An F denotes Fellow status in SHAPE America as of November 2014.
Exploring Motivations Among Adolescent Boys in a Sports Camp Setting
Current literature is replete with reports about the dramatic increases in child and adolescent obesity in the United States during the last 25 years. Ogden, Carroll, Kit, and Flegal (2012) reported that nearly 17% of American children and adolescents were obese. The rate is even higher among minority groups where 24% of African American and 21% of Hispanic children and adolescents were obese (Ogden et al., 2012). Coupled with increases in obesity are declining levels of physical activity (PA) with age. Inactivity at young ages may predispose youth to the early onset of chronic heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and related hypokinetic diseases (Boreham & Riddoch, 2001; Fox & Riddoch, 2000). Although the Healthy People (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2009) report recommends 60 min or more of daily moderate-to-vigorous PA for children and youth, research reveals many children and adolescents fail to meet recommended guidelines (Nader, 2003; Troiano et al., 2008). Schools and particularly school-based physical education programs have represented the traditional conduit through which children's health and PA have been administered. Although an appropriate setting for promoting PA, they cannot provide opportunities for students during out-of-school times. Employing seasonal comparisons, Downey and Boughton (2007) reported how quickly children increased in body mass index when school was out of session during the summer months. This was especially true for African American and Hispanic children as well as for children who were already overweight. Downey and Boughton recommended alternative nonschool environments during the summer months, especially for at-risk populations, to provide PA opportunities. Ramsing and Sibthorp (2008) suggested summer camps as 1 alternative vehicle to enhance physical inactivity among youth. With an estimated 11 million individuals attending summer camps each year, camp remains 1 of the most common venues for physical activity and recreation (American Camp Association, 2004). Oftentimes, however, at-risk populations are economically disadvantaged and may not have access to such programs. For those at-risk youth fortunate enough to attend summer camps and enjoy the physical activities offered, we must understand why and how they might want to participate (Power et al., 2011). This symposium explores motivational elements among a group of at-risk adolescent boys placed in a 3-week summer sports camp setting. We drew from self-determination and expectancy-value theory to examine how camp experiences impact boys’ perceived motivational patterns and instructional support as well as intentions for future activity and extraneous benefits. Each presentation concludes with recommendations for practice to enhance continued participation in PA.
Adolescent At-Risk Boys’ Perceptions in a Summer Sports Camp
Larry Latterman, Xiaoxia Su, Ping Xiang, Ron E. McBride,
Jiling Liu, Maiya Otsuka, Texas A&M University
Background/Purpose: Summer sports camps represent alternative avenues to promote physical activity among children and youth. The expectancy-value model research has shown that students are more likely to have an intention to participate in an activity that they see as important, interesting, and useful. These are known as task values (Eccles, Wigfield, & Schiefele, 1998; Xiang, McBride, & Bruene, 2006). This study explored perceived task values and the impact of a 3-week summer sports camp among adolescent at-risk boys.
Method: As part of a larger study, participants were 21 adolescent at-risk boys (10–14 years of age) enrolled in a summer sports camp in the Southwestern United States during the summers of 2012 and 2013. At the end of camp in 2013, each boy was interviewed and asked: “Please tell me how this camp helped you in school last year. Do you think the physical activities you did in the physical activity sessions at this camp helped you do well in physical education (PE) for the last school year?” All interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed for later analysis. Finally, the boys responded to an open-ended question in a larger questionnaire: “Please write down 1 thing you have learned most from the physical activity sessions at the camp this summer.”
Analysis/Results: All data were analyzed using content analysis. Two themes emerged: identified values and camp impact. First, the boys identified a number of values associated with their participation in the camp (e.g., “This camp helped me know how to make good choices and have fun and laugh”; “It helped me have better manners and discipline myself”). Second, boys reported the camp's impact in their school settings, particularly in PE (e.g., “It definitely helped me in athletics at school because it helped me build strength over the summer”; “I will be more respectful in my school and I don't get in trouble as much as I used to”; and “To do better in PE”).
Conclusions: Results of the study revealed that the task values documented in the expectancy-value model research were also identified by these adolescent at-risk boys. Perhaps the greatest significance of the present study is that it provides empirical evidence that summer sports camps have the potential to positively impact adolescents in school settings. Given that the data in the present study were collected at 1 point in time, future research might document long-term effects of summer sports camps in school settings.
Changes in Adolescent Boys’ Motivational Regulations in a Summer Camp
Maiya Otsuka, Xiaoxia Su, Ron E. McBride, Jiling Liu, Ping Xiang, Melissa Scarmarado-Rhodes, Texas A&M University
Background/Purpose: Motivational regulations are important to individuals’ engagement, performance, and learning in a variety of settings including physical activity (Deci & Ryan, 1985). They include: amotivation (i.e., lacking an intention to participate), external regulation (i.e., obtaining rewards or avoiding punishment), introjected regulation (i.e., avoiding guilt or anxiety), identified regulation (i.e., because of personal importance), and intrinsic motivation (i.e., participating for fun or enjoyment). Considerable cross-sectional research has examined motivational regulations among children and youth in physical education/physical activity settings. However, the longitudinal development of motivational regulations remains unknown. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine changes in motivational regulations.
Method: The setting was a 3-week summer sports camp located in the Southwestern United States. As part of a larger study, participants were 66 at-risk boys aged 10 to 13 years old (Mage = 11.56 years, SD = 0.98) attending the camp during 2 summers. The population was 50% Hispanic American, 24.2% Caucasian American, and 22.7% African American. The boys completed the Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire-2 (Markland & Tobin, 2004) during their regularly scheduled camp activities both in 2012 and 2013.
Analysis/Results: A repeated-measures multivariate analysis of variance examined whether boys’ motivational regulations changed over a 2-year period. The results revealed a significant change over time, F(5, 61) = 3.80, p < .01, η^2 = .24. Univariate tests indicated that boys’ scores significantly declined from 2012 to 2013 on external regulation (M2012 = 2.97, M2013 = 2.67), F(1, 65) = 4.29, p < .05, η^2 = .06; introjected regulation (M2012 = 3.27, M2013 = 2.83), F(1, 65) = 9.93, p < .01, η^2 = .13; identified regulation (M2012 = 3.95, M2013 = 3.48), F(1, 65) = 15.18, p < .001, η^2 = .19; and intrinsic motivation (M2012 = 4.12, M2013 = 3.68), F(1, 65) = 12.13, p < .01, η^2 = .16.
Conclusions: Overall, boys’ motivational regulations scores decreased during 2 years of participation at the camp. This result supports existing research that children become less motivated to participate in physical activities as they become older (Deng, Castelli, Castor-Pinero, & Guan, 2011). The decline may be also due to the effects of participating in the same camp activities from year to year. Further research might identify strategies that foster autonomous motivational regulations in camp activities.
Changes in Perceived Instructor Support in a Summer Sports Camp
Nasnoor Juzaily, Jae Young Yang, Jiling Liu, Ping Xiang, Ron E. McBride, Xiaoxia Su, Texas A&M University
Background/Purpose: Perceived instructor support for autonomy, competence and relatedness has been found to be positively related to educational outcomes such as enhanced motivation to engage in learning, better academic performance, and decreased course-related anxiety (Black & Deci, 2000). However, little information exists about changes in perceived instructor support for autonomy, competence and relatedness in physical activity (PA) settings, particularly summer sport camps. The purpose of this study is to examine whether changes occurred in perceived instructor support among a group of adolescent at-risk boys participating in a sport camp setting across two summers.
Method: The summer camp is located in the Southwest US and a database from 2012 and 2013 was analyzed. Participants were 65 at risk-boys aged 10–13 (M age = 11.91, SD = 1.21) attending camp over the two summers. Each responded to the Perceived Instructor Support—Physical Education (PIS-PE) questionnaire (Shen, Weidong, Sun, & Rukavian, 2010) during the camp's regularly scheduled camp activities. However, for the purpose of this study, only post-test questionnaire data were analyzed to assess changes in students’ perceived instructor support.
Analysis/Results: Paired t test analysis examined changes in boys’ perceived instructor support during the 2-year period. No significant changes occurred in perceived instructor support for relatedness (M2012 = 3.53, M2013 = 3.75), t(61) = –1.65, p = .104 (95% CI [–0.49, 0.04]) and autonomy (M2012 = 3.78, M2013 = 3.72), t(62) = 0.48, p = .630 (95% CI [–0.19, 0.33]). However, there was a significant decline in perceived instructor support for competence (M2012 = 3.99, M2013 = 3.51), t(63) = 5.02, p = .000 (95% CI [0. 29, 0.67]).
Conclusions: Results of the study revealed no significant changes in boys' perceived instructor support for relatedness and autonomy over two years. There was a significant decrease in perceived competence support. The drop in perceived competence result may be due to an externally regulated environment (i.e., highly competitive) or differences in instructional approaches over two years. Camp instructors and administrators might modify instructional choices and/or activities to enhance greater autonomy, competence and relatedness support.
Impact of SDT on Effort and Future Intention for Physical Activity
Jae Young Yang, Ron E. McBride, Ping Xiang, Texas A&M University
Background/Purpose: Summer camps may present a vehicle to counter the trend of physical inactivity among at-risk adolescents (Ramsing & Sibthorp, 2008). For all adolescents to engage in physical activity and enjoy it, it is crucial to understand why and how they might want to participate (Power, et al., 2011). According to Self-Determination Theory (SDT: Deci & Ryan, 2002), affective, cognitive, and behavioral outcomes are determined by distinct motivational regulations that lie on a continuum from amotivation to intrinsic regulation. To date, SDT-based research has not examined direct relationships between self-determined motivation and cognitively and physically adaptive outcomes among at-risk adolescents in a summer sports camp setting. The purpose of this study was to investigate the extent to which at-risk boys’ self-determined motivational regulations in a summer sports camp predicted effort and intention for future physical activity.
Method: 102 at-risk boys, aged 11–15 (M = 12.93; SD = 1.22), participated in camp activities such as soccer, basketball, volleyball, and flag football as well as group activities such as capture the flag and Wild, Wild, West for three weeks. During Week three, participants completed three well-validated questionnaires - Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire (BREQ-2); Effort in Physical Activity Questionnaire; Intention for Future Leisure-Time Physical Activity Questionnaire.
Analysis/Results: Stepwise multiple regression analyses revealed that effort was significantly predicted by identified regulation, β = .414, p < .01, accounting for 20% of the variance. Additionally, intention for future physical activity was significantly predicted by intrinsic regulation, β = .589, p < .01, accounting for 23% of the variance.
Conclusions: The findings suggest that promoting self-determined forms of motivation (i.e., identified and intrinsic regulation) may elicit adaptive outcomes such as increasing effort and intentions for future leisure-time physical activity among these at-risk boys. Camp instructors might provide rationales acknowledging the boys’ health-related benefits or personal values during the camp activities. Doing so has resulted in increased effort during activities (Zhang, Solmon, Kosma, Carson, & Gu, 2011). Further, satisfying the boys’ interests and needs during the camp activities may be an effective strategy to elicit enhanced participation in physical activity beyond the summer camp setting (Taylor, Ntoumanis, Standage, & Spray, 2010).
Perceived Instructor Support and Student Motivation in a Summer Camp
Jiling Liu, Ron E. McBride, Ping Xiang, Xiaoxia Su, Melissa Scarmarado-Rhodes, Maiya Otsuka, Texas A&M University
Background/Purpose: Motivation is the force that drives people to initiate and sustain effort toward desired outcomes (Ryan & Deci, 2000a). It has been deemed as a key factor in the pursuit of a healthy lifestyle (Vallerand, 2007). To help students develop a lifetime physical activity habit, how to motivate them has been of great interest. According to self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000b), needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness are essential to promoting student motivation. This study examined how physical activity instructor support affected student motivation through a group of at-risk boys’ perspectives.
Method: Participants were 102 boys (Mage = 12.93 years, SD = 1.22) recruited from a 3-week-long summer sports camp in Southwestern Texas. The adapted Interpersonal Behavior Scale (Shen, Li, Sun, & Rukavina, 2010) assessed perceived instructor support for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. The Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire (Markland & Tobin, 2004) assessed 5 types of motivation: amotivation, external regulation, introjected regulation, identified regulation, and intrinsic motivation. And the Relative Autonomy Index (RAI) was calculated using the formula RAI = Intrinsic × 3+ Identified × 2 – Introjected – External × 2 – Amotivation × 3.
Analysis/Results: Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences Version 22.0. Scale reliability analyses resulted in acceptable Cronbach's α values ranging from .59 to .82. A zero-order correlation matrix revealed that the RAI was statistically significantly correlated with perceived support for competence and relatedness (both r = .344, p < .01). Multiple regressions showed the perceived instructor supports all together explained 20.8% of the variance in the RAI, F(3, 72) = 6.32, p < .01. Specifically, support for autonomy negatively predicted the RAI (β = –.32, t = –2.06, p < .05); support for competence (β = .45, t = 2.85, p < .01) and support for relatedness (β = .28, t = 2.36, p < .05) both positively predicted the RAI.
Conclusions: In line with previous research (e.g., Ryan & Deci, 2000b; Vallerand, 2004), the 3 perceived instructor supports are all significant predictors of student motivation. However, the fact that student motivation was negatively predicted by perceived autonomy support might be due to an externally regulated camp environment (e.g., Ryan & Deci, 2009; Sun & Chen, 2014). Instructors might give special attention to the boys’ senses of competence and relatedness during camp activities. Specifically, providing positive feedback to and promoting cooperation among the boys are recommended as strategies to foster motivation and participation in the sports camp setting.
The Application of Applied Research to a Summer Sports Camp
Michael Thorton, Texas A&M University
Background/Purpose: Bearpaw Youth Camp is a non-profit summer sports camp that is a service component of a major southern University. Bearpaw provides a 3-week residential camp experience for approximately 50 10–13 year old boys. The majority of the boys attending camp have been identified by their school districts and the camp administration as being economically disadvantaged/underprivileged. Campers attend at no cost to their families, and upon completion of four continuous summers of camp, have the opportunity to attend this University via scholarship provided through the camp. The purpose of this study/collaboration was to determine if empirical findings could be applied by our camp staff to maximize opportunities and experiences of the participating campers.
Method: Bearpaw Youth Camp and the Department of Health and Kinesiology's Sport Pedagogy program entered into an agreement whereby the Pedagogy faculty and graduate students would conduct research at the camp site. Initial research protocol was established to determine campers initial motivations and perceptions related to activity and instruction undertaken at the camp. Agreements were secured via University protocol and included permission from the university, camper stakeholders, and the camp's Board of Trustees who provide oversight for the Youth Camp.
Analysis/Results: The analysis and results of the conducted research projects are being shared with Bearpaw Youth Camp administration. The hope is that the research will promote a better understanding of the benefits of physical activity and fitness among the participants. Preliminary results suggest less focus on competitive activities and a greater focus on activities that foster greater perceptions of autonomy, competence, and relatedness support. Perhaps the implementation of co-operative activities such as initiative games could be added to the curriculum. Declines in identified and intrinsic self-regulation during the camp experience is a concern that must also be addressed.
Conclusions: Results of this collaboration point toward the implementation of teaching/coaching strategies that can more effectively facilitate positive perceptions of physical activity among our campers. In addition, there should be enhanced recognition on the importance played in providing quality instruction and methodology to the instructors/coaches of the camp program.
Surveillance of Health-Related Fitness With FITNESSGRAM®: Challenges and Solutions
The FITNESSGRAM® program has had a major impact on shaping interest in health-related physical fitness in schools. The systematic adoption of health-related criterion-referenced standards focused attention on how much fitness youth need for health. The Fitnessgram reports provide personal feedback to children and parents, but increasingly, there has been interest in the use of Fitnessgram for large-scale district and state surveillance. A number of states (and many large districts) now have requirements for standardized fitness testing. Summary data from these data sets are often shared with the media, but little attention has been given to the screening and processing methods needed to ensure accurate reporting of these results. Recommendations from the Institute of Medicine referenced key needs for selecting tests, but no information was provided about the importance of standardization in the processing of this type of data. This issue becomes even more important with the recent adoption of the Fitnessgram within the Presidential Youth Fitness Program. The widespread use of the Fitnessgram poses new challenges and requires improved strategies to facilitate large-scale adoption and tracking of youth fitness testing. This symposium will summarize some of the most recent advances of the Fitnessgram with special emphasis on both state and national surveillance applications. The 1st session will provide an overview of the Fitnessgram battery and the recent changes in the scoring and interpretation of the fitness data within the system. The 2nd presentation will describe recommendations for standardized youth fitness testing in the United States by elaborating on the current recommendations released by the Institute of Medicine. The 3rd presentation will address some of the large-scale applications of the Fitnessgram battery and will share lessons learned for data processing and reporting obtained from the NFL PLAY60 and Fitnessgram partnership. The 4th presentation will add insights for surveillance applications and will share a large-scale statewide youth fitness data process procedure obtained from the Texas Youth Fitness Study.
Classification Agreement Among FITNESSGRAM® Assessments and Implications for Surveillance Applications
Gregory J. Welk, Iowa State University
Background/Purpose: The FITNESSGRAM® youth fitness assessment battery is the most widely used fitness assessment battery. The adoption of the Fitnessgram within the Presidential Youth Fitness Program (PYFP) makes the Fitnessgram the de-facto national fitness battery. Many large districts and states now mandate the use of the Fitnessgram, and the eventual tracking of data within the PYFP may enable reporting of population profiles of health-related fitness. Within the Fitnessgram battery, schools/teachers have choices for alternative assessments for both aerobic capacity (e.g., the Progressive Aerobic Cardiorespiratory Endurance Run [PACER] fitness test and Mile) and body composition (body mass index [BMI] and body fat). However, the differential use of these items by schools presents challenges for comparing results across schools (and over time) because children may be assessed with different items.
Method: This presentation will summarize issues in the use of alternative assessments in school physical education and the implications for school-, district-, and state-level tracking. Methods developed by the Cooper Institute will be shared. Classification agreement between the 2 body composition assessments (body fat/BMI) and the 2 aerobic fitness assessments (PACER/Mile) will be shared along with strategies developed by the Fitnessgram Scientific Advisory Board to handle these discrepancies for school tracking, research, and public health surveillance.
Analysis/Results: The use of alternative assessments provides teachers and schools with flexibility in using different fitness tests, but due to differences in scoring methods, the assessments can lead to different levels of achievement using the same standardized health-related fitness standards. The use of test equating offers options for standardizing fitness achievement and facilitating longitudinal tracking for school-, district-, and state-level surveillance.
Conclusions: The unique differences in the Fitnessgram assessments must be considered when processing and interpreting Fitnessgram data for public health surveillance.
Recommendations of the IOM on Setting Standards for Youth Fitness Testing
Weimo Zhu, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Background/Purpose: A key need in youth fitness testing is to have standards to provide a way to provide youth (and parents) with feedback. Two evaluation frameworks have often been used in youth fitness evaluation: norm-referenced (NR) and criterion-referenced (CR). Due to the limitations of NR evaluation (i.e., time dependence, population dependence, discouraging unfit children, and favoring genetically talented or punishing disadvantaged children), CR evaluation is in general recommended for youth fitness evaluation.
Method: Setting an appropriate standard, known sometimes as the “cutoff score,” for a CR evaluation could be a challenge. For CR-based health-related fitness evaluation, the “health outcome-centered” method, in which a cutoff score is associated with a health outcome classification, has been the predominant approach in setting CR standards. The FITNESSGRAM® program has recently updated standards for both body composition and aerobic capacity using national representative data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. The methodologies used in setting these standards will be summarized and related to other available methods and approaches.
Analysis/Results: Potential approaches will be summarized to provide clarity on the various methods available for setting standards. Other assessments in the Fitnessgram battery (e.g., curl-up and pushup) have weaker associations with health, so it has proven more difficult to set standards for these assessments.
Conclusions: A CR-based “health outcome-centered” method is the most popular and effective method for setting standards for health-related fitness tests, but specifics may vary depending on the known relationship between fitness and health outcomes.
Summary of Insights Gained From the NFL PLAY60/FITNESSGRAM®
Pedro F. Saint-Maurice, Iowa State University
Background/Purpose: The surveillance of fitness at the national level can provide unique insights on population lifestyles. The NFL PLAY60 and FITNESSGRAM® partnership provides a unique example of how state- and national-level surveillance can be implemented in a sustainable manner. This initiative is tracking fitness data on more than 1,000 schools and more than 150,000 students spread throughout the country. This presentation will describe important strategies on how to handle and report large-scale fitness data.
Method: We used data collected from the 2012 NFL PLAY60 cohort (n = 149,101) to demonstrate variability in the quality and representativeness of surveillance data. We used visual representations and linear regression methods to describe the distribution and impact of indicators that can be used to reflect the quality of fitness data. Fitness outcomes for this cohort will be described using both individual-level and group-level data to address the implications of state-level reports of youth fitness patterns.
Analysis/Results: Our preliminary analyses on data quality indicators showed that the boy-per-girl ratio for each school grade ranged from 0 (i.e., indicating some school grades just had either boys or girls with valid fitness scores) to 17 (i.e., indicating a ratio of 17 boys per girl per school grade with valid fitness scores), while the total number of students per school grade ranged from 1 to 867. The proportion of youth achieving appropriate levels of fitness ranged from 56% to 61% with unscreened data resulting in consistently lower percentages of youth achieving the standard (p < .05).
Conclusions: The appropriate use of screening procedures and use of both individual- and group-level outcomes when processing large-scale fitness data can improve the quality of state- and national-level reports of health-related fitness.
Examining the Data Quality in the Texas Youth Fitness Study
Yang Bai, Iowa State University
Background/Purpose: Texas Senate Bill 530 passed in 2007 as a mandate for all public schools to increase physical activity and conduct fitness testing with the FITNESSGRAM®. More than 2.5 million students have been tested in fitness and their scores have been entered and uploaded to the Texas Education Agency (TEA) since 2008. Only grade-level Health Fitness Zone (HFZ) achievement was obtained through the TEA, and it is important to explore the strategies for handling large-scale group-level fitness data.
Method: Fitness data were collected by physical education teachers in Texas at 6,913 of a total of 8,526 public schools in 2011. A total of 2,922,851 students were reported as having been tested by physical education teachers. Grade-level student enrollment in 2011 was also obtained through the TEA and was merged with fitness data. The percentage of the students being tested was calculated and histograms of the distribution were examined. Two screening methods were applied. One was based on the minimal number of students tested per grade, which was 10 for boys and girls, respectively. The other method was at least 50% of students per grade had to be tested and no more than 20% of students reported were included. Linear contrast was used to examine the difference in aerobic capacity HFZ achievement by using different screening methods.
Analysis/Results: The percentage of the students being tested was reported from 1% to 18,000% (e.g., indicating some schools reported only 1% of students were tested and some schools reported 180 times more students were tested than the total number of students enrolled). The total number of students being tested per grade was reported as 6 to 1,600. The linear contrast results showed that aerobic capacity HFZ with 2 screening methods was significantly (p < .05) different from the results in the unscreened data, but the difference in the estimated HFZ was small (diffmethod1-nofilter = 0.49% and diff method2-nofilter = –0.29%).
Conclusions: Although the difference between nonscreening data and screening data was trivial, it is important to rule out some unreasonably entered data to improve the quality of large-scale statewide fitness data.
Targeted CSPAP Learning Experiences With Implications for Teacher Education Programs
The leadership role of schools in the quest for increasing the physical activity levels of youth has ascended to the national spotlight from the emergence of a widely endorsed whole-of-school approach known as a comprehensive school physical activity program (CSPAP; e.g., Institute of Medicine, 2013; Let's Move! Active Schools, 2014). The goal of a CSPAP is to develop an active school culture conducive to promoting lifelong physical activity across 5 integral components: (a) physical education as the focal point, (b) physical activity during school, (c) physical activity before and after school, (d) staff involvement, and (e) family and community engagement. As a result, many professional development programs are now available to train individuals—most notably, the physical education teacher—in how to spearhead and coordinate CSPAP efforts (Carson, 2012; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013; Physical Activity Leader Learning System, 2014). Initial results from early attempts of CSPAP interventions in schools are promising, as presented in last year's symposium entitled “Examples of Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program Intervention Research.” This year, as a follow-up, the focus turns to the promise of learning experiences for teachers to make physical activity programming happen throughout schools—a public health emphasis often overlooked in teacher education programs, and especially physical education teacher programs (Beighle, Erwin, Castelli, & Ernst, 2009; McKenzie & Lounsbery, 2013). The purpose of this symposium is to present research on targeted CSPAP experiences for teachers with implications for teacher education programs. As such, each presentation uses teacher experiences and perspectives as the unit of analysis. The 1st presentation will focus on the specific learning experience of service learning for preservice physical education teachers that targets the CSPAP component of before-school and afterschool physical activity. The last 3 presentations will provide empirical results from learning experiences for classroom teachers targeting the CSPAP component of physical activity during school. The symposium will end with a discussion led by presider Russell L. Carson that explores the potential for future avenues of CSPAP research and adoption in teacher education.
Service-Learning Lessons From a Before-School Physical Activity Program
Brian Dauenhauer
Megan Babkes Stellino
Mark A. Smith, University of Northern Colorado
Background/Purpose: Teaching preservice physical education teachers in the classroom is important, but often, the most powerful lessons come from hands-on learning experiences in the field. As the landscape of school-based physical activity (PA) promotion changes, physical education teacher education (PETE) programs must consider providing teacher candidates with a variety of experiences that prepare them for the leadership roles they are likely to assume in schools. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine student reflections on a service-learning experience in a before-school PA program (BSPAP).
Method: PETE students (N = 19) from a midsized university in the U.S. Rocky Mountain region completed a required service-learning experience in a BSPAP. The program offered PA opportunities before school to primarily Hispanic (70%), low-socioeconomic elementary students. The grant-funded program was administered by graduate students at the same university. PETE students electronically responded to 4 writing prompts regarding their service-learning experience within 48 hr of completion. Responses were downloaded, deidentified, and analyzed for general themes, followed by breaking down the general themes into subthemes using an inductive approach.
Analysis/Results: Analyses revealed 3 broad themes: (a) seeing it work, b) watching it work, and c) making it work. Seeing it work referred to PETE students’ responses related to the positive impacts that BSPAPs can have on participants. Two subthemes, “as a physical educator” and “impacts of BSPAPs,” were identified. The watching it work theme encapsulated PETE students’ responses associated with the program's potential positive influence on students’ health. Three subthemes were revealed within this broader theme: “wake up the mind,” “nutritional knowledge,” and “increased PA.” “Building relationships,” “management/organization practices,” and “instructional considerations” constituted the 3rd theme of making it work. This theme was related to logistical lessons that PETE students learned related to program implementation.
Conclusions: Findings suggest that much can be learned from service-learning experiences in BSPAPs for PETE students. Evidence from the present study indicated that firsthand exposure to a BSPAP provided students with real-world experiences that have the potential to inspire and empower future physical education teachers to expand their defined role as physical educators to include school-based PA opportunities. Based on this study, the provision of service-learning experiences is invaluable to PETE and the future of comprehensive school PA programs (CSPAPs). Future research should consider how service-learning experiences are built into the PETE curriculum as well as what CSPAPs look like and how, and by whom, they are run.
Teacher Training and Implementation of CSPAP Components
Michalis Stylianou
Kent A. Lorenz
Pamela H. Kulinna, Arizona State University
Background/Purpose: Multifaceted, school-based approaches are a promising strategy for promoting youth healthy behavior adoption. One approach is the comprehensive school physical activity program (CSPAP; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013). Many current teachers have not been trained to use a CSPAP approach and physical education teacher education (PETE) programs may not yet include this training. The current study, framed within the CSPAP model and informed by Guskey's model of teacher change (Guskey, 2002), evaluated teachers’ implementation of aspects of the whole-of-school approach for 1 year and can inform teacher and PETE training programs.
Method: Teachers received 4 training sessions, the Elementary Fitness for Life curriculum (Corbin et al., 2010) for their grade level, and mentor teacher help to implement Wellness Weeks 4 times during the school year. Participants (N = 27) in this study were classroom teachers (22 female, 5 male; 26 Caucasian, 1 Mexican American) from 1 rural school district with 90% of students being eligible for free or reduced lunch. Multiple components from the Elementary Fitness for Life curriculum were used. Teachers reported on the number of components (i.e., physical education lesson plans, conceptual learning discussions, signage promoting healthy behaviors, chants to reinforce major messages from the lessons, Eat Well Wednesday activities, Get Fit Friday activities, newsletters, and other resources on the website) used from the model during Wellness Weeks and number of physical activity breaks taught.
Analysis/Results: Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics to summarize what was done during the 4 Wellness Weeks throughout the year. The numbers of Wellness Week activities used were reported as follows: Week 1 (M = 6.03, SD = 8.39), Week 2 (M = 2.22, SD = 4.13), Week 3 (M = 4.62, SD = 4.79), and Week 4 (M = 5.45, SD = 6.70). Similarly, the mean numbers of physical activity breaks taught were reported as 7.55, 3.47, 6.42, and 5.34 across the 4 Wellness Weeks. Wellness Week 2 had fewer activities, which may have been due to the week being close to winter holidays.
Conclusions: This study is significant because it shows that classroom teachers were able to learn how to teach healthy behaviors during Wellness Weeks as part of a CSPAP. To align with the CSPAP framework, it is necessary to expand our PETE programs to prepare new physical education teachers and to train classroom teachers and stakeholders to implement healthy behaviors during the school day and outside of school. Consistent with Guskey's model, teachers had resources and observed success supporting the adoption of Wellness Week activities.
Empowering Teachers to Integrate Physical Activity: Online Communities of Practice
Spyridoula Vazou, Amy Hutchinson, Collin A. WebsterF, University of South Carolina
Background/Purpose: Most children in the United States do not meet current guidelines for daily participation in physical activity (PA). Recognizing that schools are ideally situated to promote children's PA, national recommendations call for the development of comprehensive school physical activity programs (CSPAP). One component of a CSPAP is PA during the school day, which should include PA integration in academic lessons. Yet, despite its known effectiveness as a strategy to increase children's daily PA, there is currently a lack of externalized accountability for classroom-based PA promotion. In the absence of such accountability, it is necessary to determine effective means for internalizing classroom teachers’ motivation to promote PA. Preservice education provides a promising platform for early intervention with classroom teachers to increase their desire to engage in PA promotion. This study examined preservice elementary teachers’ (a) motivation for classroom-based PA promotion when given the opportunity to participate in an online community of practice (CoP), and (b) beliefs and future intentions for participation in the online CoP. The CoP provided training, support, and a platform for professional interactions related to integrating PA into academic subjects and constitutes a new strategy that has not been evaluated before in the context of classroom PA promotion.
Method: Preliminary data from 22 preservice elementary teachers (Mage = 21.86 ± 0.98 years; N = 18 women) enrolled in a PA promotion course taught by the 1st author during a semester were collected. Participation in the online CoP (named Move for Thought) lasted for 10 weeks. Upon completion, a survey measuring perceived barriers, attitudes, enjoyment, value, and future intentions from existing valid and reliable questionnaires was administered.
Analysis/Results: Internal consistency using Cronbach's alpha was acceptable for all measures (α > .70). Preservice teachers reported high levels of value (M = 6.15 ± 0.65), enjoyment (M = 5.40 ± 1.01), attitudes (M = 5.64 ± 0.99), and future intentions for the online CoP (M = 4.89 ± 1.44) and to integrate PA (M = 6.00 ± 0.91). Associations between the motivational variables and current participation in the CoP were positive and significant (r = .41–.60). Regression analysis showed that the level of involvement in the CoP was a significant predictor of intentions for future participation in the CoP (β = .60, p = .003) as well as of motivational outcomes.
Conclusions: Even though they are preliminary, current findings are encouraging on the role of the online CoP in preservice elementary teachers’ motivation and future intentions to integrate PA and use the CoP.
Feasibility of Just-a-Minute (JAM) Activities for Increasing Classroom-Based Physical Activity
Collin A. WebsterF, Spyridoula Vazou, Amy Hutchinson, Iowa State University
Background/Purpose: As part of a whole-of-school approach to helping children meet national physical activity (PA) guidelines, recommendations call for integrating PA into classroom routines. The Just-a-Minute (JAM) program is an effective means for increasing children's classroom-based PA. JAM includes short (∼ 1-minute) PA breaks that can be led by teachers or students. However, the feasibility of the program's routine use in the classroom setting is unknown. The purpose of this study was to examine classroom teachers’ perceived challenges, confidence, intentions, and self-reported use of JAM activities.
Method: Elementary classroom teachers (N = 264, Mage = 45.03 ± 10.95 years, female, n = 254) who had registered to participate in a JAM world record event completed online questionnaires assessing each variable as well as a measure assessing motivation (i.e., degree of autonomous self-regulation) to register for the JAM world record event.
Analysis/Results: The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, bivariate correlations, and a regression analysis with frequency of using JAM activities (i.e., combined number of days per week and number of times per day) as the dependent variable and length of time having used JAM activities as the independent variable. For variables assessed with more than 1 item, averaged scores were used in all analyses. Low mean scores were reported for perceived challenges (M = 2.54/6), indicating the teachers felt there were few challenges preventing them from using JAM activities. High mean scores were reported for perceived confidence for using JAM activities (M = 5.57/7) and intentions to use JAM activities in the next 3 months (M = 5.09/7). On average, participants reported having used JAM activities for at least 5 months, and they reported currently using JAM activities an average of at least 3 to 4 days per week and at least 3 times per day. Motivation to register for the JAM world record event was not significantly correlated with the other variables. Length of time having used JAM activities was a significant predictor (R2adjusted = .11) of frequency of using JAM activities.
Conclusions: This study suggests that the JAM program is a feasible option for classroom-based PA promotion. Teachers appear likely to continue using JAM activities, and increased length of time using the activities positively predicts the rate of current use. In-service and preservice initiatives to help classroom teachers learn to promote PA should consider incorporating the JAM program.