bloomington, IN, 1994).

⁸³Originally 1969. Best of T. Rex (A&M, 1998).

⁸⁴An inert personic environment does not intervene between the listener and a conventionalized, matter-of-fact reading of the persona; see Allan F. Moore, ‘The Persona/Environment Relation in Recorded Song’.

⁸⁵Originally 1968. She Flies Like a Bird (Castle, 2002).

⁸⁶ Revolver (Parlophone, 1966).

⁸⁷Ian MacDonald, Revolution in the Head: The Beatles' Records and the Sixties (London, 1995), 168.

⁸⁸Originally 1963. Gold (Universal, 2003).

⁸⁹Andrew Moore, Pragmatics, 2001, <http://www.universalteacher.org.uk/lang/pragmatics.htm>, (accessed 14 December 2009).

⁹⁰ A Song for Me (Mystic, 1970).

⁹¹Perhaps surprisingly, bearing in mind its historical location, there seems to be no slang reference here to a mule as smuggler of drugs.

⁹²Comparison with ‘Summer's Cauldron’ (above) demonstrates that atmospheric heat can be specified both by too much precision (the artificial vibrato of the string pad) and too little, depending on the listener's perspective: the first specifies, for example, the way sweaty clothing seems to constrict one's movements in excessive heat, while the second specifies, for example, the loosening of that clothing one undertakes in order to try to escape the effect of such heat.

⁹³Originally 1980. The Godfather (Universal, 2002).

⁹⁴Charlie Gillett, The Sound of the City (London, 1983), 235.

⁹⁵Johnson, The Body in the Mind, 21–3.

⁹⁶ John Wesley Harding (Columbia, 1968).

⁹⁷As is my invariable practice, music examples, all of which are analytical transcriptions from the relevant recording, cite performer only. This is simply intended as a means of identification, for I argue throughout that the text instantiates the identity of the persona only, not that of any writer or producer. The identification of a popular-music track as that of an individual writer, producer or performer is a means of distributing money, not a reliable indicator of any labour involved.

⁹⁸ Electric Ladyland (MCA, 1968).

⁹⁹Albin J. Zak III (‘Bob Dylan and Jimi Hendrix: Juxtaposition and Transformation “All Along the Watchtower”’, Journal of the American Musicological Society, 57 (2005), 599–644 (p. 631)) hears the downbeat a quaver later than I do. His analysis allows the maintenance of a regular 4/4, but I would maintain that the unsettling nature of Hendrix's recording is amplified in my hearing, whereby the regular metre is interrupted as early as bar 4, with an additional half-beat.

¹⁰³Charles Shaar Murray, Crosstown Traffic: Jimi Hendrix and Post-War Pop (London, 1989), 150 (emphasis original).

¹⁰⁰Albin J. Zak III (‘Bob Dylan and Jimi Hendrix: Juxtaposition and Transformation “All Along the Watchtower”’, Journal of the American Musicological Society, 57 (2005), 599–644 (p. 631)) hears the downbeat a quaver later than I do. His analysis allows the maintenance of a regular 4/4, but I would maintain that the unsettling nature of Hendrix's recording is amplified in my hearing, whereby the regular metre is interrupted as early as bar 4, with an additional half-beat., 631.

¹⁰¹Johnson, The Body in the Mind, 85 and 21–3.

¹⁰²William Echard, ‘An Analysis of Neil Young's “Powderfinger” Based on Mark Johnson's Image Schemata’, Popular Music, 18 (1999), 133–44 (p. 141).

¹⁰⁴ Grace of the Sun (Stormy Forest, 2004).

¹⁰⁵ Rattle and Hum (Island, 1988).

¹⁰⁶This is true, I think, of every cover I have noticed, with the exception of a recent one by the Fratellis, which uses both articulations at different points in the track. Radio 1: Established 1967 (UMTV, 2007).

¹⁰⁷ It's a Wonderful Life (Capitol, 2001).

¹⁰⁸ Abbey Road (Parlophone, 1969).

¹⁰⁹Johnson, The Body in the Mind, 113–17.

¹¹⁰ How Long is Forever (Castle, 1974).

¹¹¹Brian Kehew and Kevin Ryan, Recording the Beatles: The Studio Equipment and Techniques Used to Create their Classic Albums (Houston, TX, 2006), 522.

¹¹² Peter Gabriel I (Virgin, 1977).

¹¹³For instance, at <http://rec.horus.at/music/gabriel/Songs/here-comes-the-flood> (accessed 22 April 2008).

¹¹⁴‘The Monkees' (1966), Greatest Hits (Rhino, 1995).

¹¹⁵Gillett, The Sound of the City, 331.

¹¹⁶This concept also forms part of Philip Tagg's interpretative apparatus; see note 16.

¹¹⁷I refer specifically to the film.

¹¹⁸ Disco Mania (Crimson, 1976).

¹¹⁹I assume these two, normal lead singers for Tavares, were indeed singers on this track, but have been unable to corroborate this.

¹²⁰ Space Oddity (EMI, 1972).

¹²¹See Allan F. Moore, ‘In a Big Country: The Portrayal of Wide Open Spaces in the Music of Big Country’, Contemporary Music Review, 13 (Musica Significans: Proceedings of the Third International Congress on Musical Signification, ed. Raymond Monelle, 1998), 1–6. Doyle locates the origin of this signifier in mid-century cowboy films, where a shout may echo from distant mountains. Echo and Reverb, 106ff.

¹²²Samuel A. Floyd, Jr, The Power of Black Music: Interpreting its History from Africa to the United States (New York, 1995), 10.

¹²³Elmore James, ‘Dust my Broom’ (originally 1951). Dust my Broom (Charly, 2006).

¹²⁴Originally 1931. The Voice of the Mississippi (Prism, 1996).

¹²⁵Originally 1954. Queen of Gospel (Music Club, 1993).

¹²⁶For example, Ebony Three, Buster Bailey and Sam Price Trio, Gospel Truth (Castle, 2000). They make the most of the injunction to the chariot to ‘swing’.

¹²⁷Originally 1947. Queen of Gospel (Music Club, 1993).

¹²⁸Originally 1933. Down Hearted Blues (Golden Options, n.d.).

¹²⁹Originally 1927. Match Box Blues (Indigo, 1998).

¹³⁰Jeff Todd Titon, Early Downhome Blues (Urbana, IL, 1977), 63.

¹³¹Paul Oliver, Songsters and Saints: Vocal Traditions on Race Records (Cambridge, 1984), 266–71.

¹³²Originally 1929. Atlanta Strut (Snapper, 2004).

¹³³Paul Oliver, The Story of the Blues (London, 1972), 126.

¹³⁴Originally 1958. Good 'Uns: The Classic Cobra Recordings (Demon, 2000).

¹³⁵Originally 1954. Father of Chicago Blues (Primo, 2006).

¹³⁶ Spirit of the Century (Real World, 2001).

¹³⁷ Kimono my House (Island, 1974).

¹³⁸ The News (Castle, 1979).

¹³⁹My own literary reference point is Anna Kavan's terrifying Ice (London, 1973), but this reference may well be purely personal.

¹⁴⁰Originally 1939. Goodnight Sweetheart (Disky, n.d.).

¹⁴¹David Brackett, Interpreting Popular Music (2nd edn, Berkeley, CA, 2000), 54–5.

¹⁴² Yellow Moon (A&M, 1989).

¹⁴³The refusal of Rosa Parks (a co-worker of Martin Luther King) to give up her bus seat to a white passenger in 1955 sparked the Montgomery Bus Boycott, highly influential in the US civil rights movement, the ‘mother’ of which she was later dubbed by the US Congress.

¹⁴⁴Forman, The 'Hood Comes First, 170.

¹⁴⁵ Return of the Boom Bap (Jive, 1993).

¹⁴⁶Taken from 4' 20" of their cover of The Animals' ‘Inside – Looking Out’. Grand Funk (Columbia, 1969).

¹⁴⁷ Home Invasion (Rhyme Syndicate, 1993).

¹⁴⁸ Rock Island (Chrysalis, 1989).

¹⁴⁹Michele Kort, ‘Judee Sill's Holiest Dreams’, sleeve-note to Abracadabra, collected recordings (Rhino, 2006).

¹⁵⁰ Judee Sill (Asylum, 1971).

¹⁵¹Halpern and Collaer, ‘Sex Differences in Visuospatial Abilities’, 185.

¹⁵²Of course, a great deal of listening would be necessary to substantiate this assumption, and it is outside the purview of this particular article.

¹⁵³ Sheer Heart Attack (EMI, 1974).

¹⁵⁴Serge Lacasse, ‘Listen to my Voice’ (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Liverpool, 2000), 139, note 216.

¹⁵⁵Allan F. Moore and Ruth Dockwray, ‘The Establishment of the Virtual Performance Space in Rock’, Twentieth-Century Music, 5 (2009), 63–85.

¹⁵⁶Johnson, The Body in the Mind, 119–21.

¹⁵⁷ Paranoid and Sunburnt (One Little Indian, 1995).

¹⁵⁸Originally 1941. Greatest Hits (RCA, 1999).

¹⁵⁹Single release (Parlophone, 1968). It was used as the theme tune to the first four of her Saturday night television series.

¹⁶⁰ Loveless (Creation, 1991).

¹⁶¹On <http://www.mybloodyvalentine.net> (accessed 25 April 2008), a piece of journalism originally published in Hype in 1992.

¹⁶² The Woman in Me (PolyGram, 1995).

¹⁶³ Spirit (Sony, 2007).

¹⁶⁴Originally 1970. At the Close of a Century (Motown, 1999).

¹⁶⁵As demonstrated in Allan F. Moore, ‘What Story Should a History of Popular Music Tell?’, Popular Music History, 1 (2006), 329–38.

¹⁶⁶Originally 1967. Four Tops at their Very Best (Universal, 2002).

¹⁶⁷Originally 1967. Motown Gold (Universal, 2001).

¹⁶⁸Originally 1976. Endless Summer (Mercury, 1994).

¹⁶⁹Originally 1938. The Best of Vera Lynn (Delta, 2003).

¹⁷⁰Originally 1945. Sentimental Journey (Carlton, 1996).

¹⁷¹Originally 1942. Sentimental Journey (Carlton, 1996).

¹⁷² Peace in Our Time (Track, 1988).

¹⁷³ Pet Sounds (Capitol, 1966).

¹⁷⁴Johnson, The Body in the Mind, xiv.

¹⁷⁵ Greatest Hits (RCA, 1984).

¹⁷⁶ You've Come a Long Way, Baby (Skint, 1998). Fat Boy Slim is the stage name of Norman Cook.

¹⁷⁷According to the (anonymous) Wikipedia article on the track, the lyric ‘Right Here, Right Now’ is taken from the sci-fi film Strange Days, spoken by actor Angela Bassett at 1:39:08; see <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_Here_Right_Now_(song)> (accessed 6 November 2008). Identification of the source will impact on the track's import, but does not affect this persona's spatial placement.

¹⁷⁸ James Gang Rides Again (ABC, 1970).

¹⁷⁹ Doubt (Food, 1990).

¹⁸⁰According to the band's own publicity: <http://www.jesusjonesarchive.info/1990.php> (accessed 25 April 2008).

¹⁸³Ricoeur, Interpretation Theory, 79.

¹⁸¹The Beatles, Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (Parlophone, 1967).

¹⁸²Unstudied, that is, except through content analysis, which so often seems to forget that lyrics are only one aspect of song.

¹⁸⁴ Hopes and Fears (Island, 2004).

¹⁸⁵ Sentimental Journey (Carlton, 1996).