Full Issue PDF, Volume 86, Supplement 2

2015 RESEARCH PROGRAM

PREFACE          A-i

2015 RESEARCH PROGRAM SCHEDULE          A-iii

REVIEW PANEL CHAIRS AND REVIEWERS          A-xviii

PEER-REVIEWED SYMPOSIA          A-1

PEER-REVIEWED ABSTRACTS

Exercise Sciences          A-8

Motivation and Psychology          A-22

Motor Behavior and Measurement          A-40

Physical Activity and Health Promotion          A-61

Sociocultural and Social Justice          A-93

Sport and Coaching          A-104

Teaching and Learning          A-115

SHAPE America 2015 Research Program

An ^F denotes Fellow status in the AAHPERD as of November 2014.

PAST PRESIDENT AND 2015 PROGRAM CHAIR

Kim C. Graber,^F University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

REVIEW PANEL CHAIRS

Exercise Sciences

Michael G. Bemben,^F University of Oklahoma

Motivation and Psychology

Kevin Patton, California State University, Chico

Motor Behavior and Measurement

Yong Gao, Boise State University

Physical Activity and Health Promotion

Collin Webster, University of South Carolina

Sociocultural and Social Justice

Louis Harrison, University of Texas at Austin

Sport and Coaching

Brad Strand, North Dakota State University

Teaching and Learning

Melinda Solmon, Louisiana State University

Amelia Mays Woods, ^F University of Illinois

RESEARCH COUNCIL

Louis Harrison, University of Texas, Chair

Phillip Ward, The Ohio State University, Chair-Elect

Kim Graber, University of Illinois, Past Chair

Melinda Solmon, Louisiana State University, Past President

Alex Garn, Louisiana State University, Secretary

Gabriella McLoughlin, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Graduate Student Representative

STAFF

Nichelle Sankey, Education and Research

Joseph Martelli, Member Engagement and Programming

Thomas F. Lawson, Editor

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Preface

Kim C. Graber

2015 Program Chair and Research Council Past President University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

This past year has been an exciting period of time for the Research Council of SHAPE America – The Society of Health and Physical Educators. Council members have worked hard to ensure a seamless transition from the old structure of the Research Consortium in the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (AAHPERD) to our new structure in SHAPE America. You can rest assured that the leadership team of Louis Harrison (chair), Phillip Ward (chair-elect), Alex Garn (secretary), Emily Wughalter (member-at-large), Fran Cleland (ex-officio, board representative), and Gabriella McLoughlin (graduate student representative) has worked countless hours to begin developing a new vision and operating code while simultaneously moving forward with the Research Fellows Program, Grants Program, and Awards Program. The council met in Reston, VA, in early January to discuss ways to further promote the research arm of the new structure while supporting the research efforts of our many members who have dedicated their careers to uncovering and disseminating new knowledge.

As past chair of the Research Council, my role has been to organize the program for the National Convention that will be held in Seattle, WA, March 17–21, 2015. This year we used the same seven categories as in the previous year to evaluate the research abstracts that were forwarded for consideration at the conference. They are:

• Exercise Sciences: studies within exercise physiology, fitness and sports medicine, and physical activity epidemiology

• Motivation and Psychology: studies centered on motivational and/or psychological issues across a broad spectrum of topics in physical activity settings, including physical education

• Motor Behavior and Measurement: studies in biomechanics, motor development, motor control, motor learning, and physical activity measurement

• Physical Activity and Health Promotion: studies focused on physical activity and health-related issues and outcomes, including studies related to dance and adapted physical activity

• Sociocultural and Social Justice: studies centered on social justice, diversity, and cultural issues across a broad spectrum of topics in physical activity settings, including physical education

• Sport and Coaching: studies in sport management and administration, leisure and recreation, and coaching

• Teaching and Learning: studies focused on teaching, teacher education, and curriculum.

Although there is no perfect system, we were pleased with the structure for categorizing abstracts. There continued to be some variation in the numbers of abstracts across review panels, but overall, the categories produced a fairly equitable distribution of papers and facilitated organizing the review process and program. With the new organizational structure, all research poster sessions that had been sponsored by the previous associations within AAHPERD were transitioned to the Research Council. A total of 399 abstracts for oral and poster sessions were submitted, along with five proposals for symposia sessions and two half-day workshops.

At the 2015 SHAPE America National Convention and Expo in Seattle, WA, the Research Council program begins early Tuesday morning on March 17 and extends through Friday evening of March 20. Twenty-one free communication sessions and 10 poster sessions are scheduled, with a total of 347 research papers being presented. In addition to those sessions, there will be two half-day workshops, five symposia, a graduate student forum, and a poster session dedicated to student research works in progress. The latest research findings across a wide array of topics in physical education, physical activity, sport, and health will be presented.

Each year, invited lectures by distinguished scholars in our field are highlights in the Research Council program, and this year is no exception. The lecture topics and scholars for the 2015 Distinguished Lectures Series are:

• C. H. McCloy Research Lecture and Breakfast: Bradley J. Cardinal, Oregon State University

• Raymond A. Weiss Lecture: Alison Wrynn, California State University, Long Beach

• Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport Lecture: Melinda Solmon, Louisiana State University

Preparing the Research Council program is a monumental task and would not have been possible without the support of Research Council members, fellows, and excellent staff support. Across the seven newly structured review panels, 8 individuals served as review panel chairs: Michael G. Bemben, Yong Gao, Louis Harrison, Kevin Patton, Melinda Solmon, Brad Strand, Collin Webster, and Amelia Mays Woods. The review panel chairs coordinate the recruiting of reviewers, monitor the timeliness of reviews, compile the comments of the reviewers, and make recommendations to the program chair for papers to be included in the program. These individuals coordinated the efforts of more than 150 reviewers. The review process is blinded, and every effort is made to recruit 3 highly qualified reviewers for each abstract. The review panel chairs have a very challenging job. It would not be possible to develop the program without their efforts, and I express my sincere appreciation to each of them for their dedication and diligence in this task. The abstract reviewers are also a critical link in the review process, and they are to be commended for their efforts as well.

Transitioning from one structure to another is not an easy process, and it requires dedicated individuals who can bring a variety of talents to the organization. Everything from organizational skills to a historical memory is critical for the continued success of an organization. The Research Council is fortunate to have a group of individuals employed at SHAPE America who demonstrate their dedication to serving the organization and executing its mission on a daily basis. Without their efforts, the Research Council would be unable to function and the national convention would not be possible.

In particular, the Research Council extends its appreciation to Nichelle Sankey for her tireless efforts in helping to organize the convention program. It is an enormous responsibility that requires patience, high levels of organizational skills, and the ability to envision success after a long year of planning, conversing with concerned authors of abstracts, and juggling last-minute program changes. Nichelle, thank you for your kindness, optimistic attitude, and professionalism.

The Research Council would also be unable to function without dedicated staff members like Joey Martelli who oversaw the Awards Program, Fellows Program, and Grants Program. His commitment to ensuring that the Research Council functioned successfully throughout the year is highly appreciated. His quick response to requests for information was impressive, and his dedication to detail was essential. Council members also extend appreciation to Cheryl Richardson for coordinating the efforts of SHAPE America staff assigned to the Research Council and for hosting meetings in Reston where she helped envision a strong future direction for the council. Appreciation is also extended to Paul Roetert, chief executive officer, for supporting our vision; to Dolly Lambin, president of SHAPE America, for her leadership, guidance, willingness to listen, and commitment to the success of the council; and to the Board for their willingness to serve in a leadership capacity during a time of change.

Finally, I extend my personal thanks to members of SHAPE America who are interested in research and dedicate their careers to improving the lives of others. I appreciate your support and trust in my leadership during my tenure with the Research Council. I am indebted to Melinda Solmon for her mentorship, guidance, support, and assistance in compiling the Research Council program for the national convention, and I am forever grateful to my colleagues on the Research Council for their commitment, vision, friendship, and wise counsel. Although we can achieve success as individuals, our accomplishments are more significant and joyous when others have participated in the journey.

2015 Research Program Schedule

2015 SHAPE America National Convention and Expo, Seattle, WA

An^F denotes Fellow status in SHAPE America as of November 2014.

Tuesday, March 17, 2015

8:00 a.m.–12:00 p.m.

First Flight of the Fledgling: Advancing CSPAP Research

Speakers: Collin A. Webster,^F University of South Carolina; Thomas L. McKenzie, San Diego State University; and Monica A. F. Lounsbery, University of Nevada–Las Vegas

First Flight of the Fledgling: Advancing Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program Research

Hans van der Mars, Arizona State University; Brian Dauenhauer, Megan Babkes Stellino, and Russell L. Carson, University of Northern Colorado; Paul Rukavina and Sarah Dolittle, Adelphi University; Pamela H. Kulinna, Kent A. Lorenz, and Michalis Stylianou, Arizona State University; Michael W. Metzler, Kari Hunt, Jenee Marquis, and Margaret Trent, Georgia State University; Seraphine Pitt-Barnes, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; Jaimie M. McMullen, University of Limerick; Sean M. Bulger, Eloise Elliott, and Emily Jones, West Virginia University; Timothy A. Brusseau,^FUniversity of Utah; Erin E. Centeio and Nathan McCaughtry, Wayne State University; Collin A. Webster,^FRobert G. Weaver, Laura Russ, and Michael W. Beets,^FUniversity of South Carolina; Spyridoula Vazou, Iowa State University; Thomas L. McKenzie, San Diego State University; Shannon Barett-Williams, Georgia State College of Education; and Monica A. F. Lounsbery, University of Nevada–Las Vegas

1:00 p.m.–3:00 p.m.

Game Plan for Respect: Creating LGBT-Inclusive Athletic Teams

1:00 p.m.–5:00 p.m.

The Last PETE Program Standing

Speakers: Michael W. Metzler, Georgia State University; Hans van der Mars, Arizona State University; Thomas J. Templin, Purdue University; Kim C. Graber, University of Illinois; Thomas L. McKenzie, San Diego State University; Sean M. Bulger, West Virginia University; and Phillip Ward, The Ohio State University

The Last PETE Program Standing

Michael W. Metzler, Georgia State University; Hans van der Mars, Arizona State University; Thomas J. Templin, Purdue University; Kim C. Graber, University of Illinois; Thomas L. McKenzie, San Diego State University; Sean M. Bulger, West Virginia University; and Phillip Ward, The Ohio State University

Wednesday, March 18, 2015

7:30 a.m.–8:45 a.m.

Motivation, Empowerment, and Self-Worth

Presider: Ping Xiang, Texas A&M University

Lesson Context, Situational Interest, and In-Class Physical Activity

Lauren C. Scott, Alanna Price, and Bo Shen, Wayne State University

Achievement Goals and Motivational Regulations in a Summer Sports Camp

Jiling Liu, Ping Xiang, Ron E. McBride, Xiaoxia Su, Melissa Scarmardo, and Maiya Otsuka, Texas A&M University

Empowerment-Related Constructs as Predictors of Student Leadership Qualities

Lila Murphy Gutuskey, Erin E. Centeio, and Nathan McCaughtry, Wayne State University; Alex C. Garn, Louisiana State University; and Cheryl Somers, Jeffrey Martin, Noel L. Kulik, and Bo Shen, Wayne State University

The Role of Maturity in Predicting Physical Self-Worth

Anne E. Cox, Washington State University; and Kelly R. Laurson, Illinois State University

Comparison of Swiss and U.S. Students' Fitness, Motivation, and Self-Concept

Sheila K. Alicea and Rock Braithwaite, Humboldt State University; and Vanessa Lentillon-Kaestner, University of Teacher Education, State of Vaud (HEP-VD)

7:30 a.m.–8:45 a.m.

Perceptions, Perspectives, and Behaviors of Physical Education Teachers

Presider: Matthew D. Ferry, George Mason University

National Teachers of the Year Outcome Priorities: Influence of Experience

Gabriella Maria McLoughlin, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; and Amelia Mays Woods, University of Illinois

Teacher and Student Perceptions of Fitness: Understandings and (Mis)Communications

Matthew D. Ferry and Dominique Banville, George Mason University

Teaching Behaviors of Trained and Untrained Elementary Physical Educators

Amy Susanne Conn, Steven Namanny, and Timothy A. Brusseau,^FUniversity of Utah

Middle School Students' Perspectives of Physical Education Teacher Credibility

Nilo C. Ramos, Dakota State University; Timothy M. Baghurst, Oklahoma State University; and Bryan McCullick, University of Georgia

7:30 a.m.–8:45 a.m.

Physical Activity and Quality of Life

Presider: Kent A. Lorenz, Arizona State University

Physical Education's Potential Impact on Overweight Based on Energy Expenditure

David Kahan and Thomas L. McKenzie, San Diego State University

Stages of Physical Activity Change, Self-Determination, and Adults With Disabilities

Maria Kosma, Louisiana State University

Changes in Healthy Behavior Knowledge of Rural Students

Kent A. Lorenz, Michalis Stylianou, and Pamela H. Kulinna, Arizona State University; Brian McCray, Vanderbilt University; Dejuan Sanders, Arizona State University; and Ashley Phelps, Williams Field High

Effects of Physical Activity on Physical Fitness, Cognition, and Self-Concept

Abdelwahab M. ElNaggar, King Saud University

Motor Skill, Waist Circumference, and Children's Health-Related Quality of Life

Xiangli Gu, University of North Texas

1:30 p.m.–2:45 p.m.

Raymond A. Weiss Lecture

Speaker: Alison Wrynn, California State University–Long Beach

1:30 p.m.–3:00 p.m.

Poster Session: Teaching and Learning I

Presider: James C. Hannon,^F The University of Utah

A Development of an Innovative Instructional Model: TEAM Sport Learning

Byungjun Lee, Gyeongsang National University; and Deockki Hong, University of Northern Iowa

A Justification of Daily Physical Education in South Korea

Taeho Yu, Man-Seok Han, and Ji-Eun Lee, Korea University; and Deockki Hong, University of Northern Iowa

Implementation of a Personal Fitness Unit Using PSI

Steven L. Prewitt, Texas A&M University–Commerce; James C. Hannon,^FUniversity of Utah; Gavin Colquitt, Georgia Southern University; Timothy A. Brusseau,^FMaria Newton, and Janet Shaw, University of Utah

Effect of PSI on HRF Knowledge and Physical Activity

Steven L. Prewitt, Texas A&M University–Commerce; James C. Hannon,^FUniversity of Utah; Gavin Colquitt, Georgia Southern University; Timothy A. Brusseau,^FMaria Newton, and Janet Shaw, University of Utah

Reliability of Communication-Style Measures

Bethany Shifflett, San Jose State University

Examining Preservice Physical Education Teachers' Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK)

Kristin A. Scrabis-Fletcher and Susana Juniu, Montclair State University

A Case Study of Korean Undergraduate Student-Athletes' Academic Lives

Yongsuk Yim and Taeho Yu, Korea University; and Deockki Hong, University of Northern Iowa

Influence of Negotiations on Instruction During University Activity Courses

Zachary Wahl-Alexander and Matthew D. Curtner-Smith, University of Alabama

Thoughts and Beliefs of PETE Majors: Voices of Lived Experience

David W. Chorney, University of Alberta; and Nicholas Forsberg, University of Regina

Preservice Teachers' Feedback Preferences

Christopher K. Wirth, Daniel K. Drost, and John R. Todorovich, University of West Florida

Student Teachers' Perceptions of Traditional Versus Remote Video Observation

Jennifer M. Krause, Scott Douglas, and Brandy Lynch, University of Northern Colorado

Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility to Troubled Female Adolescents

Vivian R. Fowler, University of Alabama

Urban Physical Education Teachers' Perceptions of Quality Physical Education and Assessment

Skip M. Williams, Mary L. Henninger, and Margaret M. Coleman, Illinois State University

Effect of Acculturation on Choosing Physical Education as a Career

Hong-Min Lee, University of New Mexico

Preservice Physical Educators' Stress and Instructional Effectiveness

Jingyang Huang, Southern Arkansas University

Perceived Competence in Teaching Physical Education Among Classroom Teachers

Jianyu Wang, California State University–Bakersfield

Skills Testing in Physical Education Teacher Education (PETE) Programs

Timothy M. Baghurst and Mwarumba Mwavita, Oklahoma State University; and Nilo C. Ramos, Dakota State University

Cultural Competency for School Health Educators

Theresa M. Enyeart Smith and Maria T. Wessel, James Madison University

Principals' Readings of and Expectations for Physical Education

Meredith George, Helena Middle School; and Matthew D. Curtner-Smith, University of Alabama

Physical Education Student Teacher Perceptions About Feedback Received From Supervisors

Christie M. Gonzalez-Toro, Springfield College

Preservice Classroom Teachers Locus of Foci While Teaching Physical Education

Ben Schwamberger and Zachary Wahl-Alexander, University of Alabama

Effects of Backward Curriculum Design on Trust Building

Tae-Koo Lee, Snag-Dong High School; Joo-Hyen Kim, Ehwa Woman's University; and Han-J. Lee, Se-Hyung Ha, Jun-Hee Gee, and Kyung-Hwa Lee, Yonsei University

Visual Strategies and Motor Performance of Children With Autism

Manny Felix, Garth Tymeson, Richard Mikat, Stephanie Sciarrino, and Jooyeon Jin, University of Wisconsin–La Crosse

Effects of an Academic Course on Students' Resistance-Training Knowledge

Brian W. McGladrey and Chad E. Smith, Weber State University

A Comprehensive Assessment of Secondary Physical Education Teacher Fitness Levels

Kevin Hunt, Paige Carver, Taylor Bradberry, and Courtney Campbell, Georgia College

Quasiexperimental Evaluation of Undergraduate Learning in a Multidimensional Wellness Course

Kristi Leonard, Waldorf College

Physical Education Central: A Possible Online Professional Development Tool

Amber Hall, Maple Mountain High School; and Todd Pennington, Keven Prusak, and Carol Wilkinson, Brigham Young University

Effect of Social Skill Instruction During Elementary Physical Education

Amaury Samalot-Rivera, The College at Brockport; Jose Jimenez, University of Puerto Rico at Arecibo; Francis Kozub, The College at Brockport; and Takahiro Sato, Kent State University

Differences Between Student Teachers' Perceiving and Implementing Mosston's Teaching Styles

Zhenhao Zeng, Brooklyn College of the City University of New York

3:15 p.m.–5:15 p.m.

Exercise Science and Physical Activity

Acute Exercise and Cognition in High School Youth

Andrew T. Harveson, James C. Hannon,^FTimothy A. Brusseau,^Fand Leslie Podlog, University of Utah; Charilaos Papadopoulos, Pacific Lutheran University; and Lynne Durrant and Morgan Hall, University of Utah

Foam Rolling Effect on Hamstring Flexibility in Crossfit Athletes

Ben T. Besch, Katelyn R. Buesgens, and Bridget A. Duoos, University of St. Thomas

Development of a VO₂peak Prediction Model From 1-Mile Run/Walk Performance

Ryan D. Burns, James C. Hannon,^Fand Timothy A. Brusseau,^FUniversity of Utah; Pedro F. Saint-Maurice and Gregory J. Welk, Iowa State University; and Matthew Mahar,^FEast Carolina University

Cross-Validation of VO₂peak Prediction Models in Adolescents

Ryan D. Burns, James C. Hannon,^Fand Timothy A. Brusseau,^FUniversity of Utah; Pedro F. Saint-Maurice and Gregory J. Welk, Iowa State University; and Matthew Mahar,^FEast Carolina University

Exercise and Dietary Supplementation on Oxidative Stress in Obese Individuals

Jungyun Hwang, University of Texas at Austin

Test–Retest Reliability of Selected NeuroCom® Postural Stability Assessments

Carol C. Irwin, Yuhua Li, and Edina Bene, University of Memphis; Amanda Rach and Brandon Baughman, Semmes-Murphey Spine and Neurologic Institute; and Lawrence Weiss and Todd Layne, University of Memphis

3:15 p.m.–5:15 p.m.

Sociocultural and Disability

Being Physically Active: South Asian, Muslim Girls Negotiate Familial Boundaries

Annette Stride, Leeds Metropolitan University

High School Students' Understandings of Elite Athletes With Disabilities

Hayley Frances Fitzgerald, Leeds Metropolitan University

Investigating Experiences That Impact the Development of Graduate Students' Identities

Jared A. Russell, Michelle Vaughn, Desmond Delk, and Korey Boyd, Auburn University; and Asherah Blount, Morehouse College

Motor Skills and Early Academic Achievement

Amanda Tepfer, Oregon State University; Shannon Lipscomb, Oregon State University–Cascades; and Molly Kile, Megan McClelland, and Megan MacDonald, Oregon State University

How Volunteering With Youth With Disabilities Influences Acceptance of Diversity

Jessica Lynne Hamm, Erin A. Siebert, Jill Katherine Pawlowski, Jennifer Beamer, and Joonkoo Yun, Oregon State University

Race and Gender Differences in Moderate-to-Vigorous Physical Activity (MVPA) Levels of Urban Youth

Kimberly A. Maljak, Erin E. Centeio, Mariane M. Fahlman, and Nathan McCaughtry, Wayne State University; Alex C. Garn, Louisiana State University; and Bo Shen, Noel L. Kulik, and Jeffrey Martin, Wayne State University

Thursday, March 19, 2015

7:30 a.m.–8:45 a.m.

Early Investigator Grant Session

Politicizing Free: Maternal and Reproductive Health Policy in Sierra Leone

Fredanna A. D. M'Cormack and Fredline A. O. M'Cormack, Coastal Carolina University

Issues on Fidelity of Implementation of the Randomized Controlled Intervention

Joseph Cole Fish and Begona Chapatte-Ramos, University of Memphis; Jerry W. Loflin, Davidson County Community College; and Sami Yli-Piipari, University of Memphis

Steps Count and Moderate-to-Vigorous Physical Activity (MVPA) Across Middle School Physical Education Activities

Timothy A. Brusseau,^FUniversity of Utah

Program Effects on Adolescents' Knowledge and Interest in Health-Related Fitness

Xihe Zhu, Old Dominion University

11:00 a.m.–12:30 p.m.

Poster Session: Motivation and Psychology

Exercise Motivational Factors and College Students

Dongwook Cho and Emily Phillips, Oklahoma State University

Picking Teams: Motivational Effects of Team Selections in Physical Education

David Barney and Keven Prusak, Brigham Young University; Zack Beddoes, University of Texas; and Dennis Eggett, Brigham Young University

Validation of the IPMS for Korea Archery

Sae-Hyung Kim, Chungbuk National University; Han-Byul Kim, Korea National Sport University; Tae-Gyu Kim, Taeneung National Training Center of the Korean Olympic Committee; and Chang-Hwan Choi, Min-Su Jeon, and Minsoo Jeon, Korea National Sport University

Teaching Elementary Physical Education Self-Efficacy Scale: A Confirmatory Factor Analysis

Keven Prusak and William Christensen, Brigham Young University

Fitsporation Versus Thinsporation: Is There a Difference?

Heather I. D. Van Mullem, Lewis-Clark State College

Effect of Fitness Classes on Beliefs of Physical Activity Participation

Jingwen Liu and Rulan Shangguan, University of Texas at Austin; Langston Clark, University of Texas at San Antonio; Xiaofen Keating, University of Texas at Austin; Ke Zhou, Henan University; and Louis Harrison, University of Texas at Austin

Implicit Theories of Ability in Sports and 2 × 2 Achievement Goals

Qi Zhao, Nanjing Sports Institute; and Weidong Li, The Ohio State University

Exercise Mind Sets: An Initial Validation Study

Joseph Otundo and Alex C. Garn, Louisiana State University

Examining College Student Engagement Motivation in Instructional Physical Activity Courses

Asherah Blount, Morehouse College; and Jared A. Russell, Auburn University

21st-Century Sport: Micro or Macro System?

Dean Culpepper, Eastern New Mexico University; and Lorraine Killion, Texas A&M University–Kingsville

Service Learning and Volunteer Self-Efficacy: Working With People With Disabilities

Jill Katherine Pawlowski, Ryan T. Willoughby, Shelby L. Porter, Jennifer Beamer, and Joonkoo Yun, Oregon State University

Motivation in Sport Education and Traditional University Weight-Training Classes

Benjamin A. Sibley, Shawn M. Bergman, and Rachel V. Cheek, Appalachian State University

Exploring the Effectiveness of a Resilience Curriculum Implemented in Sport

Policarpio DeCano, University of Washington; Sharon Varela, Brisbane ACT Centre; and Clayton Cook, University of Washington

Physical Self-Concept and Frame of Reference in Same-Sex Physical Education

Emily K. Beasley, Louisiana State University

Climb to Freedom: Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness in Rock Climbing

L. Kent Griffin and Karen S. Meaney, Texas State University; and Leslie Podlog, University of Utah

Mastery Motivational Climate: Influencing Vocational Students' Enjoyment of Physical Activity

Laura C. Hohengasser and Pamela J. Russell, Bridgewater State University

Extrinsic Rewards, Exercise Intensity, and Motivation

Andrew Alstot, Mariah McHolland, and Gerardo Sanchez, Pacific University

Scoring the Toughness of High School Student-Athletes

Matthew A. Grant, Valdosta State University; and J. Tobin Grant, Southern Illinois University–Carbondale

Impact of Expectancy Value on Students' Fitness Levels

Han Chen, Valdosta State University; Haichun Sun, University of South Florida; and Xiaozan Wang, East China Normal University

Relations Between Physical Activity, Mindfulness, and Mental Health Outcomes

Matthew Ryan Bice, University of Nebraska–Kearney; James W. Ball, Colorado State University–Pueblo; and Alex T. Ramsey, Washington University in St. Louis

Three Types of Perceived Competence in a Summer Sports Camp

Ping Xiang, Xiaoxia Su, Ron E. McBride, Jiling Liu, and Melissa Scarmardo, Texas A&M University

A Study of Youth Tennis Players' Motivation in Suzhou

Zhenhao Zeng, Brooklyn College of the City University of New York; and Li Sheng Xie, Changsu International School of JiangSu Province

College Student Texting and Driving: Testing the Theory of Planned Behavior

Michael E. Sandlin and Judy R. Sandlin, Texas A&M University; and Rosanne S. Keathley, Sam Houston State University

11:00 a.m.–12:30 p.m.

Poster Session: Physical Activity and Health Promotion I

Presider: Zan Gao, University of Minnesota

Audio Pedometer Validation for Adolescents With Visual Impairments

Justin A. Haegele and David L. Porretta, The Ohio State University

Adolescent Boys' Conceptions of Body Image on Physical Activity

Deockki Hong, University of Northern Iowa; and Catherine Ennis, University of North Carolina at Greensboro

Parental Influences on Children's Physical Activity Behaviors

JaNae McLaughlin, Kevin Patton, and Craig Buschner, California State University–Chico

Exploring Perspectives of Students With Intellectual Disabilities on Physical Activity

Elizabeth A. Woodruff and Zachary Wahl-Alexander, University of Alabama

Measuring Physical Activity With an Activity Tracker and Social Media Component

Jean Ann Helm, University of North Alabama; and Lauri McCoy, Kilby Laboratory School at the University of North Alabama

Influence of Yoga Versus Moderate-Intensity Exercise on Mood in Women

Victoria Renner and Bridget A. Duoos, University of St. Thomas

Comparison of Adapted Physical Activity and Special Education Research Trends

Jihyun Lee, Sam Houston State University; and Justin A. Haegele, The Ohio State University

In-School Physical Activity in a Sample of Low-Income Children

Charles F. Morgan, University of Hawaii–Manoa; Michelle L. Thornton, University of Kentucky; and Nathan M. Murata, University of Hawaii–Manoa

Bone Health in Special Olympics Athletes

Karina Nieto, Anthony Anzalone, Ariana Sheridan, Ty Desilets, and Phil Esposito, Texas Christian University

Physical Activity Opportunities Across Georgia Elementary Schools

Patricia C. Cheung and Paul S. Weiss, Emory University; Adria Meyer, Christi Kay, and Diane Allensworth, HealthMPowers; and Andrea C. Fadel and Julie A. Gazmararian, Emory University

Wellness Course Influence on Behaviors and Attitudes of University Students

Katherine Farrell, Eric Bruce, and Linda Stonecipher, Western Oregon University; and Boe Burrus, Gonzaga University

Wellness Curriculum Outcomes at a Hispanic-Serving Institution

Timothy Wheeler Henrich, Gregory J. Soukup, Heather Barton-Weston, and William Carleton, University of the Incarnate Word

A Rural University Taking Steps to Improve Wellness

Wesley R. Meeteer, Jill Nolan, William M. Miller, and Hugh D. Campbell, Concord University

Effect of Exergaming on Children's Classroom Behavior and Effort

Jung Eun Lee, Dachao Zhang, Abdimahad Nour, Jonathan Miller, Zhoumin Liu, Chandler Ignaszewski, Nick Gmiterko, and Zan Gao, University of Minnesota

Behind the Eyes of Obesity

Yoonsin Oh, Angelica Lopez, Tahnee Whigham, and Jennifer Morrison, Cameron University

Children's On-Task Behavior Following a Classroom-Based Physical Activity Intervention

Tan Leng Goh, Montclair State University; Darcy Marvin, University of Utah; You Fu, University of Nebraska at Kearney; and Andrew T. Harveson, Mandy K. King, James C. Hannon,^Fand Timothy A. Brusseau,^FUniversity of Utah

Year 1: The Presidential Youth Fitness Program Degree of Implementation

Hannah G. Calvert, Jeanne M. Barcelona, and Jessica Duncan Cance, University of Texas at Austin; Seraphine Pitt-Barnes, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; Jane Wargo, Presidential Youth Fitness Program; and Darla M. Castelli, University of Texas at Austin

Effects of an Afterschool Program on Students With Intellectual Disability

Peggy H. N. Choi and Siu Yin Cheung, Hong Kong Baptist University

Afterschool Physical Activity Interventions: Locating and Increasing Participation

Elizabeth Wanless, Shannon Titus Dieringer, Lawrence W. Judge, and James Johnson, Ball State University

Competency in Motor Skills and Physical Activity Participation Among Adolescents

Wenhao Liu, Slippery Rock University of Pennsylvania

Gender Inequalities in Elementary Recess Physical Activity

Michelle L. Thornton, University of Kentucky; Megan Babkes Stellino, University of Northern Colorado; and Eric Moore, Christine Johnson, and Heather Erwin, University of Kentucky

Human Capitals: Perceptions of Adolescents

Lynne Bryant and Darla M. Castelli, University of Texas at Austin

Type and Source of Support for Children's In-School Physical Activity

Noel L. Kulik, Cheryl Somers, Erica M. Thomas, and Erin E. Centeio, Wayne State University; Alex C. Garn, Louisiana State University; and Jeffrey Martin, Bo Shen, and Nathan McCaughtry, Wayne State University

Specific Physical Activities Participated in During High School Increase Lifetime Activity

James W. Ball, Colorado State University–Pueblo; and Matthew Ryan Bice, University of Nebraska–Kearney

Impact of Heart Rate Feedback on Estimation of VO₂max

Trey Cone, Brady Redus, and Jamie Aweau, University of Central Oklahoma

Participation Styles in One Adult Fitness Program

YuChun Chen, C. Smiley Reeves, and Rhonda Grafton Boyd, Louisiana Tech University

Effectiveness of Smartphone-Based Physical Activity on Individuals' Health Outcomes

Zachary C. Pope, Nick Gmiterko, Abdimahad Nour, and Zan Gao, University of Minnesota

Assessment and Evaluation of Student Health Behaviors

Julie Ann Lombardi and Mandi Dupain, Millersville University

11:15 a.m.–12:30 p.m.

Exploring Motivations Among Adolescent Boys in a Sports Camp Setting

Adolescent At-Risk Boys' Perceptions in a Summer Sports Camp

Larry Latterman, Xiaoxia Su, Ping Xiang, Ron E. McBride, Jiling Liu, and Maiya Otsuka, Texas A&M University

Changes in Adolescent Boys' Motivational Regulations in a Summer Camp

Maiya Otsuka, Xiaoxia Su, Ron E. McBride, Jiling Liu, Ping Xiang, and Melissa Scarmarado-Rhodes, Texas A&M University

Changes in Perceived Instructor Support in a Summer Sports Camp

Nasnoor Juzaily, Jae Young Yang, Jiling Liu, Ping Xiang, Ron E. McBride, and Xiaoxia Su, Texas A&M University

Impact of SDT on Effort and Future Intention for Physical Activity

Jae Young Yang, Ron E. McBride, and Ping Xiang, Texas A&M University

Perceived Instructor Support and Student Motivation in a Summer Camp

Jiling Liu, Ron E. McBride, Ping Xiang, Xiaoxia Su, Melissa Scarmarado-Rhodes, and Maiya Otsuka, Texas A&M University

The Application of Applied Research to a Summer Sports Camp

Michael Thorton, Texas A&M University

11:15 a.m.–12:30 p.m.

Investigating Aspects of Physical Education Teacher Education

Presider: Kim C. Graber, University of Illinois

Physical Education Teacher Education Communities of Practice: Expectations and Motives

Melissa A. Parker, University of Limerick; and Kevin Patton, California State University–Chico

Perspectives of PETE on a National Curriculum in Physical Education

Junghwan Oh and Kim C. Graber, University of Illinois

PETE Candidates' Engagement in Active-Learning Classroom Activities

Suzan F. Ayers and Gayle Thompson, Western Michigan University

Academic Peer Mentoring in PETE: A Win-Win

Deborah Sheehy, Karen Richardson, Misti Neutzling, and Maura Rosenthal, Bridgewater State University

Guideposts and Roadblocks to Career-Long Scholarly Engagement of PETE Faculty

Catherine P. Berei, University of Idaho; Erica Pratt, Northern Arizona University; Tanjian Liang, Norwich University; Kevin Shephard, supportREALteachers.org; Udon Nampai and Guntima Neamphoka, University of Northern Colorado; Melissa A. Parker, University of Limerick; and Abdullah Akbar, University of Northern Colorado

11:15 a.m.–12:30 p.m.

Motivation and Psychology in Physical Education, Dance, and Activity

Presider: Kason O'Neil, University of Virginia

A Conditional Process Analysis of Children's Enjoyment of Physical Activity

Alex C. Garn, Louisiana State University; and Erin E. Centeio, Bo Shen, Jeffrey Martin, and Nathan McCaughtry, Wayne State University

Objective Evaluation of Teachers' Need-Supportive Instructional Practices in Physical Education

Begona Chapatte-Ramos and Joseph Cole Fish, University of Memphis; Jerry W. Loflin, Davidson County Community College; and Sami Yli-Piipari, University of Memphis

Self-Efficacy Scale Toward Teaching Lifetime Physical Activities: Development and Validation

Kason O'Neil, East Tennessee State University

Girls on the Run: Positive Youth Development Outcomes

Sarah Ullrich-French, Amy Cole, Anne E. Cox, and Eunsaem Kim, Washington State University

Exploring Perceived Motivations of AXIS Dancers

Boni Boswell and Bomna Ko, East Carolina University; Seok Yoon, Chowan University; Jihoun An, East Carolina University; and Yun Soo Lee, Middle Tennessee State University

1:00 p.m.–2:30 p.m.

Poster Session: Exercise Science, Motor Behavior and Measurement

Presider: Julio Morales, Lamar University

Aerobic Exercise Effect on Memory Retention in Active Collegiate Women

Logan C. Knapp and Bridget A. Duoos, University of St. Thomas

Effects of Exercise on Fine Motor Performance: A Pilot Study

Amanda L. Engen, Kelly A. Geraghty, Nicole J. Davis, and Bridget A. Duoos, University of St. Thomas

Effects of Static Stretching on Hamstring Flexibility and Sprint Times

Brian D. Sherman, Sarah A. Anderson, Braden J. Lengeling, Ashley N. Johnson, and Bridget A. Duoos, University of St. Thomas

Effect of SPARK on Students' Academic Learning Time in Physical Education

You Fu, University of Nebraska at Kearney; Zan Gao, University of Minnesota; James C. Hannon,^FRyan D. Burns, and Timothy A. Brusseau,^FUniversity of Utah; and Brett A. Allen, J. E. Cosgriff Memorial Catholic School

The Effects of Exercise on Executive Function in Parkinson Disease

Manuela Cristina Caciula, Georgia Southern University; and Michael Horvat and Phillip Tomporowski, University of Georgia

Q-Angle Influence on Leg Strength in Female Collegiate Volleyball Players

Katherine R. Berglove, Nicholas J. DeMuth, Nicole E. Wallace, Kayla R. Westling, Jill L. Greenfield, and Bridget A. Duoos, University of St. Thomas

Will Manipulation of Efficacy Alter Functional Performance in Older Women?

Maria Nida Roncesvalles and Maria Esperanza Bregendahl, Texas Tech University

Activity Monitor Accuracy in Assessing Caloric Expenditure in Obese Adults

Justin Menickelli, Maridy Troy, Tom Watterson, Chris Cooper, and Dan Grube, Western Carolina University

Chronic Moderate Exercise Causes Changes in Myenteric Neurons of Rats

Songtao Wang, South China Normal University; Xizhou Wang, LanZhou University; Yanyan Sun, South China Normal University; and Lin Jia, Shenyang Exit-Entry Inspection and Quarantine Bureau

Relationship of Crural Index and Speed in Collegiate Softball Players

Tisa L. Phinney, Erin G. Mussett, and Bridget A. Duoos, University of St. Thomas

Effect of Exercise and Laser on Bone Health in Perimenopause

Fei Qin, South China Normal University; Tong Qin, Lanzhou University; and Xuanming Hao, South China Normal University

Catching Waves for Health: Exploring the Benefits of Surfing

Emily Dean Clapham and Linda S. Lamont, University of Rhode Island

Physical Fitness Tracking Review: Findings, Limitations, and Improvement Needed

Wenhao Liu, Slippery Rock University of Pennsylvania

Administrator Perceptions of Delivering the TGMD-2 Using Multimedia

Sheri J. Brock, Leah E. Robinson, Mary E. Rudisill, Jacqueline Irwin, Kara Palmer, and Abigail Dennis, Auburn University

A Case Study of an American Junior Hammer Throw Record

Lawrence W. Judge, Ball State University; Mike Judge, Throw1Deep; David Bellar, University of Louisiana at Lafayette; Iain Hunter, Brigham Young University; and Rhonda Broome, Throw1Deep

Defining Rest Postconcussion Using Fitbit Technology

Sara Gralitzer, Weber State University; and Jennifer Jordan Hamson-Utley, University of St. Augustine and University of Phoenix

Comparison Between Self-Reported and Activity Monitor-Determined Physical Activity

Rulan Shangguan and Jingwen Liu, University of Texas at Austin; Fei Wu, Minzu University of China; and Xiaofen Keating, University of Texas at Austin

Efficacy of Combining Cryo and Roller Massage Therapy on DOMS

Diana Avans, Vanguard University

BMI Health Report Cards: Parents' Perceptions and Use

Marla Jones, Cassie Huffer, Lance Bryant, Tom Adams, and Jim Stillwell, Arkansas State University

Dominant Versus Nondominant Limb Tissue Comparison in Women's Basketball

Jeffrey T. Johnson, University of West Georgia

The Effect of Traditional and Nontraditional Weight Training on Muscular Endurance

Michael B. Phillips, Tennessee Technological University; and J. P. Barfield, Radford University

A Feasibility Study of an Afterschool Movement Program: Tiger Cubs Fit Club

Kara Palmer, Jacqueline Irwin, Abigail Dennis, and Leah E. Robinson, Auburn University

Predict Resting Metabolic Rate: A Systematic Review

Hai Yan and Weimo Zhu, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Validation of Physical Activity-Measuring Devices in Children

Andrea C. Fadel and Paul S. Weiss, Emory University; Adria Meyer, Christi Kay, and Diane Allensworth, HealthMPowers; and Kimberly Green, Patricia C. Cheung, and Julie A. Gazmararian, Emory University

Self-Efficacy for Physical Activity in Children With Developmental Coordination Disorder

Priscila Caçola, Michael Romero, Melvin Ibana, Sarasvati Guzman, and Jennifer Chuang, University of Texas at Arlington

Index to Measure Physical Fitness and Education: A Systematic Review

Zechao Chen and Weimo Zhu, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; and Jie Zhuang, Shanghai University of Sport

Effects of Physical-Cognitive Sensory Integration Training on Children With Intellectual Disabilities

Xueping Wu, Shanghai University of Sport

Examining Item-Content Relevance of the Dance Performance Evaluation Scale

Myung-Ju Kim, Soonchunhyang University; Kyu-Ja Hwang, Hanyang University; Youn-Sun Choi, Seoul Christian University; and Hyun-Soon Back and Won-Chung Chung, Korea National Sport University

1:00 p.m.–2:30 p.m.

Poster Session: Teaching and Learning II

Presider: Michelle E. Moosbrugger, Springfield College

Assessment of Preferred Learning Styles of Undergraduate Kinesiology Students

Dennis A. Perkey, Amanda A. Wheeler, Lance Bryant, and Matthew Chadwick, Arkansas State University

Effects of Teacher Evaluation on High School Physical Education

Sharon R. Phillips, Hofstra University; and Sarah Dolittle and Kevin Mercier, Adelphi University

Physical Education Web Sites: Are We Painting a Positive Self-Portrait?

Nicholas Scott Washburn, University of Alabama

Effects of Prosocial Instruction During a Sport Education Unit

Ben Schwamberger, Oleg A. Sinelnikov, and Vivian R. Fowler, University of Alabama

Understanding Dance and Rhythm Exergames Within a Physical Education Setting

Brett N. Barron, Edmonton Catholic School District; and David W. Chorney, University of Alberta

Non-Physical Education Major Collegiate Students' Empirical Experiences in Sport Education

Boung Jin Kang, Elizabeth City State University; and Kyung-Shin Park, Texas A&M International University

Achieving the “Aha” Moment: Seeing Is Believing in PETE

Jaimie M. McMullen, University of Limerick; and Sara Deutsch, Minot State University

Service-Learning Effects on Kinesiology Students' Attitudes Toward Children With Disabilities

Jose A. Santiago, Jihyun Lee, and Emily A. Roper, Sam Houston State University

Perceptions of Working One-on-One With a Student With Severe Disabilities

Todd Layne and Carol C. Irwin, University of Memphis

Voices of Students With Disabilities in a Sport Education Season

Allison Jackson, Samford University; and Oleg A. Sinelnikov, University of Alabama

Content Maps as a Teaching and Assessment Tool: A Pilot Study

Yun Soo Lee, Middle Tennessee State University; and Harry Lehwald and Phillip Ward, The Ohio State University

Training Preservice Teachers: Examining Teacher Preparation Using Wireless Technology

Sheri J. Brock, Peter Hastie, Vanessa Hinton, and Zachary Blatt, Auburn University

Elementary School Teachers' Perceptions Toward Dance Education

Eun-Sim Yang, Korea National Sport University; Yun-Hee Park and Su-Jung Cha, Sookmyung Women's University; Mi-Kyung Kim, Sejong University; and Kyung-Hee Ko, Korea National Sport University

Appropriate Standards for Ballgame Teaching

Naoki Suzuki, Tokyo Gakugei University

Efforts to Address Childhood Obesity: Physical Educators' Perspectives

Kristie Lynch, Manhattanville College

Virtual Physical Educators' Experiences in and Perspectives of Online Teaching

Leslie Williams, University of Tampa

K–12 Classroom Teachers' Perceptions of Physical Education

Skip M. Williams, Illinois State University; Kristin Carlson, University of Illinois; and Amanda Draeger, Jessica Andricopulos, and Jeff Peterson, Illinois State University

Teaching Basketball Free Throws: Wii Versus Traditional Method

Martie Bell, High Point University; Linda Hinkle, Shadybrook Elementary School; and Rob Rivera, Perry Morris, and Paul Freda, High Point University

Student-Athletes' Friendship Networks and Their Academic Performance: Social Network Analysis

Han-J. Lee, Narae Son, Jun-Hee Gee, and Se-Hyung Ha, Yonsei University; and Tae-Koo Lee, Snag-Dong High School

Effects of Sportscasting and Scaffolding on Problem-Solving Abilities

Tae-Koo Lee, Snag-Dong High School; Han-J. Lee, Yonsei University; Joo-Hyen Kim, Ehwa Woman's University; and Narae Son, Jun-Hee Gee, and Se-Hyung Ha, Yonsei University

Understanding Physical Activity During the Transition Into University in Korea

Heon Nam, Ansu Lee, Jonghee Bae, and Kyeongjin Kang, Kyungpook National University

Physical Educators' Competence and Teaching Behavior: Inclusive Physical Education

Mihye Jeong, East Stroudsburg University of Pennsylvania; and Karen Stylianides, Penn State University

FITNESSGRAM® Differences for 5th-, 7th-, and 9th-Grade California Students

Kellie Green Hall, California Polytechnic State University; and Amanda Morris, University of Oregon

Profile of Health and Physical Education Teachers in Kentucky

Jonathan Dunham Vorbeck, Michael Ballard, and Derek Holcomb, Eastern Kentucky University

Flipping Collegiate Physical Activity and Health and Wellness Courses

Michelle Vaughn and Jared A. Russell, Auburn University

Team Building in Sport: An Action Research Study

Byungjun Lee, Dahee Jung, and Jaemin Oh, Gyeongsang National University; and Deockki Hong, University of Northern Iowa

Exploring Preservice Physical Education Teacher Technology Use During Student Teaching

Emily Jones and Jun-hyung Baek, West Virginia University; and James Wyant, University of the Pacific

Preservice Teachers' Attitudes, Values, and Beliefs About Teaching Physical Education

Janice L. Wallace, University of Mary Hardin-Baylor; and Darla M. Castelli, University of Texas at Austin

Examining the Content of NCATE Physical Education Teacher Education Programs

Desmond Delk and Jared A. Russell, Auburn University; Asherah Blount, Morehouse College; and Michelle Vaughn and Korey Boyd, Auburn University

NFL PLAY60 FITNESSGRAM®: Closing the Gap Between Good and Great Teachers

Kelly Allums-Featherston, Norma Candelaria, and Katelin Anderson, The Cooper Institute; and Yang Bai and Pedro F. Saint-Maurice, Iowa State University

1:30 p.m.–3:30 p.m.

Physical Education and Activity Related to School

A Meta-Analysis of Physical Education Interventions on Students' Physical Activity

Xiaofen Keating, Rulan Shangguan, Jingwen Liu, and Hui Chen, University of Texas at Austin; Li Chen, Delaware State University; Raj Subramaniam, Ithaca College; and Yigang Wu, Shanghai University of Sport

Effects of Stability Balls on Student Activity and Teacher Perceptions

Michelle L. Thornton, Heather Erwin, Eric Moore, and Christine Johnson, University of Kentucky

Transfer From a Positive Youth Development Program to School

Michael A. Hemphill, College of Charleston; and K. Andrew Richards, Purdue University

(CANCELLED) Afterschool Physical Activity Programming: Locating and Increasing Participation

Elizabeth Wanless, Shannon Titus Dieringer, Lawrence W. Judge, and James Johnson, Ball State University

Investigating Life Skill Needs of Youth in Afterschool Sports Programs

Lee Okseon, Kyunghwan Jang, and Mirim Park, Seoul National University

Behavior Analysis, Physical Activity, and Individuals With Disabilities: A Meta-Analysis

Andrew Alstot, Kellie Kawamoto, and Rachel Young, Pacific University

A Case Study of Teaching Efficacy in Physical Education

Thomas N. Trendowski, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; and Amelia Mays Woods, University of Illinois

1:30 p.m.–3:30 p.m.

RQES Top 10 Research Questions: Physical Activity and Bone Health

Presider: Weimo Zhu, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Speakers: Weimo Zhu, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; M. Allison Ford-Wade, University of Mississippi; Skip M. Williams, Illinois State University; and Connie M. Weaver, Purdue University

Top 10 Research Questions: A New Feature of RQES

Weimo Zhu, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Physical Activity and Bone Health in Children and Adolescents

M. Allison Ford-Wade, University of Mississippi

Parallels Between Nutrition and Physical Activity From the Consensus Statement of NOF & ASN

Connie M. Weaver, Purdue University

Translating Bone Health Evidence to Practice in Physical Education

Skip M. Williams, Illinois State University

3:00 p.m.–4:30 p.m.

Poster Session: Physical Activity and Health Promotion II

Physical Activity Participation of Chinese Female Students in Singapore

Gary Ortega, Raffles Institution

Econometric Analysis of Fiscal Policy on Sport and Recreation

Roger K. Lo, Hong Kong Baptist University; Jennifer Y. Mak, Marshall University; and Siu Yin Cheung, Hong Kong Baptist University

Manipulative Skill Competency and Physical Fitness in Elementary School Children

Weiyun Chen, University of Michigan

Effects of Music on Physical Activity in College Basketball Classes

David Barney, Keven Prusak, and Lindsey Benham, Brigham Young University

Effects of a Fitness Course on Changing Freshmen's Daily PA

Rulan Shangguan, Jingwen Liu, Hui Chen, Jessica Leitner, Xiaofen Keating, and Louis Harrison, University of Texas at Austin

Threats to National Security: Physical Inactivity and Ineffective Physical Education

Tim S. Bott, Daniel B. Bornstein, Charlye Marger, and Brittany Williams, The Citadel–Military College of the South

Mediators of Adult Support and Adolescent Physical Activity

Shannon L. Michael and Seraphine Pitt-Barnes, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

A Yoga-Based Intervention in an Urban Classroom

Erica M. Thomas, Erin E. Centeio, Noel L. Kulik, and Nathan McCaughtry, Wayne State University

Physical Activity Differences Among Children Attending a Summer Day Camp

Birgitta L. Baker and Lisa G. Johnson, Louisiana State University; and Andrew McGregor, Caney Creek High School

Physical Activity Levels of Children With Disabilities

Amanda Tepfer, Megan MacDonald, and Kiley Tyler, Oregon State University; and Nicole Cook, University of Saint Francis

Physical Activity Programs for Children With Disabilities: Parental Perceptions

So-Yeun Kim, Northern Illinois University; and Mihye Jeong, East Stroudsburg University of Pennsylvania

Knowledge and Awareness of Diabetes Among African American College Students

Latyra Stinson and Robert Lindsey, Johnson C. Smith University; and Dwedor W. Ford, North Carolina A&T State University

Physical Activity as a Mediator Between Depression and Sleep Disorders

Yan Yang, Brynn Clairisse Adamson, and Weimo Zhu, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Efficacy of University Wellness Education on Behavior and Physical Activity

Martin Carmichael, Leland Nielsen, Kym Kirby, Jennifer LeMoine, and Gina Barton, Lander University

Contribution of Physical Education to Physical Activity of Children

Wesley J. Wilson, Laynie K. Case, Joonkoo Yun, Kyle P. Robles, and Ryan T. Willoughby, Oregon State University

Step Up for Health: Afterschool Program to Increase Aerobic Capacity

Shannon Titus Dieringer, Elizabeth Wanless, and Lawrence W. Judge, Ball State University

Influence of a Fitness Class on College Students' Health-Related Fitness

Jingwen Liu and Rulan Shangguan, University of Texas at Austin; Langston Clark, University of Texas at San Antonio; and Dolly Lambdin and Xiaofen Keating, University of Texas at Austin

The Reliability and Validity of the PACES in a Chinese Sample

Ke Zhou, Henan University; Xiaofen Keating, University of Texas at Austin; Yanli Zhou, Henan University; and Rulan Shangguan and Jingwen Liu, University of Texas at Austin

Community Health Screening: Developing a Diabetes Intervention and Education Program

Rosanne S. Keathley, Sam Houston State University; and Judy R. Sandlin and Michael E. Sandlin, Texas A&M University

Keys to Increasing Physical Activity and Healthy Nutrition in Children

Carol Ryan, Northern Kentucky University

Muscle Strength and Time Engaged in Physical Activities of Children

Megan MacDonald and Chun W. Leung, Oregon State University

Physical Activity, Sedentary Behavior, and Social Support Environment

Qiang Guo, Xiaozan Wang, Yan Jin, and Xingying Li, East China Normal University

Examining the Growth Trajectory of Children's Physical Activity and Its Correlates

Sangmin Kim, University of Maryland

3:00 p.m.–4:30 p.m.

Poster Social: Research Across the Disciplines

Presider: Kim C. Graber, University of Illinois

Perceptions of Physical Competence and Motor Proficiency in Middle Childhood

Jeff R. Crane, Viviene A. Temple, Rick Bell, Andrew Donovan, Buffy-Lynne Williams, and Patti-Jean Naylor, University of Victoria

Behaviors for Building and Elevating High School Coach–Athlete Relationships

Hannah O. Olson, University of Washington

Physical Activity Level and Well-Being: Youth Living in Rural Areas

Hyun-Ju Oh, Ohio University; Aiko Yoshino, San Francisco State University; Sharon Rana, Ohio University; Myung-Ah Lee, Indiana State University; and Rhonda Hovatter, Shepherd University

Perception of Pedometers for Engagement and Assessment of Physical Activity

Grace Goc Karp, Helen Brown, and Philip W. Scruggs, University of Idaho

A Systematic Review of Measures on Service Quality in Sport

Jennifer Y. Mak, Marshall University; and Ka-Lam Sam, Roger K. Lo, Bik C. Chow, and Siu Yin Cheung, Hong Kong Baptist University

Reducing Risk: A Health Intervention Targeting Lower-Income Black Women

Sarah M. Buck, Chicago State University

Data Sources and Collection Procedures in K–12 Physical Education

Brian Dauenhauer, University of Northern Colorado; and Xiaofen Keating and Dolly Lambdin, University of Texas at Austin

Critical Elements That Affect Collegiate Athletes' Risk for an Eating Disorder

Rachel A. Gaines and Eddie T. C. Lam, Cleveland State University

Impact of Healthy Lifestyle Choices on Students Who Smoke Cigarettes

Mitchell W. Jenkins and Dean Gorman, University of Arkansas; and Anthony Parish, Armstrong Atlantic State University

Children's Physical Activity and Nutritional Status and Perceptions of Lifestyle

Gabriella Maria McLoughlin, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; and Kim C. Graber, University of Illinois

Change in Implicit Theories of Ability in Sports Over Time

Qi Zhao, Nanjing Sports Institute; and Weidong Li, The Ohio State University

Motor Skills and Adaptive Skills in Preschoolers With Down Syndrome

Shelby Jones, Texas Woman's University; Amanda Young, Kinderfrogs; and Phil Esposito, Texas Christian University

Research Productivity in Kinesiology Across Institutions With Different Carnegie Classifications

David P. Schary, Winthrop University; and Bradley J. Cardinal, Oregon State University

Looking Inside the Black Box: Fidelity Assessment of Motor Intervention

Ali S. Brian, Louisiana Tech University; and Phillip Ward, Jacqueline D. Goodway, Sue Sutherland, and Jessica A. Logan, The Ohio State University

The Self-Determined Beliefs of Students in an Afterschool Bike Program

L. Kent Griffin and Karen S. Meaney, Texas State University

Teaching Students With Disabilities: Perceptions of Physical Educators

Cathy Lirgg, Dean Gorman, Cole Shewmake, and Michael Merrie, University of Arkansas

Examination of Teachers' Rationales for Changing a Physical Education Intervention

Jerry W. Loflin, Davidson County Community College; and Catherine Ennis, University of North Carolina at Greensboro

Influence of Social Media on Adolescent Girls' Body-Image Perceptions

Kate Kalnes, New Trier High School

Harnessing the Energy Balance: Exploring Ways to Enhance Students' Knowledge

Senlin Chen, Iowa State University; and Xihe Zhu, Old Dominion University

Perceived Self-Efficacy of Preservice PETE Students

Janice L. Wallace, University of Mary Hardin-Baylor; and Darla M. Castelli, University of Texas at Austin

Physical Educators and Technology: Comfort Level of Integration

Megan Adkins, Nita Unruh, and Matthew Ryan Bice, University of Nebraska at Kearney; and Vicki Worrell, Emporia State University

Identification of School Physical Activity Leader Competencies Using Concept Mapping

Kiel Illg and Sean M. Bulger, West Virginia University

Physical Education's Contribution to Daily Physical Activity in Adolescents

Charles F. Morgan, Jimmy G. Charos, and Nathan M. Murata, University of Hawaii–Manoa

Student Engagement in Different Motivational Climates in Elementary Physical Education

Ellen H. Martin, Ivan Hartle, and Tiandra Billings, Columbus State University

Evaluating Fidelity in Online Professional Development for Physical Educators

Sean Healy and Andrew M. Colombo-Dougovito, University of Virginia

Assessing the Influence of NASPE/NCATE Accreditation on PETE

Zhihua Yin, Xiaozan Wang, and Liu Ji, East China Normal University; and Mingzhu Sun, Central China Normal University

Multilevel Analysis of Student Activity Levels in Hawaii Physical Education Classes

Lehua B. Choy and Rebekah Rodericks, University of Hawaii; Jennifer Ryan, Hawaii State Department of Health; Denise Darval-Chang, Honolulu District Office of Curriculum; Yvette Ikari, Hawaii School District; and Jay Maddock, University of Hawaii

Adequate Adapted Physical Education Training for PETE Majors?

Jooyeon Jin, Manny Felix, and Garth Tymeson, University of Wisconsin–La Crosse

The Influence of Self-Efficacy and Self-Regulated Motivation in a Service-Learning Course

K. Andrew Richards, Chantal Levesque-Bristol, and Angelika Zissimopoulos, Purdue University

Physical Education Cooperating Teachers' Perceptions of Student Teachers' Skills

Mary L. Henninger, Margaret M. Coleman, and Skip M. Williams, Illinois State University

4:00 p.m.–5:15 p.m.

Healthy Behavior, Interventions, and Activity Patterns

Presider: Guy Le Masurier,^F Vancouver Island University

Before-School Running/Walking Club: Effects on Elementary Students' Physical Activity

Michalis Stylianou, Pamela H. Kulinna, Hans van der Mars, and Marc Adams, Arizona State University; Matthew Mahar,^FEast Carolina University; and Eric Amazeen, Arizona State University

Increasing Afterschool Program Staff Healthy Eating and Physical Activity Promotion

Robert G. Weaver, University of South Carolina; Jennifer Huberty, Arizona State University; Darcy Freedman, Case Western Reserve University; Brie Turner-McGrievy, University of South Carolina; Aaron Beighle, University of Kentucky; Diane Ward, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; and Russell Pate, Brent Hutto, Ruth Saunders, and Michael W. Beets,^FUniversity of South Carolina

Healthy Zone School Recognition Program: An Evidence-Based Community Health Intervention

Shelby Epperson and Norma Candelaria, The Cooper Institute; and James Morrow^Fand Scott Martin, University of North Texas

The Daily Physical Activity Patterns of Navajo Youth

Rachelle Jones, Arizona State University; Timothy A. Brusseau,^FUniversity of Utah; and Pamela H. Kulinna, Arizona State University

Do Peer Mentors Benefit From a Peer Health Promotion Program?

Zi Yan and Kevin Finn, Merrimack College; Bradley J. Cardinal, Oregon State University; and Lauren Bent, Merrimack College

4:00 p.m.–5:15 p.m.

Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport Lecture

Speaker: Melinda A. Solmon, Louisiana State University

4:00 p.m.–5:15 p.m.

Teaching and Learning in Physical Education

Presider: Amelia Mays Woods, University of Illinois

Physical Educators' Perceptions of Influential Workplace Factors

Karen Lux Gaudreault, University of Wyoming; Amelia Mays Woods, University of Illinois; and Victoria Shiver, University of Wyoming

Assessment of Risk Management in Adapted Physical Education Textbooks

Kelle L. Murphy, University of Hawaii–Manoa; and Patricia Hughes, Oklahoma State University

Manipulating Feedback During Physical Education Climates: Motivation and Performance Effects

Daniel K. Drost, Christopher K. Wirth, Lesley S. Keck, Matthew S. Ruckman, and John R. Todorovich, University of West Florida

Adolescents' Cognitive Processes and Physical Engagement in Physical Education

Xihe Zhu, Old Dominion University; and Senlin Chen, Iowa State University

Role Stress, Burnout, and Resilience in Core and Noncore Teachers

K. Andrew Richards, Purdue University; Michael A. Hemphill, College of Charleston; and Thomas J. Templin, Purdue University

4:00 p.m.–5:30 p.m.

Measuring Health and Physical Activity in Children and Youth

Presider: Elizabeth M. Mullin, Springfield College

Development and Cross-Validation of a Prediction Equation of Body Fatness From NHANES

Junbae Mun, Youngdeok Kim, James L. Farnsworth, and Minsoo Kang, Middle Tennessee State University

Effects of Multiple Recess Interventions on Attentional Focus in Children

Deborah J. Rhea and Alexander P. Rivchun, Texas Christian University

Assessing Physical Activity Levels Through Motion Sensors in Exergaming

Zan Gao, University of Minnesota; Xingyuan Gao and Yuanlong Liu, Western Michigan University; and Jung Eun Lee, University of Minnesota

Implementation Facilitators and Barriers of the Presidential Youth Fitness Program

Jeanne M. Barcelona, Hannah G. Calvert, and Jessica Duncan Cance, University of Texas at Austin; Seraphine Pitt-Barnes, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; Jane Wargo, Presidential Youth Fitness Program; and Darla M. Castelli, University of Texas at Austin

Optimal Categorization of the NHANES Function Questionnaire: An Exploratory Study

Minsoo Kang, James L. Farnsworth, and Brian G. Ragan, Middle Tennessee State University

Who Are Active Teens? Profiling Their Afterschool Activities, Motivation, and Fitness

Haiyong Ding, Shanghai University of Sport; Haichun Sun, University of South Florida; Xueping Wu, Shanghai University of Sport; and Ang Chen, University of North Carolina at Greensboro

Rasch Calibration of the 20-Item NHANES Physical Function Questionnaire

James L. Farnsworth, Brian G. Ragan, and Minsoo Kang, Middle Tennessee State University

Human Capital Survey Development

Lynne Bryant and Darla M. Castelli, University of Texas at Austin

Friday, March 20, 2015

7:30 a.m.–8:45 a.m.

Diversity and Social Justice

Presider: David P. Schary, Winthrop University

Demographic Differences of Heterosexist Attitudes in Female College Athletes

Elizabeth M. Mullin, Springfield College

Perceived Sexual Orientation of Women in Sport and Nonsport Contexts

Erin Leonard, Western Carolina University; Nicole Kaysing, University of South Carolina; Adam Keath, West Virginia University; and Justin Menickelli and Chris Cooper, Western Carolina University

Moral Reasoning Relative to Social Justice Issues in Intercollegiate Sport

Julie Latrell and Sharon K. Stoll, University of Idaho; and Jennifer M. Beller, Washington State University

Kinesiology, Sport, Etc.: International Diversity of Department and College Names

David P. Schary, Winthrop University; and Bradley J. Cardinal, Oregon State University

7:30 a.m.–8:45 a.m.

Health, Physical Activity, and Demographic Factors

Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of School-Based Multicomponent Physical Activity Interventions

Laura Russ, Georgia Regents University; and Collin A. Webster,^FMichael W. Beets,^Fand David S. Phillips, University of South Carolina

Conscious Gender-Equitable Teaching Behaviors: Inclusivity for All Students

Julia A. Valley, Southern Illinois University–Carbondale; and Kim C. Graber, University of Illinois

Examining Hispanic Children's Body Composition and Health-Related Quality of Life

Tao Zhang and Xiangli Gu, University of North Texas

Youth Physical Activity Participation: The Importance of the Social Environment

Jeanette Garcia and Sean Healy, University of Virginia; and John Sirard, University of Massachusetts

7:30 a.m.–8:45 a.m.

Research Council Motor Behavior Forum: Enhancing Skill Learning in Physical Education

Speakers: Tom Parry, Northeastern Illinois University; Emily H. Wughalter, San Jose State University; Priscila Caçola, University of Texas at Arlington; Paul Rukavina, Adelphi University; and Karen Richardson, Bridgewater State University

7:30 a.m.–8:45 a.m.

Targeted CSPAP Learning Experiences With Implications for Teacher Education Programs

Presider: Russell L. Carson, University of Northern Colorado

Service-Learning Lessons From a Before-School Physical Activity Program

Brian Dauenhauer, Megan Babkes Stellino, and Mark A. Smith, University of Northern Colorado

Teacher Training and Implementation of CSPAP Components

Michalis Stylianou, Kent A. Lorenz, and Pamela H. Kulinna, Arizona State University

Empowering Teachers to Integrate Physical Activity: Online Communities of Practice

Spyridoula Vazou and Amy Hutchinson, Iowa State University; and Collin A. Webster,^FUniversity of South Carolina

Feasibility of Just-a-Minute (JAM) Activities for Increasing Classroom-Based Physical Activity

Collin A. Webster,^FUniversity of South Carolina; and Spyridoula Vazou and Amy Hutchinson, Iowa State University

10:45 a.m.–12:15 p.m.

Student Research Works-in-Progress Poster Session

Presiders: Louis Harrison, University of Texas at Austin

11:15 a.m.–12:30 p.m.

2nd Measurement and Evaluation JoAnne Safrit Keynote Lecture

Speaker: Ang Chen, University of North Carolina at Greensboro

11:15 a.m.–12:30 p.m.

Research Council Business Meeting and Forum

Presider: Louis Harrison, University of Texas at Austin

11:15 a.m.–12:30 p.m.

Surveillance of Health-Related Fitness With FITNESSGRAM®: Challenges and Solutions

Classification Agreement Among FITNESSGRAM® Assessments and Implications for Surveillance Applications

Gregory J. Welk, Iowa State University

Recommendations of the IOM on Setting Standards for Youth Fitness Testing

Weimo Zhu, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Summary of Insights Gained From the NFL PLAY60/FITNESSGRAM®

Pedro F. Saint-Maurice, Iowa State University

Examining the Data Quality in the Texas Youth Fitness Study

Yang Bai, Iowa State University

11:15 a.m.–12:30 p.m.

Teaching, Learning, and Content

Presider: Carla Vidoni, University of Louisville

Relationships Between 3 Types of Perceived Competence and Motivational Outcomes

Xiaoxia Su, Ping Xiang, Jiling Liu, and Ron E. McBride, Texas A&M University

Development of Specialized Content Knowledge Through 3 Different Learning Contexts

Insook Kim, Kent State University; and Bomna Ko, East Carolina University

Middle School Students and Culturally Relevant Units in Physical Education

Luciana Braga, University of North Florida; and Eloise Elliott, West Virginia University

Student Physical Activity During Teaching Games for Understanding Soccer Units

Stephen Harvey and Yang Song, West Virginia University; and Hans van der Mars, Arizona State University

12:45 p.m.–1:45 p.m.

Alliance Scholar Lecture

Speaker: James Sallis, University of California–San Diego

12:45 p.m.–2:15 p.m.

Poster Session: Sociocultural and Social Justice

Presider: Paul Rukavina, Adelphi University

Butches, Morons, and Isolation: Sport Figures' Images in Korean Films

Man-Seok Han, Ji-Eun Lee, and Taeho Yu, Korea University; and Deockki Hong, University of Northern Iowa

Exploratory Online Market Analysis of Plus-Size and Regular-Size Exercise Clothing

Christy Greenleaf and Amy Kauffung, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee

Ethnic-Minority Student Engagement in Campus Recreation: Barriers and Facilitators

Tram V. Hoang, Bradley J. Cardinal, and Daniel W. Newhart, Oregon State University

African Americans' Scary Stories and Physical Education Folklore

Elizabeth A. Woodruff and Matthew D. Curtner-Smith, University of Alabama

Modified Ride-On Car Use by Children With Complex Medical Needs

Samuel W. Logan, Oregon State University; Heather Feldner, University of Illinois at Chicago; and James C. Galloway, University of Delaware

Continuing Professional Development Needs of HBCU Graduates in PETE

Kacey DiGiacinto, Elizabeth City State University; and Brian Culp, Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis

International Perceptions of China, Chinese People, and Martial Arts

Yucheng Guo, Tonggang Fan, Shoupei Li, and Taoguang Liu, Shanghai University of Sport

Sport-Theme Feature Films and Female Athletes: A Contemporary Analysis

Demetrius William Pearson, Russell L. Curtis, and James L. Conyers, University of Houston; and Eddie T. C. Lam, Cleveland State University

Attitudes Toward Exercise: Body Ideal Versus Health

Sarah M. Buck and Yan Searcy, Chicago State University

Krump: Case Study on Inner-City Origins, Applications, and Diverse Demographics Transference

Christa Ann Davis, Lewis-Clark State College

The Mascotization of Indigenous Peoples: Is There Honor?

Chadron B. Hazelbaker, Eastern Washington University

Perception of Amateurism and Video Games Among Division II Athletes

Darryl Rankins and Robert Lindsey, Johnson C. Smith University; and Robert Lyons, Queens University

Spirituality and the Zone Among African American College Students

Wayne Starkes, Robert Lindsey, and Rennae Williams, Johnson C. Smith University; Dwedor W. Ford, North Carolina A&T State University; and Aaron Livingston, Hampton University

Body Demographics of Instructors and Demonstrators in Commercial Exercise DVDs

Bradley J. Cardinal, Katelyn E. Comfort, Brian Kuo, Rosalee L. Locklear, and Kim A. Rogers, Oregon State University; and Marita Cardinal, Western Oregon University

Ethical Decision-Making Standards of Collegiate Athletes

YuChun Chen, Louisiana Tech University

12:45 p.m.–2:15 p.m.

Poster Session: Sport and Coaching

Fake Movements and Some Kinematic Parameters in Soccer

Emel Cetin, Akdeniz University

Burnout and Years of Sports Competition: A Follow-Up Study

Shelley L. Holden, Christopher M. Keshock, Brooke E. Forester, Steven F. Pugh, and Robert J. Heitman, University of South Alabama

Perceived Stress in Undergraduate Male and Female Athletes and Nonathletes

Steven F. Pugh, Shelley L. Holden, and Robert J. Heitman, University of South Alabama

Conceptualization of Sportsmanship Among Aspiring Coaches: A Visual Study

Brian Culp, Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis; Kacey DiGiacinto, Elizabeth City State University; and Robert Schmidlein, San Jose State University

Application Rasch Model and Extended Angoff Developing Golf Ranking System

Sae-Hyung Kim, Chungbuk National University; Jun-Woo Lee, Hoseo University; Sang-Jo Kang and Jae-Hyeon Park, Korea National Sport University; Hyeoijin Kim, Korea National University of Education; Tae-Gyu Kim, Taeneung National Training Center of the Korean Olympic Committee; and Han-Byul Kim, Chang-Hwan Choi, and Min-Su Jeon, Korea National Sport University

The Beneficial Effects of Bracing on Shot-Put Performance

Lawrence W. Judge, Ball State University; Jean Marie Burke, New York Chiropractic College; Tiffany Patrick and Tyler Guidry, University of Louisiana at Lafayette; Elizabeth Wanless, Ball State University; and David Bellar, University of Louisiana at Lafayette

The Effects of a Coaching Program on International Basketball Coaches

Jack V. Sears and Darla M. Castelli, University of Texas at Austin

Homophily in a Parental Network of the Top 100 Korean Rhythmic Gymnasts

Kyung-Hwa Lee, Han-J. Lee, Narae Son, Jun-Hee Gee, and Se-Hyung Ha, Yonsei University

Goal Orientation and Professional Behaviors of High School Coaches

Melissa Thompson, University of Southern Mississippi; Kristen Dieffenbach, West Virginia University; Linda J. Schoenstedt, Xavier University; and Kimberly Bodey, Indiana State University

Motivational Differences Between Repeat and First-Time Sport Event Volunteers

Jennifer L. VanSickle and Michael J. Diacin, University of Indianapolis

Service Quality and Customer Satisfaction of Sport Centers

Siu Yin Cheung and Tsz Chung Chiu, Hong Kong Baptist University; and Jennifer Y. Mak, Marshall University

Health Care Attitudes and Burnout of Graduate Student Athletic Trainers

Travis Edwards, Daquane Ellington, and Sharon K. Stoll, University of Idaho; and Jennifer M. Beller, Washington State University

Social Media in Athletics: A Review of Division III Policies

Eric M. Snyder, University of Oklahoma

Development and Validation of the QOLS for University Athletes

Sang-Jo Kang, Korea National Sport University; Jun-Woo Lee, Hoseo University; Cho-Young Yook, Korea National Sport University; Sae-Hyung Kim, Chungbuk National University; and Jin-Mi Kim, Sejong University

PYD Through Completion of the MBA 3-Week Intervention Program

Lucas W. Clift, Eastern Washington University

2:00 p.m.–4:00 p.m.

Motivation, Psychological Factors, and Perceptions

Examining Perceptual Differences

Li Chen, Delaware State University; Ran Li, Springfield College; and Xiaofen Keating, University of Texas at Austin

Motivation Mediates the Relationship Between Determinants of and Actual Physical Activity

Steve Palmer, Dierdra Bycura, Meghan Warren, Erica Pratt, and Jay Sutliffe, Northern Arizona University

Middle School Students' Perceptions of Caring and Attitudes Toward PE

Weidong Li, The Ohio State University

Exercise Experiences, Flow, Anxiety, Comfort, and Motivation Among Women

Caitlyn R. Pecinovsky and Christy Greenleaf, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee

Elementary Teachers' Autonomy Support for Children's Recess Physical Activity Motivation

Megan Babkes Stellino, University of Northern Colorado; and Michelle L. Thornton and Heather Erwin, University of Kentucky

Entity Beliefs Negatively Predict Resiliency in Olympic Weightlifters

Jason von Stietz and James Garbanati, Alliant International University–Los Angeles

Second-Order Latent Variables of the Sport Motivation Scale-Physical Education

Keven Prusak and William Christensen, Brigham Young University

Effects of Motivational Music on Perceived Exertion in Runners

Jamie Aweau, Brady Redus, and Trey Cone, University of Central Oklahoma

2:00 p.m.–4:00 p.m.

Motor Behavior, Skill, and Competence

Presider: J. Megan Irwin, Auburn University

Motor Competence and Physical Activity in School-Age Children: A Meta-Analysis

J. Megan Irwin, Alan E. Wilson, Kara Palmer, and Leah E. Robinson, Auburn University

Sagittal Abdominal Diameter Measured Visceral Obesity in American Adults

Yong Gao, Boise State University; Haichun Sun, University of South Florida; and Liyun Ding, Boise State University

Supine-to-Stand Time as a Measure of Functional Status in Childhood

Danielle R. Nesbitt, University of South Carolina; Maria T. Cattuzzo, University of Pernambuco Brazil; and Sergio Molina, David S. Phillips, and David Stodden, University of South Carolina

Examining Motor Skill, Body Weight, and Physical Activity in Kindergarteners

Xiangli Gu, Karen Weiller, and Tao Zhang, University of North Texas

Examining Impulse Variability in Kicking in Young Adults

Sergio Molina, University of South Carolina; Andrew Chappell and Jonathon Mckibben, Texas Tech University; and David Stodden, University of South Carolina

Early Childhood Girls SKIPing With Preschool Teachers to Motor Competence

Ali S. Brian, Louisiana Tech University; and Jacqueline D. Goodway, Sue Sutherland, Jessica A. Logan, Emi Tsuda, and Ruri Famelia, The Ohio State University

2:00 p.m.–4:00 p.m.

Physical Activity and Health

Presider: Jessyka Larson, University of Utah

Manipulative Skill Competency and Physical Activity in Elementary School Students

Weiyun Chen, University of Michigan

Exercise, Cognition, and Physical Function in Individuals With Parkinson Disease

Manuela Cristina Caciula, Georgia Southern University; Michael Horvat, University of Georgia; and Joe Nocera, Emory University

Drunkorexia and Alcoholemia Among College Students: Current Trends Revisited

Rosanne S. Keathley, Sam Houston State University; and Judy R. Sandlin and Michael E. Sandlin, Texas A&M University

Effects of Peer Modeling and Goal Setting on Children's Physical Activity

Jessyka Larson, James C. Hannon,^Fand Timothy A. Brusseau,^FUniversity of Utah; Stuart Fairclough, Liverpool John Moores University; Maria Newton, University of Utah; Heidi Wengreen, Utah State University; Amber Hall, Maple Mountain High School; and Mandy K. King, University of Utah

2:00 p.m.–4:00 p.m.

Sport and Coaching

Presider: Julio Morales, Lamar University

The Roles Mentors Play in Basketball Coaching

Jeremy Micheal Elliott, Paul Schempp, Brian S. Berger, Bryan McCullick, and Jeff White, University of Georgia

Spectators' Perception on Social Media Use to Manage Risks

John B. Egberts, Daniel P. Connaughton, and J. O. Spengler, University of Florida

Youth Sport Coaches' and Administrators' Perspectives on Coaching Education

Laura Petranek and Nicole Bolter, Boise State University

Parental Pressure, Anxiety, and Performance Among Age-Group Swimmers

Timothy Michael Dasinger and Birgitta L. Baker, Louisiana State University

Coaching From a Wheelchair: Perspectives, Perceptions, and Reactions

Mark A. Smith and Scott Douglas, University of Northern Colorado

4:30 p.m.–5:45 p.m.

Coaching Standards, Efficacy, and Performance

Training and Competition Behaviors of a Winning Collegiate Soccer Coach

Stephen Harvey and Kristen Dieffenbach, West Virginia University; and Edward Cope, Sheffield Hallam University

Impact of Footwear on Sprint Performance

Jane Roy and Laura Sarrett, University of Alabama at Birmingham; and Will Cohen and Donna Dunaway, Samford University

Narcissism and Coaching Efficacy in Coaching Education Students

Melissa Thompson and Clayton Kuklick, University of Southern Mississippi

Stakeholders' Views of Coaching Efficacy

Courtney Teatro, Pamela H. Kulinna, Hans van der Mars, and Jayoun Kwon, Arizona State University

How Coaching Behaviors Relate to the National Coaching Standards

Courtney Teatro, Pamela H. Kulinna, Hans van der Mars, and Jayoun Kwon, Arizona State University

4:30 p.m.–5:45 p.m.

Exercise and Activity Related to Adults

Presider: Jane M. Shimon, Boise State University

Older Adults' Physical Activity Beliefs by Race and Activity Status

Maria Kosma, Louisiana State University; and Bradley J. Cardinal, Oregon State University

Effects of Exercise on PASE Scores With Older Adults

Jane M. Shimon and Terry-Ann S. Gibson, Boise State University

Senior Games Mutually Benefit Older Adults and College Students

Chen Ni and Carina King, Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis; and Jinmoo Heo, Texas A&M University

Impact of Age and Gender on Older Adults' Fitness Levels

Jun Dai, Shanghai University of Sport; and Han Chen, Valdosta State University

4:30 p.m.–5:45 p.m.

Infusing Social Justice in Research & Practice: Dialogue and Action

Presider: Jennifer Faison Hodge, Capital University

Speakers: Zan Gao, University of Minnesota; Ketra Armstrong, University of Michigan; Camille O'Bryant, Cal Poly State University; Jennifer Faison Hodge, Capital University; Dwan M. Bridges, California State University–Los Angeles; ZáNean D. McClain, California State University–East Bay; and Elizabeth A. Bridges, Striving for Excellent Pursuits (STEP)

4:30 p.m.–5:45 p.m.

Learning, Health, and Physical Education

Examining a Classroom-Based Service-Learning Model for Teaching Students With Disabilities

Jihoun An and Bomna Ko, East Carolina University; and Seok Yoon, Chowan University

Cognition and Understanding of Learning Domain Goals

Ariela Herman and Eve Bernstein, Queens College

Improving Elementary Health Education Despite Competition From Core Instruction

Susan K. Teddlie, University of Louisiana at Lafayette; Donna A. Betzer, Volunteers of America Greater New Orleans; and Lai Kwan Pei, Houston Independent School District

Adolescent Interest and Physical Activity Fluctuation in Technology-Integrated Physical Education

Loren Dragon, Lynnhaven Middle School; and Xihe Zhu, Old Dominion University

Review Panel Chairs and Reviewers

The Review Panel Chairs (RPCs) are listed immediately under each topic area. The abstract and symposium reviewers for each area then follow. An^F denotes Fellow status in SHAPE America as of November 2014.

Exercise Sciences

Michael G. Bemben,^FUniversity of Oklahoma

Pamela Anderson, Georgia Gwinnett College

Casey Breslin, Temple University

Michele Fisher, Montclair State University

Jacqueline D. Goodway, The Ohio State University

Melanie A. Hart, Texas Tech University

Guoyuan Huang,^F University of Southern Indiana

Minsoo Kang, Middle Tennessee State University

Eddie T. C. Lam, Cleveland State University

Guy Le Masurier,^F Vancouver Island University

Miyoung Lee, KookMin University

Maria Macarle, Dowling College

Julio Morales, Lamar University

Elizabeth M. Mullin, Springfield College

Tracey Robinson, Adams State University

David Rowe,^F University of Strathclyde

Jane Roy, University of Alabama at Birmingham

Nestor Sherman,^F University of Texas–Kingsville

Andrew L. Shim, University of South Dakota

Robert Spina, Old Dominion University

Robert Stadulis, Kent State University

Kerri Staples, University of Regina

Haichun Sun, University of South Florida

Hirofumi Tanaka, University of Texas

Donna Terbizan,^F North Dakota State University

John Walker, Texas State University

Joonkoo Yun, Oregon State University

Motivation and Psychology

Kevin Patton, California State University, Chico

Birgitta L. Baker, Louisiana State University

Emily K. Beasley, Louisiana State University

Charity Bryan, Louisiana State University

Erin E. Centeio, Wayne State University

Ang Chen, University of North Carolina at Greensboro

Anne E. Cox, Washington State University

Rebecca Ellis, Georgia State University

Zan Gao, University of Minnesota

Alex C. Garn, Louisiana State University

Diane L. Gill,^F University of North Carolina at Greensboro

Christy Greenleaf, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee

Xiangli Gu, University of North Texas

Jianmin Guan, University of Texas at San Antonio

Maria Kosma, Louisiana State University

Weidong Li, The Ohio State University

Ashley Samson, California State University–Northridge

Bo Shen, Wayne State University

Haichun Sun, University of South Florida

Ping Xiang, Texas A&M University

Tao Zhang, University of North Texas

Motor Behavior and Measurement

Yong Gao, Boise State University

Casey Breslin, Temple University

Timothy A. Brusseau,^F University of Utah

Darla M. Castelli, University of Texas at Austin

Chris Eisenbarth, Weber State University

Jacqueline D. Goodway, The Ohio State University

Chris Harman, California University of Pennsylvania

Melanie A. Hart, Texas Tech University

Minsoo Kang, Middle Tennessee State University

Eddie T. C. Lam, Cleveland State University

Miyoung Lee, KookMin University

Julio Morales, Lamar University

Elizabeth M. Mullin, Springfield College

Larry K. Olsen, A. T. Still University

David Rowe,^F University of Strathclyde

Nestor Sherman,^F University of Texas Kingsville

Robert Stadulis, Kent State University

Kerri Staples, University of Regina

Joonkoo Yun, Oregon State University

Physical Activity and Health Promotion

Collin Webster, University of South Carolina

Laura Azzarito,^F Columbia University

David Berry, Saginaw Valley State University

David Black,^F Purdue University

Timothy A. Brusseau,^F University of Utah

Russell L. Carson, University of Northern Colorado

Darla M. Castelli, University of Texas at Austin

Erin E. Centeio, Wayne State University

Ang Chen, University of North Carolina at Greensboro

Brian Culp, Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis

David Cutton, Texas A&M University

Chris Eisenbarth, Weber State University

Catherine Ennis, University of North Carolina at Greensboro

Sue Fletcher, California State University Stanislaus

Zan Gao, University of Minnesota

Alex C. Garn, Louisiana State University

Karen Lux Gaudreault, University of Wyoming

Tan Leng Goh, Montclair State University

Chris Harman, California University of Pennsylvania

Emily Jones, West Virginia University

David Kinnunen, California State University Fresno

Yun Soo Lee, Middle Tennessee State University

Kathleen Lux, Capital University

Larry K. Olsen, A. T. Still University

Rheba Vetter, Northwest Missouri University

Sami Yli-Piipari, University of Memphis

Sociocultural and Social Justice

Louis Harrison, University of Texas at Austin

Birgitta L. Baker, Louisiana State University

Jennifer M. Beller, Washington State University

Albert Bimper, Colorado State University

Zan Gao, University of Minnesota

Louis Harrison, University of Texas at Austin

Samuel R. Hodge,^F The Ohio State University

E. Newton Jackson, University of North Florida

Angela Lumpkin, University of Kansas

Ron Morrow, Retired

Jared A. Russell, Auburn University

Alexander Vigo, Towson University

Sport and Coaching

Brad Strand, North Dakota State University

Paul F. Blair, University of Trinidad and Tobago

Michael Carroll, Troy University

Steve Chen, Morehead State University

Keith Christy, Adrian College

Dennis M. Docheff, University of Central Missouri

Lori Gano-Overway, Bridgewater College

Kathy Gill, William Paterson College

E. Newton Jackson, University of North Florida

Richard J. LaRue, University of New England

Jenny Linker, North Dakota State University

Lois Mauch, Warren Alvarado-Oslo School District

Michelle E. Moosbrugger, Springfield College

Jeffrey Petersen, Baylor University

Melissa Thompson, University of Southern Mississippi

Teaching and Learning

Melinda Solmon, Louisiana State University

Amelia Mays Woods,^F University of Illinois

Laura Azzarito,^F Columbia University

Dominique Banville, George Mason University

Bonnie Tjeerdsma Blankenship, Purdue University

Marilyn Buck, Ball State University

Mark Byra,^F University of Wyoming–Laramie

Russell L. Carson, University of Northern Colorado

Darla M. Castelli, University of Texas at Austin

David Cutton, Texas A&M University

David Newman Daum, University of Southern Indiana

Douglas W. Ellison, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Alex C. Garn, Louisiana State University

Karen Lux Gaudreault, University of Wyoming

Chris R. Gentry, California State University–San Bernadino

Grace Goc Karp, University of Idaho

Xiangli Gu, University of North Texas

Charlotte Humphries, Southeastern Louisiana University

Jayne M. Jenkins, University of Wyoming

Ingrid Johnson, Grand Valley State University

Emily Jones, West Virginia University

David Kahan, San Diego State University

David Kinnunen, California State University–Fresno

Ferman Konukman, Qatar University

Yun Soo Lee, Middle Tennessee State University

Diane Lorenzo, Springfield College

Jacalyn Lund, Georgia State University

Ellen H. Martin, Columbus State University

Ron E. McBride, Texas A&M University

Nathan McCaughtry, Wayne State University

Bryan McCullick, University of Georgia

Thomas L. McKenzie, San Diego State University

Gabriella Maria McLoughlin, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Jeff McNamee, Linfield College

Karen S. Meaney, Texas State University

Stacia C. Miller, Midwestern State University

Michelle E. Moosbrugger, Springfield College

Yoonsin Oh, Cameron University

Jenny Parker, Northern Illinois University

Melissa A. Parker, University of Limerick

Melissa Parks, Louisiana State University at Alexandria

Katherine Pebworth, Lincoln Memorial University

Paul Rukavina, Adelphi University

Jared A. Russell, Auburn University

Takahiro Sato, Kent State University

Tammy Schilling, Louisiana Technical University

Kristin A. Scrabis-Fletcher, Montclair State University

Deborah Sheehy, Bridgewater State University

Jane M. Shimon, Boise State University

Michalis Stylianou, Arizona State University

Raj Subramaniam, Ithaca College

Gay L. Timken, Western Oregon University

Amy Tischler, University of Wisconsin–La Crosse

Thomas N. Trendowski, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Carla Vidoni, University of Louisville

Alexander Vigo, Towson University

David S. Walsh, San Francisco State University

Phillip Ward, The Ohio State University

Collin A. Webster,^F University of South Carolina

Skip M. Williams, Illinois State University

Sami Yli-Piipari, University of Memphis

Tao Zhang, University of North Texas

Xihe Zhu, Old Dominion University

Peer-Reviewed Symposia

An ^F denotes Fellow status in SHAPE America as of November 2014.

Exploring Motivations Among Adolescent Boys in a Sports Camp Setting

Current literature is replete with reports about the dramatic increases in child and adolescent obesity in the United States during the last 25 years. Ogden, Carroll, Kit, and Flegal (2012) reported that nearly 17% of American children and adolescents were obese. The rate is even higher among minority groups where 24% of African American and 21% of Hispanic children and adolescents were obese (Ogden et al., 2012). Coupled with increases in obesity are declining levels of physical activity (PA) with age. Inactivity at young ages may predispose youth to the early onset of chronic heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and related hypokinetic diseases (Boreham & Riddoch, 2001; Fox & Riddoch, 2000). Although the Healthy People (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2009) report recommends 60 min or more of daily moderate-to-vigorous PA for children and youth, research reveals many children and adolescents fail to meet recommended guidelines (Nader, 2003; Troiano et al., 2008). Schools and particularly school-based physical education programs have represented the traditional conduit through which children's health and PA have been administered. Although an appropriate setting for promoting PA, they cannot provide opportunities for students during out-of-school times. Employing seasonal comparisons, Downey and Boughton (2007) reported how quickly children increased in body mass index when school was out of session during the summer months. This was especially true for African American and Hispanic children as well as for children who were already overweight. Downey and Boughton recommended alternative nonschool environments during the summer months, especially for at-risk populations, to provide PA opportunities. Ramsing and Sibthorp (2008) suggested summer camps as 1 alternative vehicle to enhance physical inactivity among youth. With an estimated 11 million individuals attending summer camps each year, camp remains 1 of the most common venues for physical activity and recreation (American Camp Association, 2004). Oftentimes, however, at-risk populations are economically disadvantaged and may not have access to such programs. For those at-risk youth fortunate enough to attend summer camps and enjoy the physical activities offered, we must understand why and how they might want to participate (Power et al., 2011). This symposium explores motivational elements among a group of at-risk adolescent boys placed in a 3-week summer sports camp setting. We drew from self-determination and expectancy-value theory to examine how camp experiences impact boys’ perceived motivational patterns and instructional support as well as intentions for future activity and extraneous benefits. Each presentation concludes with recommendations for practice to enhance continued participation in PA.

Adolescent At-Risk Boys’ Perceptions in a Summer Sports Camp

Larry Latterman, Xiaoxia Su, Ping Xiang, Ron E. McBride,

Jiling Liu, Maiya Otsuka, Texas A&M University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Summer sports camps represent alternative avenues to promote physical activity among children and youth. The expectancy-value model research has shown that students are more likely to have an intention to participate in an activity that they see as important, interesting, and useful. These are known as task values (Eccles, Wigfield, & Schiefele, 1998; Xiang, McBride, & Bruene, 2006). This study explored perceived task values and the impact of a 3-week summer sports camp among adolescent at-risk boys.

Method: As part of a larger study, participants were 21 adolescent at-risk boys (10–14 years of age) enrolled in a summer sports camp in the Southwestern United States during the summers of 2012 and 2013. At the end of camp in 2013, each boy was interviewed and asked: “Please tell me how this camp helped you in school last year. Do you think the physical activities you did in the physical activity sessions at this camp helped you do well in physical education (PE) for the last school year?” All interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed for later analysis. Finally, the boys responded to an open-ended question in a larger questionnaire: “Please write down 1 thing you have learned most from the physical activity sessions at the camp this summer.”

Analysis/Results: All data were analyzed using content analysis. Two themes emerged: identified values and camp impact. First, the boys identified a number of values associated with their participation in the camp (e.g., “This camp helped me know how to make good choices and have fun and laugh”; “It helped me have better manners and discipline myself”). Second, boys reported the camp's impact in their school settings, particularly in PE (e.g., “It definitely helped me in athletics at school because it helped me build strength over the summer”; “I will be more respectful in my school and I don't get in trouble as much as I used to”; and “To do better in PE”).

Conclusions: Results of the study revealed that the task values documented in the expectancy-value model research were also identified by these adolescent at-risk boys. Perhaps the greatest significance of the present study is that it provides empirical evidence that summer sports camps have the potential to positively impact adolescents in school settings. Given that the data in the present study were collected at 1 point in time, future research might document long-term effects of summer sports camps in school settings.

Changes in Adolescent Boys’ Motivational Regulations in a Summer Camp

Maiya Otsuka, Xiaoxia Su, Ron E. McBride, Jiling Liu, Ping Xiang, Melissa Scarmarado-Rhodes, Texas A&M University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Motivational regulations are important to individuals’ engagement, performance, and learning in a variety of settings including physical activity (Deci & Ryan, 1985). They include: amotivation (i.e., lacking an intention to participate), external regulation (i.e., obtaining rewards or avoiding punishment), introjected regulation (i.e., avoiding guilt or anxiety), identified regulation (i.e., because of personal importance), and intrinsic motivation (i.e., participating for fun or enjoyment). Considerable cross-sectional research has examined motivational regulations among children and youth in physical education/physical activity settings. However, the longitudinal development of motivational regulations remains unknown. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine changes in motivational regulations.

Method: The setting was a 3-week summer sports camp located in the Southwestern United States. As part of a larger study, participants were 66 at-risk boys aged 10 to 13 years old (M_age = 11.56 years, SD = 0.98) attending the camp during 2 summers. The population was 50% Hispanic American, 24.2% Caucasian American, and 22.7% African American. The boys completed the Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire-2 (Markland & Tobin, 2004) during their regularly scheduled camp activities both in 2012 and 2013.

Analysis/Results: A repeated-measures multivariate analysis of variance examined whether boys’ motivational regulations changed over a 2-year period. The results revealed a significant change over time, F(5, 61) = 3.80, p <  .01, η^2 = .24. Univariate tests indicated that boys’ scores significantly declined from 2012 to 2013 on external regulation (M₂₀₁₂ = 2.97, M₂₀₁₃ = 2.67), F(1, 65) = 4.29, p <  .05, η^2 = .06; introjected regulation (M₂₀₁₂ = 3.27, M₂₀₁₃ = 2.83), F(1, 65) = 9.93, p <  .01, η^2 = .13; identified regulation (M₂₀₁₂ = 3.95, M₂₀₁₃ = 3.48), F(1, 65) = 15.18, p <  .001, η^2 = .19; and intrinsic motivation (M₂₀₁₂ = 4.12, M₂₀₁₃ = 3.68), F(1, 65) = 12.13, p <  .01, η^2 = .16.

Conclusions: Overall, boys’ motivational regulations scores decreased during 2 years of participation at the camp. This result supports existing research that children become less motivated to participate in physical activities as they become older (Deng, Castelli, Castor-Pinero, & Guan, 2011). The decline may be also due to the effects of participating in the same camp activities from year to year. Further research might identify strategies that foster autonomous motivational regulations in camp activities.

Changes in Perceived Instructor Support in a Summer Sports Camp

Nasnoor Juzaily, Jae Young Yang, Jiling Liu, Ping Xiang, Ron E. McBride, Xiaoxia Su, Texas A&M University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Perceived instructor support for autonomy, competence and relatedness has been found to be positively related to educational outcomes such as enhanced motivation to engage in learning, better academic performance, and decreased course-related anxiety (Black & Deci, 2000). However, little information exists about changes in perceived instructor support for autonomy, competence and relatedness in physical activity (PA) settings, particularly summer sport camps. The purpose of this study is to examine whether changes occurred in perceived instructor support among a group of adolescent at-risk boys participating in a sport camp setting across two summers.

Method: The summer camp is located in the Southwest US and a database from 2012 and 2013 was analyzed. Participants were 65 at risk-boys aged 10–13 (M age = 11.91, SD = 1.21) attending camp over the two summers. Each responded to the Perceived Instructor Support—Physical Education (PIS-PE) questionnaire (Shen, Weidong, Sun, & Rukavian, 2010) during the camp's regularly scheduled camp activities. However, for the purpose of this study, only post-test questionnaire data were analyzed to assess changes in students’ perceived instructor support.

Analysis/Results: Paired t test analysis examined changes in boys’ perceived instructor support during the 2-year period. No significant changes occurred in perceived instructor support for relatedness (M₂₀₁₂ = 3.53, M₂₀₁₃ = 3.75), t(61) = –1.65, p = .104 (95% CI [–0.49, 0.04]) and autonomy (M₂₀₁₂ = 3.78, M₂₀₁₃ = 3.72), t(62) = 0.48, p = .630 (95% CI [–0.19, 0.33]). However, there was a significant decline in perceived instructor support for competence (M₂₀₁₂ = 3.99, M₂₀₁₃ = 3.51), t(63) = 5.02, p = .000 (95% CI [0. 29, 0.67]).

Conclusions: Results of the study revealed no significant changes in boys' perceived instructor support for relatedness and autonomy over two years. There was a significant decrease in perceived competence support. The drop in perceived competence result may be due to an externally regulated environment (i.e., highly competitive) or differences in instructional approaches over two years. Camp instructors and administrators might modify instructional choices and/or activities to enhance greater autonomy, competence and relatedness support.

Impact of SDT on Effort and Future Intention for Physical Activity

Jae Young Yang, Ron E. McBride, Ping Xiang, Texas A&M University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Summer camps may present a vehicle to counter the trend of physical inactivity among at-risk adolescents (Ramsing & Sibthorp, 2008). For all adolescents to engage in physical activity and enjoy it, it is crucial to understand why and how they might want to participate (Power, et al., 2011). According to Self-Determination Theory (SDT: Deci & Ryan, 2002), affective, cognitive, and behavioral outcomes are determined by distinct motivational regulations that lie on a continuum from amotivation to intrinsic regulation. To date, SDT-based research has not examined direct relationships between self-determined motivation and cognitively and physically adaptive outcomes among at-risk adolescents in a summer sports camp setting. The purpose of this study was to investigate the extent to which at-risk boys’ self-determined motivational regulations in a summer sports camp predicted effort and intention for future physical activity.

Method: 102 at-risk boys, aged 11–15 (M = 12.93; SD = 1.22), participated in camp activities such as soccer, basketball, volleyball, and flag football as well as group activities such as capture the flag and Wild, Wild, West for three weeks. During Week three, participants completed three well-validated questionnaires - Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire (BREQ-2); Effort in Physical Activity Questionnaire; Intention for Future Leisure-Time Physical Activity Questionnaire.

Analysis/Results: Stepwise multiple regression analyses revealed that effort was significantly predicted by identified regulation, β = .414, p < .01, accounting for 20% of the variance. Additionally, intention for future physical activity was significantly predicted by intrinsic regulation, β = .589, p < .01, accounting for 23% of the variance.

Conclusions: The findings suggest that promoting self-determined forms of motivation (i.e., identified and intrinsic regulation) may elicit adaptive outcomes such as increasing effort and intentions for future leisure-time physical activity among these at-risk boys. Camp instructors might provide rationales acknowledging the boys’ health-related benefits or personal values during the camp activities. Doing so has resulted in increased effort during activities (Zhang, Solmon, Kosma, Carson, & Gu, 2011). Further, satisfying the boys’ interests and needs during the camp activities may be an effective strategy to elicit enhanced participation in physical activity beyond the summer camp setting (Taylor, Ntoumanis, Standage, & Spray, 2010).

Perceived Instructor Support and Student Motivation in a Summer Camp

Jiling Liu, Ron E. McBride, Ping Xiang, Xiaoxia Su, Melissa Scarmarado-Rhodes, Maiya Otsuka, Texas A&M University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Motivation is the force that drives people to initiate and sustain effort toward desired outcomes (Ryan & Deci, 2000a). It has been deemed as a key factor in the pursuit of a healthy lifestyle (Vallerand, 2007). To help students develop a lifetime physical activity habit, how to motivate them has been of great interest. According to self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000b), needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness are essential to promoting student motivation. This study examined how physical activity instructor support affected student motivation through a group of at-risk boys’ perspectives.

Method: Participants were 102 boys (M_age = 12.93 years, SD = 1.22) recruited from a 3-week-long summer sports camp in Southwestern Texas. The adapted Interpersonal Behavior Scale (Shen, Li, Sun, & Rukavina, 2010) assessed perceived instructor support for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. The Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire (Markland & Tobin, 2004) assessed 5 types of motivation: amotivation, external regulation, introjected regulation, identified regulation, and intrinsic motivation. And the Relative Autonomy Index (RAI) was calculated using the formula RAI = Intrinsic ×  3+ Identified ×  2 – Introjected – External ×  2 – Amotivation ×  3.

Analysis/Results: Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences Version 22.0. Scale reliability analyses resulted in acceptable Cronbach's α values ranging from .59 to .82. A zero-order correlation matrix revealed that the RAI was statistically significantly correlated with perceived support for competence and relatedness (both r = .344, p <  .01). Multiple regressions showed the perceived instructor supports all together explained 20.8% of the variance in the RAI, F(3, 72) = 6.32, p <  .01. Specifically, support for autonomy negatively predicted the RAI (β = –.32, t = –2.06, p <  .05); support for competence (β = .45, t = 2.85, p <  .01) and support for relatedness (β = .28, t = 2.36, p <  .05) both positively predicted the RAI.

Conclusions: In line with previous research (e.g., Ryan & Deci, 2000b; Vallerand, 2004), the 3 perceived instructor supports are all significant predictors of student motivation. However, the fact that student motivation was negatively predicted by perceived autonomy support might be due to an externally regulated camp environment (e.g., Ryan & Deci, 2009; Sun & Chen, 2014). Instructors might give special attention to the boys’ senses of competence and relatedness during camp activities. Specifically, providing positive feedback to and promoting cooperation among the boys are recommended as strategies to foster motivation and participation in the sports camp setting.

The Application of Applied Research to a Summer Sports Camp

Michael Thorton, Texas A&M University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Bearpaw Youth Camp is a non-profit summer sports camp that is a service component of a major southern University. Bearpaw provides a 3-week residential camp experience for approximately 50 10–13 year old boys. The majority of the boys attending camp have been identified by their school districts and the camp administration as being economically disadvantaged/underprivileged. Campers attend at no cost to their families, and upon completion of four continuous summers of camp, have the opportunity to attend this University via scholarship provided through the camp. The purpose of this study/collaboration was to determine if empirical findings could be applied by our camp staff to maximize opportunities and experiences of the participating campers.

Method: Bearpaw Youth Camp and the Department of Health and Kinesiology's Sport Pedagogy program entered into an agreement whereby the Pedagogy faculty and graduate students would conduct research at the camp site. Initial research protocol was established to determine campers initial motivations and perceptions related to activity and instruction undertaken at the camp. Agreements were secured via University protocol and included permission from the university, camper stakeholders, and the camp's Board of Trustees who provide oversight for the Youth Camp.

Analysis/Results: The analysis and results of the conducted research projects are being shared with Bearpaw Youth Camp administration. The hope is that the research will promote a better understanding of the benefits of physical activity and fitness among the participants. Preliminary results suggest less focus on competitive activities and a greater focus on activities that foster greater perceptions of autonomy, competence, and relatedness support. Perhaps the implementation of co-operative activities such as initiative games could be added to the curriculum. Declines in identified and intrinsic self-regulation during the camp experience is a concern that must also be addressed.

Conclusions: Results of this collaboration point toward the implementation of teaching/coaching strategies that can more effectively facilitate positive perceptions of physical activity among our campers. In addition, there should be enhanced recognition on the importance played in providing quality instruction and methodology to the instructors/coaches of the camp program.

Surveillance of Health-Related Fitness With FITNESSGRAM®: Challenges and Solutions

The FITNESSGRAM® program has had a major impact on shaping interest in health-related physical fitness in schools. The systematic adoption of health-related criterion-referenced standards focused attention on how much fitness youth need for health. The Fitnessgram reports provide personal feedback to children and parents, but increasingly, there has been interest in the use of Fitnessgram for large-scale district and state surveillance. A number of states (and many large districts) now have requirements for standardized fitness testing. Summary data from these data sets are often shared with the media, but little attention has been given to the screening and processing methods needed to ensure accurate reporting of these results. Recommendations from the Institute of Medicine referenced key needs for selecting tests, but no information was provided about the importance of standardization in the processing of this type of data. This issue becomes even more important with the recent adoption of the Fitnessgram within the Presidential Youth Fitness Program. The widespread use of the Fitnessgram poses new challenges and requires improved strategies to facilitate large-scale adoption and tracking of youth fitness testing. This symposium will summarize some of the most recent advances of the Fitnessgram with special emphasis on both state and national surveillance applications. The 1st session will provide an overview of the Fitnessgram battery and the recent changes in the scoring and interpretation of the fitness data within the system. The 2nd presentation will describe recommendations for standardized youth fitness testing in the United States by elaborating on the current recommendations released by the Institute of Medicine. The 3rd presentation will address some of the large-scale applications of the Fitnessgram battery and will share lessons learned for data processing and reporting obtained from the NFL PLAY60 and Fitnessgram partnership. The 4th presentation will add insights for surveillance applications and will share a large-scale statewide youth fitness data process procedure obtained from the Texas Youth Fitness Study.

Classification Agreement Among FITNESSGRAM® Assessments and Implications for Surveillance Applications

Gregory J. Welk, Iowa State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: The FITNESSGRAM® youth fitness assessment battery is the most widely used fitness assessment battery. The adoption of the Fitnessgram within the Presidential Youth Fitness Program (PYFP) makes the Fitnessgram the de-facto national fitness battery. Many large districts and states now mandate the use of the Fitnessgram, and the eventual tracking of data within the PYFP may enable reporting of population profiles of health-related fitness. Within the Fitnessgram battery, schools/teachers have choices for alternative assessments for both aerobic capacity (e.g., the Progressive Aerobic Cardiorespiratory Endurance Run [PACER] fitness test and Mile) and body composition (body mass index [BMI] and body fat). However, the differential use of these items by schools presents challenges for comparing results across schools (and over time) because children may be assessed with different items.

Method: This presentation will summarize issues in the use of alternative assessments in school physical education and the implications for school-, district-, and state-level tracking. Methods developed by the Cooper Institute will be shared. Classification agreement between the 2 body composition assessments (body fat/BMI) and the 2 aerobic fitness assessments (PACER/Mile) will be shared along with strategies developed by the Fitnessgram Scientific Advisory Board to handle these discrepancies for school tracking, research, and public health surveillance.

Analysis/Results: The use of alternative assessments provides teachers and schools with flexibility in using different fitness tests, but due to differences in scoring methods, the assessments can lead to different levels of achievement using the same standardized health-related fitness standards. The use of test equating offers options for standardizing fitness achievement and facilitating longitudinal tracking for school-, district-, and state-level surveillance.

Conclusions: The unique differences in the Fitnessgram assessments must be considered when processing and interpreting Fitnessgram data for public health surveillance.

Recommendations of the IOM on Setting Standards for Youth Fitness Testing

Weimo Zhu, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: A key need in youth fitness testing is to have standards to provide a way to provide youth (and parents) with feedback. Two evaluation frameworks have often been used in youth fitness evaluation: norm-referenced (NR) and criterion-referenced (CR). Due to the limitations of NR evaluation (i.e., time dependence, population dependence, discouraging unfit children, and favoring genetically talented or punishing disadvantaged children), CR evaluation is in general recommended for youth fitness evaluation.

Method: Setting an appropriate standard, known sometimes as the “cutoff score,” for a CR evaluation could be a challenge. For CR-based health-related fitness evaluation, the “health outcome-centered” method, in which a cutoff score is associated with a health outcome classification, has been the predominant approach in setting CR standards. The FITNESSGRAM® program has recently updated standards for both body composition and aerobic capacity using national representative data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. The methodologies used in setting these standards will be summarized and related to other available methods and approaches.

Analysis/Results: Potential approaches will be summarized to provide clarity on the various methods available for setting standards. Other assessments in the Fitnessgram battery (e.g., curl-up and pushup) have weaker associations with health, so it has proven more difficult to set standards for these assessments.

Conclusions: A CR-based “health outcome-centered” method is the most popular and effective method for setting standards for health-related fitness tests, but specifics may vary depending on the known relationship between fitness and health outcomes.

Summary of Insights Gained From the NFL PLAY60/FITNESSGRAM®

Pedro F. Saint-Maurice, Iowa State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: The surveillance of fitness at the national level can provide unique insights on population lifestyles. The NFL PLAY60 and FITNESSGRAM® partnership provides a unique example of how state- and national-level surveillance can be implemented in a sustainable manner. This initiative is tracking fitness data on more than 1,000 schools and more than 150,000 students spread throughout the country. This presentation will describe important strategies on how to handle and report large-scale fitness data.

Method: We used data collected from the 2012 NFL PLAY60 cohort (n = 149,101) to demonstrate variability in the quality and representativeness of surveillance data. We used visual representations and linear regression methods to describe the distribution and impact of indicators that can be used to reflect the quality of fitness data. Fitness outcomes for this cohort will be described using both individual-level and group-level data to address the implications of state-level reports of youth fitness patterns.

Analysis/Results: Our preliminary analyses on data quality indicators showed that the boy-per-girl ratio for each school grade ranged from 0 (i.e., indicating some school grades just had either boys or girls with valid fitness scores) to 17 (i.e., indicating a ratio of 17 boys per girl per school grade with valid fitness scores), while the total number of students per school grade ranged from 1 to 867. The proportion of youth achieving appropriate levels of fitness ranged from 56% to 61% with unscreened data resulting in consistently lower percentages of youth achieving the standard (p <  .05).

Conclusions: The appropriate use of screening procedures and use of both individual- and group-level outcomes when processing large-scale fitness data can improve the quality of state- and national-level reports of health-related fitness.

Examining the Data Quality in the Texas Youth Fitness Study

Yang Bai, Iowa State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Texas Senate Bill 530 passed in 2007 as a mandate for all public schools to increase physical activity and conduct fitness testing with the FITNESSGRAM®. More than 2.5 million students have been tested in fitness and their scores have been entered and uploaded to the Texas Education Agency (TEA) since 2008. Only grade-level Health Fitness Zone (HFZ) achievement was obtained through the TEA, and it is important to explore the strategies for handling large-scale group-level fitness data.

Method: Fitness data were collected by physical education teachers in Texas at 6,913 of a total of 8,526 public schools in 2011. A total of 2,922,851 students were reported as having been tested by physical education teachers. Grade-level student enrollment in 2011 was also obtained through the TEA and was merged with fitness data. The percentage of the students being tested was calculated and histograms of the distribution were examined. Two screening methods were applied. One was based on the minimal number of students tested per grade, which was 10 for boys and girls, respectively. The other method was at least 50% of students per grade had to be tested and no more than 20% of students reported were included. Linear contrast was used to examine the difference in aerobic capacity HFZ achievement by using different screening methods.

Analysis/Results: The percentage of the students being tested was reported from 1% to 18,000% (e.g., indicating some schools reported only 1% of students were tested and some schools reported 180 times more students were tested than the total number of students enrolled). The total number of students being tested per grade was reported as 6 to 1,600. The linear contrast results showed that aerobic capacity HFZ with 2 screening methods was significantly (p <  .05) different from the results in the unscreened data, but the difference in the estimated HFZ was small (diff_{method1-nofilter} = 0.49% and diff _{method2-nofilter} = –0.29%).

Conclusions: Although the difference between nonscreening data and screening data was trivial, it is important to rule out some unreasonably entered data to improve the quality of large-scale statewide fitness data.

Targeted CSPAP Learning Experiences With Implications for Teacher Education Programs

The leadership role of schools in the quest for increasing the physical activity levels of youth has ascended to the national spotlight from the emergence of a widely endorsed whole-of-school approach known as a comprehensive school physical activity program (CSPAP; e.g., Institute of Medicine, 2013; Let's Move! Active Schools, 2014). The goal of a CSPAP is to develop an active school culture conducive to promoting lifelong physical activity across 5 integral components: (a) physical education as the focal point, (b) physical activity during school, (c) physical activity before and after school, (d) staff involvement, and (e) family and community engagement. As a result, many professional development programs are now available to train individuals—most notably, the physical education teacher—in how to spearhead and coordinate CSPAP efforts (Carson, 2012; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013; Physical Activity Leader Learning System, 2014). Initial results from early attempts of CSPAP interventions in schools are promising, as presented in last year's symposium entitled “Examples of Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program Intervention Research.” This year, as a follow-up, the focus turns to the promise of learning experiences for teachers to make physical activity programming happen throughout schools—a public health emphasis often overlooked in teacher education programs, and especially physical education teacher programs (Beighle, Erwin, Castelli, & Ernst, 2009; McKenzie & Lounsbery, 2013). The purpose of this symposium is to present research on targeted CSPAP experiences for teachers with implications for teacher education programs. As such, each presentation uses teacher experiences and perspectives as the unit of analysis. The 1st presentation will focus on the specific learning experience of service learning for preservice physical education teachers that targets the CSPAP component of before-school and afterschool physical activity. The last 3 presentations will provide empirical results from learning experiences for classroom teachers targeting the CSPAP component of physical activity during school. The symposium will end with a discussion led by presider Russell L. Carson that explores the potential for future avenues of CSPAP research and adoption in teacher education.

Service-Learning Lessons From a Before-School Physical Activity Program

Brian Dauenhauer

Megan Babkes Stellino

Mark A. Smith, University of Northern Colorado

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Teaching preservice physical education teachers in the classroom is important, but often, the most powerful lessons come from hands-on learning experiences in the field. As the landscape of school-based physical activity (PA) promotion changes, physical education teacher education (PETE) programs must consider providing teacher candidates with a variety of experiences that prepare them for the leadership roles they are likely to assume in schools. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine student reflections on a service-learning experience in a before-school PA program (BSPAP).

Method: PETE students (N = 19) from a midsized university in the U.S. Rocky Mountain region completed a required service-learning experience in a BSPAP. The program offered PA opportunities before school to primarily Hispanic (70%), low-socioeconomic elementary students. The grant-funded program was administered by graduate students at the same university. PETE students electronically responded to 4 writing prompts regarding their service-learning experience within 48 hr of completion. Responses were downloaded, deidentified, and analyzed for general themes, followed by breaking down the general themes into subthemes using an inductive approach.

Analysis/Results: Analyses revealed 3 broad themes: (a) seeing it work, b) watching it work, and c) making it work. Seeing it work referred to PETE students’ responses related to the positive impacts that BSPAPs can have on participants. Two subthemes, “as a physical educator” and “impacts of BSPAPs,” were identified. The watching it work theme encapsulated PETE students’ responses associated with the program's potential positive influence on students’ health. Three subthemes were revealed within this broader theme: “wake up the mind,” “nutritional knowledge,” and “increased PA.” “Building relationships,” “management/organization practices,” and “instructional considerations” constituted the 3rd theme of making it work. This theme was related to logistical lessons that PETE students learned related to program implementation.

Conclusions: Findings suggest that much can be learned from service-learning experiences in BSPAPs for PETE students. Evidence from the present study indicated that firsthand exposure to a BSPAP provided students with real-world experiences that have the potential to inspire and empower future physical education teachers to expand their defined role as physical educators to include school-based PA opportunities. Based on this study, the provision of service-learning experiences is invaluable to PETE and the future of comprehensive school PA programs (CSPAPs). Future research should consider how service-learning experiences are built into the PETE curriculum as well as what CSPAPs look like and how, and by whom, they are run.

Teacher Training and Implementation of CSPAP Components

Michalis Stylianou

Kent A. Lorenz

Pamela H. Kulinna, Arizona State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Multifaceted, school-based approaches are a promising strategy for promoting youth healthy behavior adoption. One approach is the comprehensive school physical activity program (CSPAP; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013). Many current teachers have not been trained to use a CSPAP approach and physical education teacher education (PETE) programs may not yet include this training. The current study, framed within the CSPAP model and informed by Guskey's model of teacher change (Guskey, 2002), evaluated teachers’ implementation of aspects of the whole-of-school approach for 1 year and can inform teacher and PETE training programs.

Method: Teachers received 4 training sessions, the Elementary Fitness for Life curriculum (Corbin et al., 2010) for their grade level, and mentor teacher help to implement Wellness Weeks 4 times during the school year. Participants (N = 27) in this study were classroom teachers (22 female, 5 male; 26 Caucasian, 1 Mexican American) from 1 rural school district with 90% of students being eligible for free or reduced lunch. Multiple components from the Elementary Fitness for Life curriculum were used. Teachers reported on the number of components (i.e., physical education lesson plans, conceptual learning discussions, signage promoting healthy behaviors, chants to reinforce major messages from the lessons, Eat Well Wednesday activities, Get Fit Friday activities, newsletters, and other resources on the website) used from the model during Wellness Weeks and number of physical activity breaks taught.

Analysis/Results: Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics to summarize what was done during the 4 Wellness Weeks throughout the year. The numbers of Wellness Week activities used were reported as follows: Week 1 (M = 6.03, SD = 8.39), Week 2 (M = 2.22, SD = 4.13), Week 3 (M = 4.62, SD = 4.79), and Week 4 (M = 5.45, SD = 6.70). Similarly, the mean numbers of physical activity breaks taught were reported as 7.55, 3.47, 6.42, and 5.34 across the 4 Wellness Weeks. Wellness Week 2 had fewer activities, which may have been due to the week being close to winter holidays.

Conclusions: This study is significant because it shows that classroom teachers were able to learn how to teach healthy behaviors during Wellness Weeks as part of a CSPAP. To align with the CSPAP framework, it is necessary to expand our PETE programs to prepare new physical education teachers and to train classroom teachers and stakeholders to implement healthy behaviors during the school day and outside of school. Consistent with Guskey's model, teachers had resources and observed success supporting the adoption of Wellness Week activities.

Empowering Teachers to Integrate Physical Activity: Online Communities of Practice

Spyridoula Vazou, Amy Hutchinson, Collin A. Webster^F, University of South Carolina

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Most children in the United States do not meet current guidelines for daily participation in physical activity (PA). Recognizing that schools are ideally situated to promote children's PA, national recommendations call for the development of comprehensive school physical activity programs (CSPAP). One component of a CSPAP is PA during the school day, which should include PA integration in academic lessons. Yet, despite its known effectiveness as a strategy to increase children's daily PA, there is currently a lack of externalized accountability for classroom-based PA promotion. In the absence of such accountability, it is necessary to determine effective means for internalizing classroom teachers’ motivation to promote PA. Preservice education provides a promising platform for early intervention with classroom teachers to increase their desire to engage in PA promotion. This study examined preservice elementary teachers’ (a) motivation for classroom-based PA promotion when given the opportunity to participate in an online community of practice (CoP), and (b) beliefs and future intentions for participation in the online CoP. The CoP provided training, support, and a platform for professional interactions related to integrating PA into academic subjects and constitutes a new strategy that has not been evaluated before in the context of classroom PA promotion.

Method: Preliminary data from 22 preservice elementary teachers (M_age = 21.86 ± 0.98 years; N = 18 women) enrolled in a PA promotion course taught by the 1st author during a semester were collected. Participation in the online CoP (named Move for Thought) lasted for 10 weeks. Upon completion, a survey measuring perceived barriers, attitudes, enjoyment, value, and future intentions from existing valid and reliable questionnaires was administered.

Analysis/Results: Internal consistency using Cronbach's alpha was acceptable for all measures (α > .70). Preservice teachers reported high levels of value (M = 6.15 ± 0.65), enjoyment (M = 5.40 ± 1.01), attitudes (M = 5.64 ± 0.99), and future intentions for the online CoP (M = 4.89 ± 1.44) and to integrate PA (M = 6.00 ± 0.91). Associations between the motivational variables and current participation in the CoP were positive and significant (r = .41–.60). Regression analysis showed that the level of involvement in the CoP was a significant predictor of intentions for future participation in the CoP (β = .60, p = .003) as well as of motivational outcomes.

Conclusions: Even though they are preliminary, current findings are encouraging on the role of the online CoP in preservice elementary teachers’ motivation and future intentions to integrate PA and use the CoP.

Feasibility of Just-a-Minute (JAM) Activities for Increasing Classroom-Based Physical Activity

Collin A. Webster^F, Spyridoula Vazou, Amy Hutchinson, Iowa State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: As part of a whole-of-school approach to helping children meet national physical activity (PA) guidelines, recommendations call for integrating PA into classroom routines. The Just-a-Minute (JAM) program is an effective means for increasing children's classroom-based PA. JAM includes short (∼ 1-minute) PA breaks that can be led by teachers or students. However, the feasibility of the program's routine use in the classroom setting is unknown. The purpose of this study was to examine classroom teachers’ perceived challenges, confidence, intentions, and self-reported use of JAM activities.

Method: Elementary classroom teachers (N = 264, M_age = 45.03 ± 10.95 years, female, n = 254) who had registered to participate in a JAM world record event completed online questionnaires assessing each variable as well as a measure assessing motivation (i.e., degree of autonomous self-regulation) to register for the JAM world record event.

Analysis/Results: The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, bivariate correlations, and a regression analysis with frequency of using JAM activities (i.e., combined number of days per week and number of times per day) as the dependent variable and length of time having used JAM activities as the independent variable. For variables assessed with more than 1 item, averaged scores were used in all analyses. Low mean scores were reported for perceived challenges (M = 2.54/6), indicating the teachers felt there were few challenges preventing them from using JAM activities. High mean scores were reported for perceived confidence for using JAM activities (M = 5.57/7) and intentions to use JAM activities in the next 3 months (M = 5.09/7). On average, participants reported having used JAM activities for at least 5 months, and they reported currently using JAM activities an average of at least 3 to 4 days per week and at least 3 times per day. Motivation to register for the JAM world record event was not significantly correlated with the other variables. Length of time having used JAM activities was a significant predictor (R²_adjusted = .11) of frequency of using JAM activities.

Conclusions: This study suggests that the JAM program is a feasible option for classroom-based PA promotion. Teachers appear likely to continue using JAM activities, and increased length of time using the activities positively predicts the rate of current use. In-service and preservice initiatives to help classroom teachers learn to promote PA should consider incorporating the JAM program.

Peer-Reviewed Abstracts

Exercise Sciences

Efficacy of Combining Cryo and Roller Massage Therapy on DOMS

Efficacy of Combining Cryo and Roller Massage Therapy on DOMS

Diana Avans, Vanguard University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Cryotherapy and roller massage therapy is currently utilized as means of recovery for people who experience delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS). Athletes believe that ice and massage speed recovery. The purpose of this study was to determine the efficacy of combining the two methods on recovery from DOMS in regards to range of motion, girth, and torque. A custom, protype roller was designed to test the hypothesis.

Method: Twenty eight males between ages 18–25 volunteered to participate in the study. All subjects were recreationally active. Participants met for five consecutive days: Day 1 – ROM, girth, torque of bicep measured. DOMS induced (Biodex System 4). Treatment applied. Days 2–5 – ROM, girth, torque measured and treatment applied. Treatment groups included each of the following applied directly to the affected muscle for 10 minutes: Control group (no treatment); Cryo group (bag of ice); Massage group (Tiger Tail®); Combo group (polar roller; custom made cold roller). Measurements were taken before participants performed a 5 minute general warm up on a stationary bike (70–90 rpm) and then performed 10-repition passive warm up of the bicep before torque was measured. A repeated measures MANOVA was used with significance set a p ≤ 0.05. Data were analyzed using PASW (v. 21).

Analysis/Results: There was a significant interaction effect between time, measure, and group (Lamba (48, 27.56) = 1.802, p = 0.05. Bonferonni post hoc tests revealed a significant difference between torque produced after treatment with the polar roller and the regular roller (p = 0 .01). Upon further analysis, it was discovered that although randomly assigned to treatment groups, the roller and polar group had significantly different initial torque measurements (p = 0.001). Values for torque showed significant time effects (p ≤  0.05) at each time progression except 72 hours post exercise regardless of treatment. As time progressed, there was greater difference between torque produced after treatment with the polar roller and the regular roller vs. the other two treatments. The torque achieved after the polar roller treatment approached significance over the values achieved on the ice treatment (p = 0.08) at every time point except 72 hours post.

Conclusions: The combination of cryotherapy and roller massage therapy has potential to expedite the recovery process on DOMS in regards to torque production. Athletes reported enjoying the massage with the polar roller over the use of a traditional ice massage. Follow-up studies are being conducted.

Q-Angle Influence on Leg Strength in Female Collegiate Volleyball Players

Katherine R. Berglove

Nicholas J. DeMuth, Nicole E. Wallace, Kayla R. Westling, Jill L. Greenfield and Bridget A. Duoos, University of St. Thomas

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Explosive, strong, and stable movements from the legs are crucial to the performance of volleyball players, as they must execute many dynamic movements on the court. However, a large quadriceps angle (Q-angle), common in females, can hinder the patellar tracking between the femoral condyles during knee flexion and extension. Q-angles exceeding 15–20 degrees have an inverse relationship with quadriceps strength (Byl, 2010). Quadriceps strength (QS) is optimal at Q-angles of less than 10 degrees, which allows for the most efficient line of pull of the quadriceps muscle (Byl, 2000). Excessive Q-angles have shown decreased knee strength due to additional work created by the body to control motion (Claiborne, 2006). This creates a compensatory mechanism where humans must use some of the total muscular energy for stability and control of the knee instead of putting maximal effort into strength of contraction. The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between QS and Q-angle. It was hypothesized that an excessive Q-angle decreases QS in collegiate female volleyball players.

Method: The experimental design was carried out by recruiting ten females (age = 19.3 ± 1.337 yrs.; ht. = 175.66 ± 5.59 cm; wt. = 67.52 ± 9.67 kg; yrs. exp. = 8.9 ± 2.558 yrs.) from a NCAA Division III Midwest varsity volleyball team. Each participant completed a manual muscle test (MMT) of the quadriceps, one repetition maximum (1RM) leg press to determine relative leg strength (RLS), and Q-angle measurement on right (Rt) and left (Lt) legs. Data was analyzed using the Pearson Product Moment correlation in Minitab 16.

Analysis/Results: Data analysis revealed an extremely low relationship between Q-angle (Rt = 20.60 ± 3.92; Lt = 21.20 ± 6.06) and QS (Rt = 24.90 ± 5.47; Lt = 25.22 ± 7.02) in the MMT (R = 0.16; p = 0.49) as well as between dominant leg Q-angle (20.60 ± 3.92) and RLS (2.93 ± 0.47) from the 1RM (R = − 0.037; p = 0.92).

Conclusions: There was no significant relationship between excessive Q-angle and its effect on maximal QS. These results would be important to individuals interested in how q-angle effects the body's biomechanics, particularly regarding gender differences and athletics.

Foam Rolling Effect on Hamstring Flexibility in Crossfit Athletes

Ben T. Besch, Katelyn R. Buesgens and Bridget A. Duoos, University of St. Thomas

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: High-density foam rolling has become an increasingly popular method of attempting self-myofascial release for athletes and recreationally active individuals who believe foam rolling (FR) will increase the flexibility of muscles, improve performance and reduce injuries. Myofascial release requires pressure to be put on a tight fascial trigger point which then causes the tissue to loosen (Barnes, 1997). A foam roller, a firm cylindrical tube that is made in a variety of diameters, is commonly used to apply that pressure to a muscle group as the user rolls a body part over the tube. The limited research that has investigated FR suggests that this practice is highly beneficial. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of FR on hamstring flexibility of male Crossfit participants. It was hypothesized that FR the hamstring for thirty seconds would increase the flexibility of the hamstring muscles.

Method: Twenty male Crossfit athletes (n = 20, ht. = 182.11 ± 5.52 cm.; wt = 89.62 ± 11.71 kg,; age = 37.7 ± 9.01) performed a Crossfit workout consisting of deadlifts, pushups, pull-ups, and lunges prior to the hamstring flexibility measurement. The supine straight leg flexion test was administered to the right (RH) and left (LH) hamstrings. Range of motion was measured at the hip joint in degrees with a Saunders inclinometer. Participants FR each hamstring for 30 seconds prior to a second hamstring flexibility measurement. Data was analyzed using a two-tailed paired t-test in Minitab 16 at the p <  0.05 level.

Analysis/Results: RH flexibility pre-FR (91.05 ± 19.55) was statistically different (p = 0.007) from post-FR (94.85 ± 20.39) flexibility. LH flexibility pre-FR (92.60 ± 17.04) was also statistically different (p = 0.0013) from flexibility post-FR (95.95 ± 18.89).

Conclusions: Based on the statistical analysis, FR is an effective method of self-myofascial release that results in improved hamstring flexibility. Athletes who want to increase hamstring flexibility may find FR an easy way to perform self-myofascial release which results in improved hamstring flexibility. Coaches and athletic trainers may find it beneficial to recommend to athletes with tight hamstrings that they use a foam roller to improve hamstring flexibility.

Administrator Perceptions of Delivering the TGMD-2 Using Multimedia

Sheri J. Brock, Leah E. Robinson, Mary E. Rudisill, Jacqueline Irwin, Kara Palmer and Abigail Dennis, Auburn University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD-2) is a widely accepted means of measuring gross motor functioning in children 3–10 years of age. Currently, researchers are exploring techniques for administering the TGMD-2 in a more consistent and practical manner. The purpose of this study was to examine the perceptions of two highly trained experts administering the TGMD-2 using traditional and multimedia methods of delivery. A secondary purpose of this study was to determine if administration time varies when incorporating traditional and multimedia methods of delivery.

Method: The participants were two highly trained individuals with advanced degrees and more than 25 years combined experience administering the TGMD-2. The participant's degrees, training, and research agendas focus on the design and implementation of movement programs and assessment of motor performance in preschool and school-age children. The two experts administered the TGMD-2 to 45 children ages 5–10 years (M = 7.56, SD = 1.73) using traditional (live) and multimedia (video) methods of delivery. All children completed the TGMD-2 using both methods of delivery. Following the 3-week administration period, in-depth individual interviews were conducted with both experts by the primary author. Length of administration time was noted for each assessment given to determine potential differences in administration time.

Analysis/Results: Interview data were transcribed and coded using constant comparison and standard qualitative methods to produce emerging themes (Patton, 1990). Administrative time was recorded for each child and averaged according to traditional or multimedia delivery. Results from interviews generated the following themes: (1) Physical demands; (2) Demonstration quality, (3) Knowledge of results, (4) Social interactions, and (5) Administrative implications. Administration time was 8.07 ± 2.32 min (traditional) and 9.02 ± 4.33 min (multimedia).

Conclusions: Overall the two experts preferred using multimedia as opposed to live delivery of the TGMD-2. However, some concerns were addressed regarding potential implications on motor performance of the children being assessed. Administration time was slightly longer for multimedia delivery than traditional delivery. Future research should explore children's TGMD-2 delivery preferences, as well as performance results when using various methods of delivery.

Cross-Validation of VO2Peak Prediction Models in Adolescents

Ryan D. Burns, James C. Hannon^F, Timothy A. Brusseau^F, Pedro F. Saint-Maurice, Gregory J. Welk and Matthew Mahar^F, East Carolina University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Cardiorespiratory endurance is a major component of health-related fitness testing in physical education. FITNESSGRAM recommends the use of the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER), or alternatively, the One-mile Run/Walk (1MRW) to estimate aerobic capacity. No research to date has cross-validated prediction models from both the PACER and 1MRW using current FITNESSGRAM standards. The purpose of this study was to cross-validate prediction models from the PACER and 1MRW against measured VO_2Peak. Models examined included the Cureton 1MRW model, the Mile-PEQ, a New PACER model, and both a Linear and Quadratic PACER model.

Method: Cardiorespiratory endurance data were collected on 86 adolescents (34 Girls, 52 Boys; Mean Age = 14.7 ± 1.3 years) on three separate testing days. Each student completed the 1MRW and PACER in a counterbalanced order, in addition to a maximal laboratory treadmill test to measure VO_2Peak.

Analysis/Results: Validity was examined using multiple correlations (R), standard error of estimate (SEE), and paired t-tests. Individual agreement was assessed using modified Bland-Altman Plots, which examined the relation between VO_2Peak residuals and estimates obtained from each algorithm. Criterion-referenced (CR) validity was examined using modified kappa (Kq), proportion of agreement (Pa), and a phi (ϕ) coefficient. Multiple correlations across models with measured VO_2Peak were considered strong (R = 0.74 to 0.78, p <  .001). Prediction error (SEE) was 4.295 ml^.kg^− 1.min^− 1 using the 1MRW model, and ranged from 4.206 ml^.kg^− 1.min^− 1 (Quadratic PACER) to 5.907 ml^.kg^− 1.min^− 1 (New PACER) using various PACER models. All PACER models, except the New PACER, displayed systematic bias in the prediction of VO_2Peak by overestimating measured aerobic capacity at low levels and underestimating aerobic capacity at higher levels. Classification agreement with measured VO_2Peak ranged from (Kq = 0.37, Pa = 0.73, Φ = 0.52) using 1MRW to (Kq = 0.52, Pa = .79, Φ = 0.72) using the New PACER algorithm.

Conclusions: All models examined in this study displayed a strong linear relationship with measured VO_2Peak and acceptable prediction error. There was systematic bias in the prediction of VO_2Peak except when using the New PACER model. Classification agreement with measured VO_2Peak was considered moderate among all models. The results suggest that the 1MRW and various PACER models’ predictive accuracy were similar, with the New PACER displaying the strongest CR agreement with measured VO_2Peak and an unbiased prediction of measured VO_2Peak across the range of estimated cardiorespiratory endurance levels.

Development of a VO2Peak Prediction Model from One-Mile Run/Walk Performance

Ryan D. Burns, James C. Hannon, Timothy A. Brusseau, Pedro F. Saint-Maurice and Gregory J. Welk Matthew Mahar, East Carolina University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: FITNESSGRAM currently employs a generalized regression model to predict VO_2Peak from One-mile Run/Walk (1MRW) performance to assess cardiorespiratory endurance. The 1MRW prediction equation includes body mass index (BMI) and therefore requires that users collect height and weight information. This can present additional challenges for teachers. The development of a new algorithm that doesn't require BMI may increase the utility of the test. The purpose of this study was to develop an alternative aerobic capacity prediction model from 1MRW performance in adolescent youth aged 13 to 16 years. A secondary aim was to determine the criterion-referenced (CR) validity of the model using FITNESSGRAM's aerobic capacity Healthy Fitness Zone classification scheme.

Method: Cardiorespiratory endurance data were collected on 86 adolescents (34 Girls, 52 Boys; Mean age = 14.7 ± 1.3 years) on two separate testing days. The 1MRW was administered on an outside standard track. A laboratory VO_2Peak test was conducted using a maximal, gender-specific, and graded exercise treadmill protocol. BMI and percent body fat (%BF) via two-site skinfolds were assessed.

Analysis/Results: Multiple regression analysis using the hierarchical (block-wise entry) method was employed to develop the model. CR validity was assessed using modified kappa (Kq), proportion of agreement (Pa), and a phi (ϕ) coefficient. The final model yielded significant predictors for 1MRW time (β = − 12.632 min, p <  .001), 1MRW² (β = .551 min², p <  .001), and an age x gender interaction term (β = .212, p = .021). Neither BMI nor %BF was a significant predictor of measured VO_2Peak. The final model was VO_2Peak = 107.589 – (12.632 ×  1MRW time) +(.551 ×  1MRW time²)+(0.212 ×  Age ×  Gender) (R = .82, SEE = 3.9 ml^.kg^− 1.min^− 1). CR validity analysis yielded moderate classification agreement between the new model and measured VO_2Peak into a three Healthy Fitness Zone scheme (Kq = 0.48, p <  .001; Pa = 0.74; ϕ = 0.62).

Conclusions: The newly developed aerobic capacity prediction model without a BMI term displayed good prediction accuracy and moderate agreement into Healthy Fitness Zones with measured VO_2Peak. Despite these encouraging findings, the new model must be externally cross-validated to ensure its generalizability to larger populations of school-aged children. The results suggest that an aerobic capacity prediction model without the use of a body composition term can provide an accurate assessment of cardiorespiratory endurance in adolescents.

The Effects of Exercise on Executive Function in Parkinson's Disease

Manuela Cristina Caciula, Michael Horvat, Phillip Tomporowski

([email protected]).

The University of Georgia

Background/Purpose: Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by progressive loss of motor function, followed by behavioral, physiological, and cognitive modifications in a great proportion of patients. Cognitive function impairments are observed relatively early after the onset of PD and if not treated accordingly, can progress to dementia. Exercise is considered a valuable tool in improving or delaying the progression of motor and cognitive aspects of the disease. However, the optimal delivery content of exercise for people with PD has not been identified yet. The purpose of this study was to identify the effects of different frequencies of exercise on selective aspects of executive function, such as working memory (WM) and cognitive flexibility (shifting) in individuals with PD.

Method: Forty-three participants (M _age = 68.5 (SD = 11.3), 26 males), with idiopathic PD stages 2 – 3 (Hoehn & Yahr scale) completed two cognitive tasks (Auditory Switch Task and N-back task), at baseline, and after 12 weeks of multimodal exercise training. Global switch costs (ms) and response accuracy (% correct responses) were calculated for the switch task, and response time (RT) (ms), and accuracy (% correct responses) for the N-back task. The participants were divided into two training frequency groups: a) a high – frequency: 4 – 5 times each week (N = 23, M_age = 68.6 (SD = 5.8), 16 males), and b) a low – frequency: 3 times or less each week (N = 20, M_age = 67.6 (SD = 4.5), 10 males).

Analysis/Results: Although both frequency groups improved global switch costs and N-back RT, the high - frequency group displayed greater gains than the low - frequency group. Mixed factorial ANOVA revealed a significant interaction between time and exercise – frequency for global switch costs (F (1, 41) = 5.53, p <  .05., partial eta squared = 0.09), and N-back RT (F (1, 41) = 14.96, p <  .001, partial eta squared = 0.26), and significant main effects of time for global switch costs accuracy (F (1, 41) = 5.08, p <  .05, partial eta squared = 0.11, and N – back accuracy (F (1, 41 = 17.37, p <  .001, partial eta squared = 0.29).

Conclusions: The results of the study suggest that high frequency of multimodal exercise is beneficial for WM and cognitive flexibility in individuals with PD and could be an important component in preserving executive functioning in this population.

Self-Efficacy for Physical Activity in Children With Developmental Coordination Disorder

Priscila Caçola, Michael Romero, Melvin Ibana, Sarasvati Guzman, Jennifer Chuang and The University of Texas at Arlington

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Studies have indicated that children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) have lower self-efficacy toward physical activity and participate in fewer organized and recreational play activities than children without the disorder. The purpose of this study was to determine self-efficacy in children with DCD by using two unique assessments and compare the results by age.

Method: There were 11 participants diagnosed with DCD, 9 males and 2 females aged between 7 to 13 years. Participants completed two questionnaires, the Children's Self-Perception of Adequacy in, and Predilection for Physical Activity (CSAPPA) and the Children's Assessment of Participation and Enjoyment (CAPE). The CSAPPA dealt with the participant deciding between a physical activity or a non-physical activity and whether or not this choice really describes them or does not describe themselves. The CAPE is a more detailed questionnaire that involved asking whether the participant has done the activity, how often, with whom, where, and how much they enjoyed the activity. Participants were divided into two age categories, with the “younger” group between 7 to 9 years and the “older” group with ages between 10 to 13 years. Independent t-tests were run to compare the groups for all the scales and a correlation analysis looked at possible relationships between age and scores.

Analysis/Results: For ease of understanding, scores were shown as the percentage of the maximum score for each category of each assessment. The only significant difference was found for the CSAPPA total score, where the younger group had a significantly higher percentage of self-efficacy for the total CSAPPA score than the older group (69% compared to 54%). In two scales of the CSAPPA (Total Score & Active Games) and two of the CAPE (Diversity & Enjoyment) a negative correlation was found between age and percentage values, indicating that self-efficacy decreases as age increases (CSAPPA – total: − .54, active games: − .53, CAPE – diversity:. − 41, enjoyment: − .53).

Conclusions: With these results we can support the preliminary notion that that self-efficacy in children with DCD decreases with age. This could be due to their typically developing counterparts advancing in their abilities, making it more apparent to the child with DCD that they have difficulties with certain activities. This possibly leads them to enjoy those activities less or refrain from doing them entirely. An important way to address self-efficacy in children with DCD is to encourage them to set attainable goals in their area of limitation.

Index to Measure Physical Fitness and Education: A Systematic Review

Zechao Chen, Weimo Zhu, Jie Zhuang and Shanghai University of Sport

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: An index is a statistical indicator used to measure, evaluate, and summarize something of interest. The indices have been used in many areas, such as the stock exchange, public health, policymaking, etc. This is also true for physical fitness and education, but no systematic review was conducted on how these indices were constructed. The purpose of this study was, through a systematical review, to examine the construction of existing indices, including the theoretical models employed.

Method: The databases of PubMed and Web of Science were searched for English language studies during1960 to 2014 and search terms included “(physical) fitness index”, “physical activity index”, and “physical education index”, etc.

Analysis/Results: A total of 14,627 and 4,578 articles were found from Web of Science and PubMed, respectively, but only 50 papers qualified for the review. Indices such as “Fitness Report Card” (by America College of Sport Medicine), “Canada Physical Literacy” (Physical and Health Education Canada, 2013), “School Health” (CDC), and “US Physical Activity Report Card ” (National Physical Activity Plan, 2014) were identified and examined. While the indices were developed to measure different traits (e.g., physical fitness or education) and at different levels (e.g., cites or schools), the Social Ecological Model was found best to represent their constructs. Specifically, a four-level structure can be employed to predict physical fitness outcome, including: (a) Level 1 or Individual Level (with measures such as age, gender, race, etc.), (b) Level 2 or School Level (teacher, fitness testing employed, facility, etc.), (c) Level 3 or Community Level (after-school program, green space, walk to school program, etc.) and (d) Level 4 or Society Level (policy, environment, culture, etc.). Little evidence, however, was provided on how much variance can be explained at the different levels. In addition, none of the indices can be used as a tool to design interventions.

Conclusions: A set of physical fitness/activity/education indices has been developed and provides a nice summary of a nation, state, or city's physical fitness/activity/education status. The Social Ecological Model was found to be the best to summarize the four levels of these indices. Future index research or development should focus on explaining variance and functioning for intervention design.

Catching Waves for Health: Exploring the Benefits of Surfing

Emily Dean Clapham

Linda S. Lamont

University of Rhode Island

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The lack of fitness and recreation opportunities for children with disabilities is problematic and can be consequential to proper health and development. Adapted aquatics offers necessary physical activity and educational programming to children with disabilities and the benefits for these children are more pronounced and significant than for their able-bodied peers. Similar benefits could potentially be derived from surfing in the ocean. The purpose of this study was to assess the effectiveness of a surfing intervention on the strength, flexibility, cardiorespiratory endurance, amount of activity, balance, range of motion, bone density, and program evaluation of children with disabilities.

Method: Twenty-nine children ages 5-18 years, were recruited from the University of Rhode Island Adapted Physical Education Program, Special Olympics Rhode Island and through word-of-mouth. This was an 8-week program that used pre and post-testing measurements. Amount and level of physical activity (heart rate, caloric expenditure, stress and recovery time)- Sunnto Memory Belts, balance and coordination- force plates, cardiovascular endurance, flexibility and muscular strength and endurance- Brockport Physical Fitness Test (BPFT), program evaluation, self-efficacy and bone density- Pediatric DEXA scan measurements were recorded.

The goal of each hour surf lesson was to teach the participants how to paddle in the water, balance on their board, and ride a wave on the board progressing from laying, to kneeling, to standing.

Analysis/Results: We found significant improvements in endurance (isometric push-ups): (P° 0.015) and cardiorespiratory endurance (20-m) PACER (P°0.047) among the participants receiving the surf intervention. ^*Due to the large amount of data collected, the researchers are still working on analyzing some of the data collected.

Conclusions: These results showed that there is an overall improvement in upper body strength and cardiorespiratory endurance in these participants. Further research is needed to discern the physiological effectiveness of surfing programs as an alternate exercise modality for children with disabilities.

Effects of Static Stretching on Hamstring Flexibility and Sprint Times

Brian D. Sherman

Sarah A. Anderson, Braden J. Lengeling, Ashley N. Johnson

Bridget A. Duoos

([email protected]).

University of St. Thomas

Background/Purpose: Research regarding the effects of flexibility training and stretching on athletic performance has produced conflicting results. A common method researchers have used to better understand the effects of static stretching is sprint performance. Even though studies have shown static stretching to have negative effects on sprint performance, many coaches, trainers, and therapists still recommend static stretching for their athletes. The purpose of this study was to compare the flexibility of the hamstring muscle (H), and its effect on sprinting times (ST) in recreational athletes. It was hypothesized that a static H stretch prior to sprinting would increase H flexibility and decrease ST.

Method: Thirteen males (age = 20.85 ± 1.57 yrs.; ht. = 180.89 ± 6.14 cm; wt. = 78.99 ± 10.96 kg) and eleven females (age = 20.55 ± 0.69 yrs.; ht. = 170.14 cm; wt. = 63.14 ± 8.73 kg) from a private university participated in a two-day experiment. The first day participants performed a controlled dynamic warm- up of repeated exercises over the width of a basketball court. A Saunders Digital Inclinometer measured H flexibility prior to the Brower Timing measured 200 meter sprint. Day two, the same dynamic warm-up was completed followed by a 30-second static H stretch performed with the ankle dorsiflexed and heel placed on a waist-high surface. Again, H flexibility was measured prior to the 200 meter sprint. Four paired t-tests were run at the 0.05 level using Minitab 16.

Analysis/Results: The two-paired t-test resulted in statistical significance for male pre-stretch H flexibility vs. post-stretch H flexibility (86.92 ± 14.01 vs. 97.98 ± 10.32, p = 0.001) and female pre-stretch H flexibility vs. post-stretch H flexibility (101.18 ± 15.09 vs. 106.64 ± 13.28, p = 0.039). There was no statistical significance for the male pre-stretch ST vs. post- stretch ST (28.045 ± 2.126 vs. 28.235 ± 2.376, p = 0.702) and female pre-stretch ST vs. post-stretch ST (36.85 ± 4.5 vs. 36.08 ± 4.04, p = 0.103).

Conclusions: Statistical analysis indicated a significant increase in H flexibility when a static stretch was implemented prior to a 200 meter sprint for both males and females. No statistically significant decrease in 200 meter ST occurred in both males and females. This research is of value to coaches, trainers and therapists in their recommendations to athletes regarding performance. Emphasis does not need to be placed on static H stretches when attempting to decrease ST.

Relationship of Crural Index and Speed in Collegiate Softball Players

Tisa L. Phinney, Erin G. Mussett

Bridget A. Duoos

University of St. Thomas

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Speed plays a critical role in the majority of competitive sports such as softball. Many factors including weight, height, sprinting mechanics and leg length, affect an athlete's speed. The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between sprint speed (SS) and crural index (CI) in collegiate softball players. Twenty-two female collegiate softball players (ht., cm = 168.48 ± 5.90; wt., kg = 71.02 ± 14.70; age, years = 19.73 ± 1.03) participated in this IRB approved study. It was hypothesized that the higher the CI, the faster the athlete's SS.

Method: Athlete's leg length measurements taken included length of the full leg (hip joint center to ankle joint center), length of the femur (hip joint center to center of knee joint) and length of the tibia (center of the knee joint to the center of the ankle joint). The CI was calculated by dividing the length of the tibia by the length of the femur and multiplying by 100. A Brower Timing TC-system was used to time subjects running two twenty-yard sprints followed by two forty-yard sprints with three to six minutes of rest between sprints. A Pearson Product Moment correlation was run in Minitab 16 to determine the relationship between SS and CI at the 0.05 level.

Analysis/Results: Averages of the two twenty-yard sprints (3.02 ± 0.14) correlated to CI (0.92 ± 0.05) had a moderate negative relationship (r = − 0.50) and were statistically significant (p = 0.01). Averages of the two forty-yard sprints (5.70 ± 0.33) correlated to CI (0.92 ± 0.05) had a high negative relationship (r = − 0.65) and were also statistically significant (p = 0.00).

Conclusions: Based on the results, softball players with a higher CI do have faster SS. There was a slightly stronger relationship between the forty-yard SS and CI than the twenty-yard SS and CI possibly due to the athlete's ability to reach full speed over a longer distance. The results of this research are of importance to softball players and coaches and should be taken into consideration when selecting athletes to sprint 20 and 40 yards.

Effects of Exercise on Fine Motor Performance: A Pilot Study

Amanda L. Engen

Kelly A. Geraghty, Nicole J. Davis

Bridget A. Duoos

The University of St. Thomas

([email protected]).

Abstract

Background/Purpose: Fine motor control requires the strict coordination of groups of small muscles by the central nervous system allowing for intricate and rapid movements of the hands, feet, and eyes. Manual dexterity, more specifically, is fine motor control of the hands and fingers. Fine motor control knowingly declines with age and certain diseases such as fibromyalgia and cerebral palsy (Perez-de-Heredia-Torres, 2013). Without these fine motor movements, activities of daily living (ADLs) become increasingly difficult. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects exercise has on manual dexterity, as assessed by the Minnesota Manual Dexterity Test (MMDT).

Method: Nine healthy collegiate students (age = 20.55 ± 0.88, ht. = 1687.72 ± 6.77 cm, wt. = 63.02 ± 11.16kg) performed an initial baseline MMDT. At least 24 hours later, subjects completed one randomly assigned aerobic or anaerobic exercise trial, followed by a timed MMDT. The remaining exercise trial, along with a subsequent timed MMDT, was completed at least 24 hours later. Paired t-tests were run in Minitab 16 at the p <  0.05 level.

Analysis/Results: Of the six paired t-tests performed, statistical significance was found for the baseline (64.31 ± 7.98) vs. aerobic (57.33 ± 5.01) placing test (p = 0.029); the baseline (63.016 ± 21.005) vs. aerobic (50.18 ± 13.94) turning test (p = 0.003); and the baseline (63.16 ± 21.005) vs. anaerobic (51.67 ± 16.73) turning test (p = 0.015). Baseline (64.31 ± 7.98) vs. anaerobic (59.67 ± 2.65) placing test approached significance (p = 0.052). No statistical significance was found for either of the aerobic vs. anaerobic placing or turning tests.

Conclusions: Exercise had a statistically significant impact on manual dexterity and fine motor function in a healthy population. Aerobic exercise, specifically, resulted in the largest changes in MMDT performance. As the average age of the U.S. population gets older and they attempt to maintain their independence, the information from this study could prove to be beneficial for the general population as a whole. Research of this nature could also be translated to diseased populations such as those with fibromyalgia or diabetes.

Validation of Physical Activity Measuring Devices in Children

Andrea C. Fadel1

Paul S. Weiss

Adria Meyer, Christi Kay

Diane Allensworth

Kimberly Green, Patricia C. Cheung

Julie A. Gazmararian

Emory University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The Actigraph accelerometer has been validated to accurately measure physical activity in children. However, accelerometers are time-consuming and cost-prohibitive. Other less costly devices, including pedometers (Pebble and FITSTEP) and activity watches (MOVband), have yet to be validated in children. The primary goal of this study was to determine whether the Pebble, GOPHER, and MOVband similarly measure physical activity in children as compared to the Actigraph.

Method: Seven volunteer classrooms and 182 fourth-grade students from one metro-Atlanta elementary school were recruited. All students wore the Actigraph during the school day for two weeks. Classrooms were randomly assigned to wear either the Pebble, the FITSTEP, or the MOVband during the school day during the second week. Students and teachers completed a questionnaire on the two devices worn. Metabolic Equivalents of a Task (METs) were compared between the Actigraph and the other devices. The average MET values were compared across devices to determine if the devices differ in measurement of physical activity volume.

Analysis/Results: The crude average METs are 1.00 (SD 0.0001) for the FITSTEP, 1.20 (SD 1.13) for the Pebble, 1.00 (SD 0.001) for the MOVband, and 1.01 (SD 0.01) for all Actigraphs. The mean METs for the Actigraphs in the group that also used the FITSTEP are 1.02 (SD 0.01), 1.01 (SD 0.004) for the group that also used the Pebble, and 1.02 (SD 0.01) for the group that used the MOVBand. Many students liked wearing the devices (56.7% Actigraph, 75.6% Fitstep, 91.1% MOVband) excluding the Pebble (12.5%). Except for the MOVband, the teachers did not find the devices distracting after a few days.

Conclusions: The average MET values were very similar, and the final deciding factors for devices should other determining factors including cost and ease of use. Devices do not have to be distracting or cost prohibitive, and more emphasis should be on the preference of the researchers and the goal of the study. Integrating the devices into the curriculum through students creating graphs and charts of their daily steps can enhance their academic experience. The results from this validation study will help future studies consider other options for devices measuring physical activity in children.

Effect of SPARK on Students’ Academic Learning Time in Physical Education

You Fu

Zan Gao

James C. Hannon^F, Ryan D. Burns

Timothy A. Brusseau, Brett A. Allen

J.E. Cosgriff

Memorial Catholic School

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Academic Learning Time-Physical Education (ALT-PE) has been utilized as a measure of teaching effectiveness and student achievement in physical education settings. However, the effect of health-related physical fitness intervention on middle school students’ ALT-PE is unknown. Specifically, how students spend time in the various context levels of academic learning during a health-related physical fitness program compared to the conventional multi-activity model is unclear. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the effect of the of Sports, Play and Active Recreation for Kids (SPARK) on middle school students’ ALT-PE as compared to conventional physical education program.

Method: A total of 12 target students were selected and observed from a pool of 6^th–8^th middle school students. Six students participated in SPARK and six students participated in the conventional program over the course of 9-weeks. Students attended three sport activities in the order of soccer, flag football and ultimate Frisbee. Two raters observed students’ behaviors with a 12-second interval observation/record protocol using the context level of the ALT-PE systematic measurement observation instrument (Siedentop, Tousignant, & Parker, 1982). A series of independent ANOVAs were conducted to determine if there were any differences in students’ ALT-PE context levels within each sport activity between the SPARK and conventional students.

Analysis/Results: Average inter-observer agreement for ALT-PE context level was 89.04 %, indicating acceptable inter-rater agreement reliability. The results suggested SPARK students had significantly higher percentage of time spent in subject matter motor (p <  .05), especially in skill practice (p <  .01) and fitness (p <  .01), compared to the conventional students over time. However, the SPARK students spent significant less time in general content (p <  .05) over the intervention period compared to the conventional students. The same effect was found for each sport activity.

Conclusions: This research supports that SPARK is an effective pedagogical strategy to increase middle school children's academic learning time compared to the conventional multi-activity model. Physical educators may consider SPARK as an alternative instructional approach to sustain elevated levels of academic learning time in their physical education classes. Increases in academic learning time through the SPARK may increase the probability of students achieving optimal levels of physical activity and health-related fitness.

Defining Rest Post-Concussion Using Fitbit Technology

Sara Gralitzer

Jennifer Jordan Hamson-Utley

University of Phoenix, Phoenix, Arizona

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Current post-concussion treatment is highly variable across sport settings and within the NCAA. A common focus of treatment is to minimize symptoms. Common symptoms include visual-disturbances, headache, and difficulty sleeping. A common theme post-concussion includes limiting activity, however, there is ambiguity as to what this means and limited research to define it. Furthermore, resting following concussion has been correlated with symptom resolution. The purpose of this research was to determine a baseline on sleep quality and quantity, daily activity on a college campus while attending classes and activity when confined-to-the-home in a healthy college-aged population. This data may assist in developing a post-concussion treatment protocol by quantifying “rest” as a step count and by examining sleep that college-students achieve when not experiencing post-concussion recovery.

Method: Observational, gathering of normal daily activity and sleep-patterns of students on a college campus in Ogden, Utah. Participants included 19 (n = 16 females; n = 5 males) healthy college-aged participants (26.7+/ − 6.2 years; 169.5 cm; 78.2+/ − 25.2kg). Students wore the Fitbit watch for the same 4-week (28-day) period during spring semester. Daily activity was defined as total number-of-steps in one 24-hour period. The same procedure was used for limited activity while confined-to-the-home setting for 24-hours. Sleep quality was defined as number-of-times-awakened during the night measured by restlessness or periods awake sensed by the Fitbit. Sleep quantity was defined as total-number-of-sleep-hours in a 24-hour period; the Fitbit was “put-to-sleep” by the participant.

Analysis/Results: Average daily-activity for college-aged participants was 6781.5+/ −  2548.17 steps; Average daily-activity when confined-to-the-home was 662.80+/ −  48.5 steps; Average sleep quantity was 7.12+/ −  0.88 hours; Average restlessness at night was 26.5+/ −  6.10 times awakened; Mean steps per credit hour was 492.30+/ −  112.13 steps.

Conclusions: Defining the average activity levels of college-students stands to inform sports medicine practitioners about prescribing physical rest as part of the recovery process of an athlete post-concussion; navigating a college campus to attend classes and living the life of a student is associated with a baseline level of activity. What's more, defining rest by limiting the number of steps an athlete should take daily is an important aspect of developing a comprehensive post-concussion care plan, as symptomatic activity has been correlated with cell death. Finally, assessing sleep trends via the Fitbit can also inform post-concussion care as gaining quality sleep has been correlated with symptom resolution. This and additional research can inform a comprehensive multidisciplinary approach to post-concussion care.

Acute Exercise and Cognition in High School Youth

Andrew T. Harveson, James C. Hannon^F, Timothy A. Brusseau, Leslie Podlog

Charilaos Papadopoulos

Lynne Durrant

Morgan Hall

University of Utah

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: While research exists documenting the occurrence of increased cognitive function following chronic as well as acute exercise bouts in elderly, young adult, and youth populations, it is still unclear as to the type of exercise that produces the greatest cognitive effect. Thus, the primary purpose of this study was to determine if a difference in cognitive response to exercise mode existed between acute bouts of strength exercise, aerobic exercise, and a non-exercising control in high school youth.

Method: 140 male and female students ages 15 to 18 were recruited from physical education classes in a high school in the southwestern United States. All participants performed one familiarization session on the cognitive test and exercise protocols. Beginning one week after the familiarization session, participants performed the three experimental sessions in random order, separated by seven days each. The interventions were aerobic exercise, strength exercise, and non-exercise. Cognitive functions were measured using the Victoria version of the Stroop Test, which has been validated as a means of assessing selective attention. Each exercise intervention was matched for time, and intensities were monitored using heart rate monitors and rating of perceived exertion (RPE). The non-exercise control consisted of participants viewing a sports-related DVD for 30 minutes. Participants were monitored to insure that they did not fall asleep or get up to move around. A repeated-measures ANOVA was used to analyze cognitive differences based on exercise type.

Analysis/Results: A one-way repeated measures ANOVA revealed that exercise type had a significant (p <  .01) effect on all three forms of the Stroop test (Dot, Word, Color). Pairwise comparisons revealed that both aerobic and resistance exercise exhibited significantly faster scores than the non-exercise condition for the Dot test (p <  .01), Color test (p <  .01), and Word test (p = .005, p = .029) respectively. Resistance and aerobic exercise did not differ significantly from each other under any condition of the Stroop test.

Conclusions: Acute resistance and aerobic exercise both significantly increased cognition in high school youth. These findings extend the current knowledge related to acute youth aerobic exercise and its positive impact on cognition to include resistance exercise. This finding gives physical educators and classroom teachers additional tools in their arsenal to potentially increase student achievement.

Exercise and Dietary Supplementation on Oxidative Stress in Obese Individuals

Jungyun Hwang

The University of Texas at Austin

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Obesity is associated with vascular diseases that are often attributed to vascular oxidative stress (Yoon et al. 2014). This study examined the effects of combination of exercise training and dietary supplementation on antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GP), and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) and a biomarker of oxidative stress such as lipid peroxidation (LP) through a 12-week period in obese Individuals.

Method: Thirty-seven obese individuals [91% female, 36.0 ± 12.4 yrs, 43.4 ± 5.45 %body fat, 31.03 ± 1.27 body mass index) were randomly assigned to one of 3 groups: 14 subjects received exercise training and dietary supplementation (EDS), 12 subjects only received dietary supplementation (DS), and 11 subjects served as the control group (CON) through a 12-week period. Venous blood was drawn at baseline, 4 weeks, 8 weeks, and 12 weeks to analyze oxidative stress markers. Differences within and between treatments were tested using repeated measures ANOVA.

Analysis/Results: Between group-comparison, EDS showed a significantly greater increase in SOD activity and CAT activity at week 12 (p <  0.05) as compared to CON. EDS also had a significantly greater increase in GP activity at 4 and 8 weeks (p <  0.05), compared to DS and CON. Within group-comparison, EDS had a significantly greater increase in SOD activity at 4, 8, and 12 weeks (p <  0.01), in CAT activity at 12 weeks (p <  0.05), and in GP activity at 8 and 12 weeks (p <  0.01) from baseline. DS also showed a significantly greater increase in SOD activity at 8 weeks (p <  0.01) and 12 weeks (p <  0.05). However, there were no significant differences in TAS and LP within group-comparison and between group-comparison over a 12-week period.

Conclusions: The current findings confirm that combination of exercise training and dietary supplementation can improve antioxidant capacity to prevent oxidative stress in obese individuals. Subsequently, the combined treatments can strengthen antioxidant defenses and may reduce oxidative stress in obese individuals.

Test-Retest Reliability of Selected NeuroCom® Postural Stability Assessments

Carol C. Irwin, Yuhua Li

Edina Bene

Amanda Rach

Brandon Baughman

Lawrence Weiss

Todd Layne

University of Memphis

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Sports-related mild traumatic brain injury (MTBI), or concussion, is a growing public health dilemma (CDC, 2014). There is controversy regarding how to accurately diagnose and gauge severity of MTBI. Previous studies found that postural stability, balance, is a stable indicator, and is one of three major categories included with the commonly-used, globally-accepted SCAT3 sideline assessment (McCrory et al., 2013). One computerized balance system, NeuroCom® VSR™ Sport, uses force plate technology that measures an athlete's balance while attempting tasks. Baselines are compared to post injury measures to guide medical experts to diagnose and treat concussed athletes. Purpose for this study was to assess reliability for NeuroCom® VSR™ Sport measures; three Stability Evaluation Tests (SET), identical to SCAT3 tests, and four Limits of Stability (LOS) tests with student athletes.

Method: Participants (n = 139) included high school (n = 82) and collegiate (n = 57) student athletes (male ≈ 45%; female ≈ 55%). All were tested twice (pre-season/post-season) using the same NeuroCom® VSR™ Sport system. Measuring subjects’ time data (TD) and sway velocity (SV) with eyes closed, hands on hips for 20 seconds with three SET tests (excluded foam pad), the double (feet horizontally placed, touching side by side), single (non-dominant foot only), and tandem (both feet together/touching, vertically placed) balance tests. The four LOS tests involved assessing how each subject's voluntary motor system could efficiently move his/her center of gravity forward, to the right, back, and left, measuring the five variables of reaction time (RT); end point percentage (EPE); maximum excursion percentage (MXE); movement velocity (MVL); and directional control (DCL).

Analysis/Results: Test-retest reliability results for SET and LOS measures indicated low to moderate reliability. The SET reliability coefficients measuring TD and SV ranged from .160 to .398 for single and tandem. The double test SV was relatively high (r = .621), and all subjects completed the double 20 second task both pre-and post. Reliability scores for the four LOS tests of forward, backward, right, and left (in order) using test variables were: RT = .386, .114, .344, and .326; EPE = .277, .168, .226, and .088; MXE = .381, .127, .068, and .158; MVL = .096, .203, .513, and .501; and DCL = .315, .331, .438, and .448.

Conclusions: Using measures with low to moderate reliability to diagnose concussion is ill-advised. This research found NeuroCom® balance protocols among high school and college student athletes achieved low to moderate reliability. Further research to revise noted tests and to develop more accurate protocols to identify MTBI is needed.

Dominant Vs. Non-Dominant Limb Tissue Comparison in Women's Basketball

Jeffrey T. Johnson

University of West Georgia

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Side to side muscle imbalances can lead to potential injuries and decreases in performance. If imbalances do exist and can be addressed performance can increase and potential injuries may be averted.

Method: This study utilized a GE Dual Energy X-Ray Bone Densitometry System (DEXA) to investigate the amount of fat vs. lean body tissue in the upper and lower limbs of a Division II basketball team (n = 10). Each athlete signed an informed consent form and then underwent a full body scan. The system calculates bone density, fat mass, and lean mass for each body compartment. This study focused on the amount of lean mass and fat mass on the athletes’ dominant vs. non-dominant arms and legs. The differences between fat mass and lean mass were calculated and then percentage differences were averaged to determine the average percentage difference between the dominant vs. non-dominant arm and leg. In addition, paired samples t-tests were performed (a = 0.05) to determine if the differences were significantly different.

Analysis/Results: Results showed that the athletes had 3.9% more fat mass in their non-dominant arm and 3% more muscle mass in their dominant arm. In the legs, there was 0.2% increase in fat on the dominant side with 0.9% increase in lean mass on the non-dominant side. Results from the t-tests revealed significant differences in fat percentage in the arms (p = 0.034) but non-significant difference in arm lean mass (p = 0.066). No significant differences were found in the lower limb data.

Conclusions: The results of this study indicate there are some differences in fat vs. lean tissue in the arms of these athletes and addressing these imbalances could lead to better performance and decreased injury potential.

BMI Health Report Cards: Parents’ Perceptions and Use

Marla Jones

Cassie Huffer, Lance Bryant, Tom Adams

Jim Stillwell

Arkansas State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: In 2003 Arkansas became the first state to require BMI testing in public schools. According to the CDC, little is known about the effectiveness of BMI measurement programs. The purpose of this study was to determine if BMI health report cards had an impact on general parental BMI knowledge, on parental actions regarding their child's health, and to measure the accuracy of parental perceptions of their child as being underweight, normal weight, or overweight based on their child's BMI.

Method: A questionnaire was developed for this study with the assistance of physical educators, pediatricians, and exercise scientists. Over a six month period, the questionnaire was distributed to parents and guardians of children who sought medical care at two pediatrician's offices in northeast Arkansas. The participants were divided into two groups: Group 1 (n = 66) included parents of school age children, and Group 2 (n = 41) included parents that had children that were below school age. Parents in both groups were asked to report their child's height and weight, which was assessed at the pediatrician's office. The researchers then used the child's height and weight to calculate BMI. The accuracy of the parent's perception of their child's BMI category (underweight, normal weight, overweight, or obese) was determined by comparing it to the child's calculated BMI.

Analysis/Results: Overall, the results from both groups show that sixty percent of parents incorrectly categorized their child's BMI. Additionally, for Group 1, the study found that the majority of parents are not making changes to their child's diet and exercise habits even if their child is classified as “at risk” or “overweight” based on their child's BMI report card. Findings from Group 1 show that 13.2% of parents responded ‘yes they did make changes’, 28.9% responded ‘no they did not make any changes’, and 39.5% responded with ‘NA’. When asked if their child's BMI report card lead the parent(s) to rethink their family's health habits, the majority of parents responded “no” (37.9%), while 18.20% answered ‘yes’ the report did lead them to think about their family's health habits. All participants were asked if public schools should be required to report a child's BMI to parents; 45.50% responded ‘yes’, 42.40% responded ‘no’, while 12.10% reported they were ‘unsure’.

Conclusions: Based on findings from this study additional measures may need to be taken to help parents better understand the potential disease risks that accompany higher BMI values in children and adults.

A Case Study of an American Junior Hammer Throw Record

Lawrence W. Judge

Mike Judge

David Bellar

Iain Hunter

Rhonda Broome

Throw1Deep

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The aim of the hammer throw event in the sport of track and field is to project the hammer as far as possible. A major contributing factor to throwing success is the speed of the hammer, which consists of a metal ball (head) and triangular handle that are connected by a steel cable (wire), at the instant of release. The thrower accelerates the hammer to the instant of release by performing turns across the hammer throw circle, during which time the hammer's linear speed fluctuates. The coach's proper understanding and application of the biomechanical data directly impact the performance of athletes in the hammer throw. The purpose of this case study was to describe the USATF Coach's Education hammer project in which the cooperation between sport science and coaching helped to produce an American junior record of 68.12 meters in the women's hammer in 2012.

Method: The subject was measured at a height of 173 cm, weight of 83 kg, and body fat of 15.9%. After giving consent, the coach was asked to report via a datasheet the age, height and weight of the athlete, throwing volume, as well as her season's best in the hammer throw and weight throw event and weight room 1RM for the bench press, power clean and squat exercises. In total, the datasheet consisted of eight items. Two digital video cameras (Canon Elura 60) running at 60 Hz were placed to view Shelby Ashe's best throws at the 2010 USATF Nationals (61.77 m), 2011 USATF Junior Nationals (58.34 m), and 2012 USATF Junior Nationals (68.12 m American Junior Record). Following each of the competitions in 2010 and 2011, the coach collaborated with the sport scientist and chair of USATF coach's education in order to review and evaluate each of the throws.

Analysis/Results: The record setting throw by Ashe was 1.49 seconds in duration from right foot lift off and produced a release velocity of 26.8 m/s. During the throw, Ashe spent 50.35 percent of the duration of the throw in double support.

Conclusions: During meetings between the USATF Chair of coaches education, sport scientist, coach, and athlete, improvements in technique focused on increasing velocity of the hammer head. Coaches will benefit from the evaluation of this case study because it bridges the gap between the coach and the researcher through integrating biomechanical analysis in teaching the hammer throw.

Examining Item Content-Relevance of Dance Performance Evaluation Scale

Myung-Ju Kim

Kyu-Ja Hwang

Youn-Sun Choi

Hyun-Soon Back

Won-Chung Chung

Korea National Sport University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Examination of item content-relevance is the most important procedure in developing a measurement tool for evaluating a student's dance performance. Expert judges frequently rate the degree of match between the content of scale items and the objectives to be measured by the scale. Item content-relevance is estimated by calculating the percentage (i.e., 80%) of experts who classified the item into its proposed subscale. This approach provides information related to the content-relevance of individual items, but not the content representativeness of the set of content-relevant items. The purpose of this study was to examine item content-relevance of the Dance Performance Evaluation Scale (DPES) using the statistical procedure suggested by Aiken (1985) and to select the items which could evaluate the dance performance of various dance types in a valid way.

Method: The 18-item DPES was administered to 20 Korean dance experts. The expert panel rated the degree of match between 18 items and five different dance types, such as Korean traditional dance, Korean creative dance, modern dance, traditional ballet, and creative ballet. Ratings were done using the following 5-point Likert scale: 1 (Poor Fit), 2 (Fair Fit), 3 (Good Fit), 4(Very Good Fit), and 5 (Excellent Fit). Mean and standard deviation, one-way MANOVA, and Aiken's V coefficient were calculated to examine item content-relevance ratings provided by Korean dance experts.

Analysis/Results: The means of item content-relevance ratings among the five dance types were statistically significant difference from Item 1 (Originality of work, F(4, 16) = 9.43, p <  .001), Item 9 (Proficiency of technique, F(4, 16) = 4.92, p = .01), Item 10 (Flexibility of body, F(4, 16) = 4.39, p = .03), and Item 18 (Appropriate physique as dancer, F(4, 16) = 3.07, p = .047). Similar results were identified between the means of item content-relevance ratings and the Aiken's V coefficients for the 18 items. With the exception of the rating for Item 1 of Korean traditional dance type (V = .56, p > .05) and traditional ballet type (V = .57, p > .05), the remaining 88 values of V were statistically significant at p <  .01.

Conclusions: The results showed that the student's performance for the different dance types could be evaluated by the items of DPES in a valid way.

Keywords: item content-relevance, scale construction, dance, dance performance evaluation scale

Aerobic Exercise Effect on Memory Retention in Active Collegiate Females

Logan C. Knapp

Bridget A. Duoos

University of St. Thomas

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: In recent years, the effect of exercise on memory retention and cognitive function has been a topic of continually growing interest. Studies with subjects ranging from children to older adults have shown that aerobic exercise leads to increased memory retention and hippocampal volume. However, few studies have been conducted on the effect of aerobic exercise on memory retention in moderately active collegiate females. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of aerobic exercise on memory retention in moderately active collegiate females. It was hypothesized that a 15-minute moderate intensity exercise session on a stationary bike would increase memory retention in moderately active collegiate females.

Method: Ten moderately active students (age: 21.2 ± 0.632 yrs., ht.: 168.26 ± 7.37 cm, wt.: 66.70 ± 15.27 kg) from a small, Midwest, private university voluntarily participated in this Institutional Review Board (#494901-1) approved study. Subjects were females who exercised three to five days per week, and did not have any known concussions within the past five years. Pre-exercise the Rey Auditory Visual Learning Test (RAVLT) was administered to determine baseline memory retention. Subjects rode a stationary bike for 15 minutes at 50–60% of their maximum heart rate (maxHR). Post-exercise the RAVLT was again administered. A paired t-test was run in Minitab 16 at the 0.05 level.

Analysis/Results: Post-exercise RAVLT scores (0.77 ± 0.16) significantly improved over pre-exercise RAVLT scores (0.62 ± 0.09)(p = 0.026).

Conclusions: Moderately active collegiate females who participated in a 15-minute exercise bout at 50–60% of their maxHR showed increased memory retention. The hypothesis was accepted. These results have important implications for both the student attempting to learn and the teacher when designing class sessions.

Physical Fitness Tracking Review: Findings, Limitations and Improvement Needed

Wenhao Liu

Slippery Rock University of Pennsylvania

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: While fitness tracking research reveals important findings, some researchers think these findings provide little meaningful guidance for screening and/or intervention purpose (Ovesen, 2006). Through a systematic review, this study was intended to examine findings, limitations, and what could be improved in fitness tracking research.

Method: Forty-two papers published in the past 20 years (1993–2013) exclusively or partially addressing physical fitness tracking were reviewed and examined for the purpose of this study.

Analysis/Results: Some findings have been constantly reported in these fitness tracking studies. These findings are: fitness tracking is relatively strong over the short term but tends to become weak when observation intervals become longer; body composition is usually more stable in tracking than other fitness measures; low/poor fitness tracks better than high/good fitness, and high fatness tracks better than low fatness. In addition, tracking tends to increase with older age at baseline, and strength in legs tracks better than that in arms. With respect to limitations associated with fitness tracking research, inconsistencies occur in many aspects of fitness tracking studies, including participants’ baseline age, ethnic distribution of the sample, specific geographic locations, duration of follow-up, test batteries used, test procedures for the same measures, etc. These inconsistencies limit generalization of the findings and make it difficult to compare the findings across the studies. Additionally, 97.6% of the studies reviewed tracked fitness in isolation without taking into account impacting factors such as maturation, heredity, nutrition, or physical activity, preventing a deep understanding of fitness tracking. Further, typical tracking statistics (e.g., interage correlation r = 0.5) indicate stability of fitness tracking only without reflecting specific changes (directions and magnitudes) in fitness performance over time. Finally, only 9.76% of these studies tracked fitness for at-risk children, and most of them used normative standards (extreme quartiles or percentiles) to categorize “at-risk” children. But these normative standards indicate relative position within a sample or population, and do not provide information regarding how the fitness data relate to health or risk.

Conclusions: While fitness tracking research improves the understanding of tracking, many limitations associated with the research exist, which limit the significance and implications of fitness tracking research. Future research should address these limitations. For example, instead of using normative standards, age- and sex-specific criterion-referenced health standards (Fitnessgram) can be used to identify and track at-risk children.

Activity Monitor Accuracy in Assessing Caloric Expenditure in Obese Adults

Justin Menickelli

Maridy Troy, Tom Watterson, Chris Cooper

Dan Grube

Western Carolina University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: One challenge for weight loss intervention programs is to accurately assess caloric expenditure. Waist-worn, piezoelectric pedometers are accurate for measuring steps, but much less accurate for assessing caloric expenditure (Crouter et al, 2003). Newly designed, wrist-worn triaxial accelerometers claim to accurately assess caloric expenditure. This study examined the accuracy of the Nike FuelBand (NFB) and the Fitbit Force (FBF) in assessing caloric expenditure during motor-driven treadmill walking and running in obese adults (M BMI = 35.43, SD = 3.22).

Method: Nineteen participants (M age = 21.16 years, SD = 3.59) were tested on one day in three consecutive but separate sessions: 1) resting supine for 10 minutes, 2) walking on a treadmill at self-selected speed for 10 minutes, and 3) running on a treadmill at self-selected speed for 10 minutes. During treadmill sessions, participants wore a NFB and FBF on the non-dominant wrist. Estimated caloric expenditure from the NFB and FBF was recorded for the last five minutes of each testing session. Metabolic data was measured using a TrueOne 2400 Metabolic Measurement System and energy expenditure in kcals was calculated based on the amount of oxygen consumed during the last five minutes of steady-state walking and running.

Analysis/Results: The mean self-selected speed was 80.36 m/min (SD = 5.33) for walking and 136.21 m/min (SD = 26.11) for running.

Correlation coefficients between actual and estimated caloric expenditure for walking were − 0.11 (NFB) and 0.28 (FBF); and for running were 0.64 (NFB) and 0.62 (FBF).

A repeated measures ANOVA determined caloric expenditure while walking differed significantly (F(2, 36) = 4.08, p = .025). Post hoc tests using Bonferroni correction revealed that actual caloric expenditure did not differ significantly (p = 1.0) from estimated caloric expenditure for the NFB (31.84 ± 14.51 vs. 32.0 ± 9.92) but did differ significantly (p = .048) for the FBF (31.84 ± 14.51 vs. 41.32 ± 10.99).

A repeated measures ANOVA determined caloric expenditure while running did not differ significantly (F(2, 36) = .018, p = .982). Post hoc tests using the Bonferroni correction revealed that actual caloric expenditure did not differ significantly from estimated caloric expenditure for either the NFB (73.53 ± 16.87 vs. 73.42 ± 12.65) or the FBF (73.53 ± 16.87 vs. 73.00 ± 10.66).

Conclusions: Both the NFB and FBF accurately assessed caloric expenditure in obese adults during the running session. The results lend support to findings (Dondzila et al, 2012; Swartz et al, 2009) in which speed of locomotion was an impactful variable.

A Feasibility Study of an Afterschool Movement Program: TCFC

Kara Palmer

Jacqueline Irwin, Abigail Dennis

Leah E. Robinson

Auburn University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The purpose of this feasibility study is to assess the impact of an afterschool physical fitness and motor program (i.e., Tiger Cubs Fit Club; TCFC) on motor ability and cardiovascular fitness in school-aged children.

Method: Seven elementary school children (n = 7, 4 female, 3 male; M_age = 6 years and 5 months) served as participants. Throughout the 2013–2014 school year children attended a daily 75-minute afterschool program designed to promote motor skills, physical activity, and other health outcomes. Motor ability and physical fitness were assessed at the beginning (September) and end (April) of the school year. Fundamental motor skills were measured using the Test of Gross Motor Development – 2^nd edition (TGMD-2; Ulrich, 2000) and the Movement Assessment Battery for Children – 2^nd edition (MABC-2; Henderson, Sugden & Barnett, 2007). The TGMD-2 assesses six locomotor and six object control skills. The MABC-2 measures motor ability in three categories—manual dexterity, catching and aiming, and balance. The Fitnessgram® PACER test was used to assess physical fitness.

Analysis/Results: At the end of the school year, children demonstrated significant improvements in their TGMD locomotor skills (t = − 3.22; p < .05), TGMD object control skills (t = − 3.40; p < .05), total TGMD (t = − 3.45; p < .05), and MABC balance (t = − 3.75; p < .05). No changes were seen in physical fitness.

Conclusions: The findings provide evidence that support the effectiveness of this afterschool program on motor skill performance.

The Effect of Traditional and Non-Traditional Weight Training on Muscular Endurance

Michael B. Phillips

J.P. Barfield

Radford University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Non-traditional resistance training programs have become an ever increasing interest to all ages, especially college-aged students. These types of programs are purported to be efficient and effective workouts that improve aerobic and/or anaerobic fitness levels and may be considered less time intensive than the traditional routines. Non-traditional programs, such as CrossFit™ incorporate constantly varied, high intensity, functional movements aimed at forging a broad level of fitness. The need is to examine the non-traditional programs against the traditional programs before use is recommended. The purpose of the current study was to examine the effect of resistance training class (i.e., Non-traditional Resistance Training vs. Traditional BIP Weightlifting) on fitness changes across 12 weeks of training.

Method: Sixty-seven participants were recruited from four existing resistance training classes – 2 Traditional and 2 Non-Traditional. The YMCA Bench Press Test was used to assess change in upper body muscular endurance. Testing was performed at the start and end of the semester and the change was recorded for muscular endurance (posttest – pretest).

Analysis/Results: Percent change and a Factorial ANOVA (Training Type ^* Time) was used to examine endurance changes between class types.

Several participants failed to complete both post testing sessions and therefore analyses were conducted on the delimited sample with complete scores (n = 15 Traditional, n = 17 Non-traditional). Muscular endurance changes were similar between traditional resistance training and non-traditional groups. At six weeks, muscular endurance improved slightly more among traditional group participants compared to non-traditional participants (19% vs. 15%). However, at 12-weeks, muscular endurance improved slightly more among non-traditional participants compared to traditional participants (33% vs. 27%). Factorial ANOVA with repeated measures confirmed these descriptive statistics as there was a main effect for time (F = 22.23, p = .000) but not training type (F = 0.12, p = .73) or interaction (F = 0.61, p = .55).

Conclusions: It was found that similar improvement in muscular endurance occurred in each training group following the 12-week study. The results support the use of non-traditional resistance training as an alternative university resistance training program.

Effect of Exercise and Laser on Bone Health in Perimenopause

Fei Qin

Tong Qin

Xuanming Hao

South China Normal University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: To explore the effects of low-level laser therapy combined with aerobic exercise on bone mineral density (BMD), bone structure, biomechanics and related protein in perimenopausal rats, and then to provide a reference for osteoporosis prevention and treatment.

Method: Perimenopausal rats (Natural aging model) were divided into 4 groups, Control (C), Exercise (E), low level laser (L) and Exercise + low level laser(E+L), with different interventions at every other day for 8-week. Exercise load: treadmill, − 5°, 15m/min, and 30 min. The treatment of low level laser is designed as follows: semiconductor laser (810 nm, 50 mW, 11.94J/cm²⁾, four irradiation point of femoral neck (anterior, posterior and medial and lateral; 30s per irradiation point). After 8-week, Estrogen, BMD, bone structure, bone biomechanical properties and sema3A protein were measured.

Analysis/Results: 1) Compared with the C group, the BMD of femur and whole body were increased in 3 intervention groups. E group had a remarked increase of local (femur) BMD, while the whole body BMD in E+L group raised significantly; 2) The number of trabecular bone increased in E, L and E+L group, meanwhile their combined effects was more significant. In addition, the bone biomechanical properties were improved in E+L group; 3) The level of Sema3A protein increased significantly in 3 treatment group, and that of in L and E+L group higher than E group.

Conclusions: Low-level laser therapy may be used as an effective intervention for perimenopausal women and other people with osteoporosis. Aerobic exercise combined with low lever laser will have a significantly beneficial effect on bone structure of both local and systemic body.

Will Manipulation of Efficacy Alter Functional Performance in Older Women?

Maria Nida Roncesvalles

Maria Esperanza Bregendahl

Texas Tech University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The purpose of this study is to contribute toward addressing the needs of older adults with respect to fall prevention. Since behavior is a reflection of an individual's thoughts (Bandura, 1989), changing a (older) woman's belief or perception programmatically, could potentially yield better performance. The effect of manipulated (verbal) feedback on a specific type of confidence, a.k.a. ’falls efficacy’ (ergo, pertaining to falls) and functional motor performance (e.g. balance, 4 meter walk, sit-to-stand) was explored. Thereafter, the relationship of falls efficacy and motor performance was assessed and highlighted.

Method: Forty-two young older adult women (N = 42; aged 55-75 years) were administered with the Falls Efficacy Scale-International (FES-I) and the Short Physical Performance Battery (SPPB) on two occasions: 1) initial screening (baseline), and, 2) post-manipulation. Baseline assessment included documentation of health, mental state, heart rate, activity levels and other demographic data. Those with low-to-moderate concern for falling (FES-I) were included in the final participant pool and were randomly assigned to three groups: enhanced efficacy (EE), reduced efficacy (RE), and control (C). Fabricated verbal feedback to influence efficacy were provided accordingly: positive for EE, and negative for RE regardless of actual performance, and none were provided for the C group. Scripted feedback was provided during a rhythmic weight shifting task (RWS Assessment, SMART Balance Master^®) according to group assignment. Post-manipulation assessment was conducted thereafter, including a short debriefing session.

Analysis/Results: Comparison (Friedman's Test) of the pre- and post-manipulation scores revealed that provision of commensurate verbal feedback did not influence FES-I or SPPB in any of the groups examined (p ≥ 0.05). In addition, no significant relationship was found between the variables after manipulation

Conclusions: Functional motor performance in older women was not altered with fabricated verbal feedback. Future studies warrant a more challenging motor task to effect a significant change in performance. In addition, a larger sample size, an older age group (55-85 years), who are less active and perhaps sedentary individuals with varying concerns for falling (low to high concern) may result in a larger effect size.

Comparison Between Self-Reported and Activity Monitor-Determined Physical Activity

Rulan Shangguan

Jingwen Liu

Fei Wu

Xiaofen Keating

The University of Texas at Austin

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Many lifestyle-related health problems can be eliminated by simply engaging in more physical activity (PA) on a regular basis. A major issue in assessing PA is the accurate measurement. Both self-reported and device-measured methods have been used and each method has advantages and disadvantages. Although physical activity questionnaire is a frequently used instrument for measuring PA, few studies have reported on its validity among college students. The aim of this study was to report the results of a pilot study to investigate the relationship between self-reported PA and accelerometer-determined PA involving college students.

Method: Participants consisted of 97 freshmen (29.9% male, 70.1% female) enrolled in a conceptual physical education class in a southern university. PA was measured using a 7-day PA recall questionnaire – Weekly Leisure Time Exercise Questionnaire (LTEQ) and an activity monitor during the first week of class. Participants reported their PA through and wore the activity monitor for a consecutive 7 days. The LTEQ collected estimated times of vigorous (VPA), moderate (MPA) and light (LPA) activity and the data were converted into MET values. The activity monitor collected information about the actual minutes of type of activity. Spearman's correlation was used to investigate the relationship between measurements of the two instruments.

Analysis/Results: The activity monitor reported an average of 19.97 ± 13.14 min of VPA, 74.80 ± 25.58 min of MPA and 184.63 ± 78.39 min of LPA. The results indicated a significant positive correlation between the minutes of MPA recorded by the activity monitor and MET scores of self-reported MPA (Spearman's rho = .241, p < .05). Activity-measured LPA and MET scores of self-reported LPA are also significantly correlated (Spearman's rho = .241, p < .05).

Conclusions: The significant correlation supported the validity of the self-reported LTEQ measures. However, the magnitudes of the aforementioned correlations were relatively small. More validation studies are needed in the future to enrich our understanding about self-reported PA measures.

Chronic Moderate Exercise Causes Changes in Myenteric Neurons of Rats

Songtao Wang

Xizhou Wang

Yanyan Sun

Lin Jia

Shenyang Exit-Entry Inspection and Quarantine Bureau

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The enteric nervous system (ENS) is one of the main divisions of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and consists of a mesh-like system of neurons that governs the function of the gastrointestinal system^[1]. ENS’ dysfunction has a close relationship with many gastrointestinal diseases and other healthy question, such as inflammation, diarrhea, constipation, irritable bowel syndrome, diabetes, and obesity^[2,3,4]. Proper exercise can improve the function of gastrointestinal tract^[5], but its microscopic structure and mechanism is not clear, especially about the effect of exercise on ENS and its relationship with health. Thus this study discussed the effect of aerobic exercise on the gastrointestinal function based on the ENS, through the observation and analysis of the gastrointestinal function, intestinal innervations and distribution, as well as SP and VIP nerve remodeling. This study will help to enrich and develop the relative theories about exercise and autonomic nerve system, and to clarify the autonomic nervous mechanism of exercise for weight loss, and related gastrointestinal disorders.

Method: 16 adult male SD rats were randomly divided into 2 groups: control group (C) and exercise group (E). The E group was subjected to a moderate swimming exercise program for 10 weeks (6 times/week, 1h/ times). Intestinal motility and absorption function were measured and the colonic neurons were quantified using immunofluorescence (PGP 9.5, VIP and SP).

Analysis/Results: Compared with group C, the relative testing index of group E showed the following changes: the intestinal muscle fiber arranged regularly and closely, and the circinate muscle and mucous layer thicken obviously; The intestinal propulsion and absorption rate of D- xylose were significantly up-regulated (P < 0.01 and P < 0.05); The positive expression of PGP9.5 raised (P < 0.05); And the amount of VIP positive neurons increased (P < 0.05), but the SP expression decreased (P < 0.05).

Conclusions: Regular moderate intensity exercise can enforced the intestinal motility and absorption function, which can be partly explained by increasing intestinal neural distribution and innervations, up-regulating VIP neurons expression, down-regulating SP neurons expression, and the shifting balance of excitability and inhibitory in ENS. All the above changes in ENS may help to promote the nutrition absorb in aerobic exercising body.

Effects of Physical-Cognitive Sensory-Integration Training on Children with Intellectual Disabilities

Xueping Wu

Shanghai University of Sport

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The theory of sensory-integration postulates that human development relies on the integrated processing of physical, cognitive, perceptive information in life (Ayres, 1972). Literature has reported that physical movement must be an integral part of intervention to improve cognitive and motor functions for children with intellectual disabilities. The purpose of this study was to identify the effects of a physical-cognitive integrated movement training program on cognitive sensory function of children with moderate to severe intellectual disabilities.

Method: The study utilized an experimental-controlled design with 14 children, seven each in either the experimental or the control condition. The experimental condition consisted of physical movements with cognitive functioning demands, while the control condition consisted of physical movements only. The yearly-long experiment was conducted by trained physical education teachers. The children were exposed to their respective training regimen twice a week during the school year. The cognitive functioning was measured using tasks of numeric ordering, pattern recognition, image classification reaction, spatial memory, and visual trace. The children were tested before the intervention to establish a baseline, and tested again immediately after the intervention was completed.

Analysis/Results: The data were reduced to the differences between the two tests to represent the changes. The BoxM and Levene's tests indicated that the data displayed equal variances on multi-variate (BoxM = 20.32, F = .72, p = .77) and univariate levels (F = .35 to 4.37, p = .06 to .56). A MANOVA revealed statistically significant differences (Hotelling's T = 6.84, F_df = 5,8 = 10,95, p = .002, η² = .87) in all (p ranging from .001 to .04) but the visual trace scores (p = .07) with the children in the experimental condition outperforming those in the control condition.

Conclusions: The results suggest that integrating cognitive functioning tasks with physical movements can strengthen cognitive functioning effectively for the children with intellectual disabilities. The findings further reveal specific positive effects of physical-cognitive integrated training on different cognitive functioning essential to quality of life including numeric ordering, pattern recognition, image classification reaction, and spatial memory. It is recommended that teachers and parents of children with intellectual disabilities use physical-cognitive integration principles in helping their children develop sensory-integration functioning.

Predict Resting Metabolic Rate: A Systematic Review

Hai Yan

Weimo Zhu

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Resting metabolic rate (RMR) is the rate of energy expenditure when at rest. It represents the largest fraction of an individual's daily energy expenditure. To be able to accurately predict or estimate RMR is one of the most important components in energy balance research and intervention practice. Since a metabolic chamber, the golden standard of RMR measure, is expensive and time consuming, economical easy-to-implement methods are needed. The purpose of this study was, through a systematical review, to examine published prediction equations and explore other predictors that may help improve the predictions.

Method: The databases of PubMed were searched for English language studies from 1960 to 2014 and search terms used were “resting metabolic rate (RMR)”, “prediction equation”, and “predictors”, etc.

Analysis/Results: A total of 23,968 articles were found through PubMed, but only 65 papers qualified for the review. A careful review indicated age, sex, weight, height, temperature (both body and external temperature), genetics, eating patterns, and exercising habits are related to one's RMR. There were five commonly used equations for predicting RMR: the Harris-Benedict (1919), Mifflin (1989), Owen (1985), Schofield (weight) (1985), and Schofield (weight and height) (1985) equations. However, only several traits such as age, sex, height, and weight were included in these prediction equations, making the prediction equation less reliable. Future studies should examine if other traits could improve RMR predictions.

Conclusions: Existing RMR prediction equations did not include all potential influencing traits; thus, indicating possible improvement in RMR predictions. Experimental studies are needed to examine this possibility.

Motivation and Psychology

Comparison of Swiss and U.S. Students’ Fitness, Motivation and Self-Concept

Sheila K. Alicea

Rock Braithwaite

Vanessa Lentillon-Kaestner

University of Teacher Education, State of Vaud (HEP-VD)

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Physical activity is essential for both health outcomes and academic learning improvement. Engagement in physical activities among children is likely influenced by the individual's aerobic fitness, overall physical fitness, and motor competence. In addition, physical self-concept and motivation are predictors of physical activity participation throughout the lifespan. The purpose of this study was to compare the physical fitness, motivation, and self-concept of Swiss and American students in physical education (PE).

Method: Participants included 418 students (ages 12–14 years) from middle schools in Switzerland (n = 301) and the US (n = 117). Fitnessgram physical fitness measures included aerobic capacity (PACER), muscular endurance (curl-ups), muscular strength (push-ups), flexibility (back-saver sit-and-reach), and body composition (BMI). Questionnaires included the Motivation in Physical Activity Measure-Revised (MPAM-R) and the Physical Self-Description Questionnaire-Short Form (PDSQ-S). Data were collected during two successive school years (2012–2013, 2013–2014), in the classes of six Swiss student-teachers and two American student-teachers. Three 2 x 2 (country x gender) MANOVA procedures to test statistical differences between groups were conducted with follow-up univariate ANOVA procedures for post-hoc analyses that included a Bonferroni Correction to adjust the alpha level (α = .01) and prevent committing type I errors.

Analysis/Results: Results showed that there were significant main effects for country F (5,681) = 10.648, Wilkes Lambda = .927, p <  .001 and follow-up univariate ANOVA's determined the Swiss students had significantly higher PACER scores (45.76) than did students in the US (36.61); however, curl-ups scores for the US students (57.69) were greater than Swiss students (50.35). There were significant main effects for country F (5,763) = 19.413, Wilkes Lambda = .887, p <  .001 for the motivation variables as well. Follow-up univariate ANOVA's determined there were significantly higher scores for US students on the enjoyment, competence, fitness, and social subscales. Results for the self-concept variables revealed a significant main effect for country F (6,732) = 61.072, Wilkes Lambda = .666, p <  .001. Students from the US had significantly higher perceptions of endurance, strength, flexibility, and physical satisfaction as compared to the Swiss students who had higher scores for body fat and appearance. Gender differences will also be discussed.

Conclusions: PE teachers in Switzerland should not be too exigent on students’ physical condition level and increase enjoyment and competence in sport and exercise practice. PE teachers in the US should help students to improve their cardiorespiratory endurance and be vigilant on negative appearance remarks.

Extrinsic Rewards, Exercise Intensity and Motivation

Andrew Alstot

Mariah McHolland

Gerardo Sanchez

Pacific University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Extrinsic rewards have been shown to be useful in physical activity (PA) settings to improve a variety of PA behaviors. One of the skepticisms about using extrinsic rewards, however, is related to the potential harm to participants’ intrinsic motivation. However, there has been little research examining how using tangible reinforcement in PA settings impacts individuals’ intrinsic motivation when reinforcement is systematically withdrawn or faded out appropriately. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a systematically introduced and subsequently withdrawn extrinsic rewards system on individuals’ exercise intensity as well as its impact on their intrinsic motivation for engaging in PA.

Method: Nine participants were asked to ride a stationary bike for several 20-minute sessions. A multi-element design was used which alternated these sessions between two conditions: baseline and token economy. During baseline sessions, participants rode for 20 minutes at a pace of their choice and received no extrinsic rewards. During token economy sessions, participants received tokens on one of two schedules of reinforcement. Five participants were administered tokens on an increasing duration schedule, where they were rewarded with a token for every minute they rode at least 15% above their baseline mean revolutions per minute (RPMs). For each subsequent token session, the time needed to earn a token increased by 25 seconds. Four participants were administered tokens on a changing performance schedule, where they were rewarded with a token for every minute they were above 10% their baseline mean RPMs. Each subsequent token session, the performance criterion increased by 5%. Once participants earned tokens, they were able to trade them in for a variety of gift cards. Motivation was measured before, after, and two weeks following the intervention.

Analysis/Results: Participants’ intrinsic motivation before and after the intervention was assessed using the Situational Motivational Scale. Mean RPMs for each session were graphed and visually inspected for differences between baseline and token sessions. Visual inspection of the graphs revealed an increase in exercise intensity for all participants when token reinforcement was implemented. Five participants’ motivation scores increased or remained constant while three decreased slightly.

Conclusions: Based on the results, implementing a rewards system in a PA setting can increase performance and, in some cases, intrinsic motivation. PA practitioners can use tangible rewards with the confidence that an improvement in performance may occur while not contributing to the detriment of their athletes’ or students’ intrinsic motivation.

Effects of Motivational Music on Perceived Exertion in Runners

Jamie Aweau

Brady Redus

Trey Cone

University of Central Oklahoma

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Music can lower subjective effort ratings during an exercise task at submaximal intensity. Music serves as a diversion from the effort and discomfort of the exercise task. As intensity of the exercise task increases and the attention to task shifts inward for the individual, music may be less effective as a means of dissociation from the effort.

The purpose of this study was to measure the effect of self-selected motivational music on rating of perceived exertion (RPE) in trained runners in a 1.5 mile maximal intensity running time trial.

Method: Subjects were trained male and female runners (N = 14), age 19-34 (M = 24.86). Each subject self-selected and rated a motivational song to be used as treatment in the running trial. The time trial was a 1.5 mile course conducted on a paved running trail of an outdoor park. The study was conducted as a repeated-measures crossover design in which the subjects were randomly assigned and ran two trials with and without motivational music. RPE was measured on a scale of 0-10. The results from the data were analyzed using a dependent t test. The alpha level was set at p <  0.05.

Analysis/Results: The motivational music condition significantly lowered the subjects’ average RPE by 0.5 points from 7.4 for the no music condition to 6.9 for the music condition, t(13) = 2.446, p = 0.029, r = 0.56.

Conclusions: The average RPE was lower in the motivational music condition. The results of this study may help with the application of music in enduring high intensity exercise, which is essential as the research on the relationship between high intensity exercise and improved health markers continues to emerge.

Picking Teams: Motivational Effects of Team Selections in Physical Education

David Barney

Keven Prusak

Zack Beddoes

Dennis Eggett

Brigham Young University

([email protected]).

Abstract

Background/Purpose: For many years the practice of student captains picking teams in front of the whole class has taken place. Although it is considered inappropriate it still is commonplace in today's gymnasiums. Using achievement goals theory, the purpose of this study was to examine the effects of two methods of team selection (ego oriented: picking teams publically vs. task oriented: confidential draft) on the situational motivation and the task/ego disposition of males in junior high school PE across two studies and four sport activities.

Method: Male PE students from grades 7-9 (Study 1: 117 and Study 2: 116) participated in this study. The activities for Study 1 were football and soccer, and for Study 2 were basketball and volleyball. Both studies were conducted using a 2 (conditions: methods of team selection) by 2 (sports) by 4 (trials) between and within, quasi-experimental design. Four intact classes were randomly assigned to one of the two methods of team selection in each study. Students completed the Perceptions of Self-Questionnaire (POSQ) (Roberts, Treasure, & Balague, 1998), the Situational Intrinsic Motivation Scale for PE (SIMS-PE) (Guay & Vallerand, 2000) twice during each sport unit and the Sport Motivation Scale (SMS-PE) (Pelletier, Rocchi, Vallerand, Deci, & Ryan, 2013) pre and post intervention. Follow-up interviews were conducted with a purposeful selection of 14 students and analyzed using traditional qualitative methodologies.

Analysis/Results: Results indicated that students were highly task oriented but moderately ego oriented in (a) both methods of team selection, (b) before team selection, (c) after team play, and (d) across both studies. Unexpectedly, no significance between conditions or within trials or across sport difference was noted in either study. Interview data, however, revealed pertinent themes of (a) differentiation of conception of ability, (b) empathy, (c) primacy of play and (d) social motives.

Conclusions: While we do not recommend the practice of publically picked teams, it appears that the students’ perceptions of its use differ from national recommendations. Perplexing, as it may seem, there were no apparent motivational ill-effects. Indeed students were consistently and decidedly neutral. Further students often resented private drafts as being controlling, wanting to “just play” and be with friends. Nonetheless, a minority of students suffered adverse effects of isolation and learned helplessness resulting from the practice.

Physical Self-Concept and Frame of Reference in Same-Sex Physical Education

Emily K. Beasley

Louisiana State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Female physical education (PE) students consistently report lower physical self-concepts than males, and research has established that self-concept development is related to both internal and external factors. The PE environment provides a unique setting to examine physical self-concept and frame of reference, therefore, the purpose of this study was to provide in-depth descriptions of female students’ personal interpretations of physical self-concept, frame of reference, and the PE environment.

Method: A phenomenological approach was employed in this study. Field observations and one-on-one interviews took place at an all-girls private high school in the Southeastern United States. Field observations (N = 30) were conducted during PE classes (50 minutes) and rich descriptions of the PE environment were recorded in detail. Girls (N = 12) were then selected to participate in interviews based on PSDQ-S scores (M = 4.01, SD = 1.54). Purposeful sampling took place in order to select a wide range of scores (1.00-5.67) on the global physical self-concept scale.

Analysis/Results: Field notes and interview transcriptions were analyzed line-by-line. An inductive analysis approach was used to identify categories, sub-themes, and higher-order themes. Interviews, field notes, and member checks were then used to triangulate the data and reduce researcher bias.

Three major themes developed from data analysis: (a) SocialRisk, (b) A Favorable Competitive Environment, and (c) Points of Perception. Multiple aspects of Social Risk in coed PE were identified, specifically anxiety and perceived pressures regarding physical ability and appearance. Same-sex PE was perceived to negate these concerns and was viewed as a positive alternative for the girls in this study. Competition was frequently discussed and while participants enjoyed and valued competition, they considered it to be activity dependent, unpleasant in certain circumstances, and desirable only in appropriate amounts. Finally, “firsthand accounts” and “external feedback” were discussed as Points of Perception, which provided a basis for physical self-concept development.

Conclusions: This study makes a significant contribution to existing literature by highlighting current issues experienced by girls in coed and same-sex physical education. All participants viewed same-sex classes as a solution to their concerns regarding physical ability, physical appearance, and competition that they had previously experienced in coed PE. In addition, results indicate that female PE students use multiple sources of information to construct their physical self-perceptions of ability and appearance. These results have direct pedagogical implications for physical educators in both coed and same-sex PE classes.

Relations Between Physical Activity, Mindfulness and Mental Health Outcomes

Matthew Ryan Bice

James W. Ball

Alex T. Ramsey

Washington University in St. Louis

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Though physical activity (PA) has traditionally been linked with physical health promotion; it is researched as a catalyst for overall functioning of the human body and concluded to reduce symptoms of mental health diseases such as anxiety and depression (Guszkowska, 2004; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1996). The current study examined relationships between PA, mindfulness, need fulfillment, and mental health outcomes (negative affect and depressive symptoms) to better understand and explain the relationship.

Method: A sample of 399 university students and employees from a midsized university responded to an online survey. Data was collected on current physical activity levels (International Physical Activity Questionnaire) and personal ratings of trait mindfulness (Mindful Attention and Awareness Scale; Brown & Ryan 2003), negative affect (International Positive and Negative Affect Schedule Short Form; Thompson, 2007), and depressive symptoms (Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale; Zhang, O'Brien, Forrest, Salters, Patterson, Montaner, et al., 2012). Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, ratings of internal consistency, a Pearson correlation matrix of key variables, and t-tests.

Analysis/Results: Results indicated a significant negative relationship between physical activity and mental health outcomes, specifically, negative affect r (396) = − .241, p <  .001. Study participants who partook in more moderate and vigorous PA had lower levels ratings of negative affect. The current study reports a significant association was present between total sitting time and depression symptoms r (395) = .131, p = .009.

Conclusions: PA serves as a therapeutic strategy and technique used to reduce many mental health outcomes. The current study advocates the positive effects PA has on individuals that can potentially transition into the classroom. As it may seem more appropriate to fulfill educational standards within the constraints of the classroom, this study suggests that the lack of PA, such as sitting is associated with depressive symptoms. As many PA alternatives are being limited across the country, this study suggests PA could have a profound effect on a child's psychological state fostering acceptable behavior, decreased violence, and facilitate a decrease in depressive symptoms. Along with physical benefits, PA equally provides psychological benefits that should not be taken lightly! This study advocates for additional physical activity opportunities for students across the country based on the mental health benefits.

Examining College Student Engagement Motivation in Instructional Physical Activity Courses

Asherah Blount

Jared A. Russell

Auburn University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: College and university instructional physical activity programs (C/UIPAPs) offer a great opportunity for college and university students to engage and participate in various physical activities on a regular basis. Specifically, the courses provide vast opportunities for students to develop motor skills and technique, sport related skills and habits that will contribute to a healthy lifestyle. Student motivation to enroll and participate in C/UIPAPs is a key component to its effectiveness. The instructional climate, including students’ perceived autonomy and perceived instructor autonomy support was found to be related to the participant motivation to participate and engage in the instructional physical activity course content.

Method: Two-hundred and seventeen (n = 217) undergraduate students enrolled in cardio and fitness courses participated in this study, completing a demographic survey, pre and post questionnaires, including the Learning and Performance Orientations in Physical Education Classes Questionnaire (LAPOPECQ) and the Learning Climates Questionnaire (LCQ). The participants also participated in semi-interviews and focus groups to gain further insight into their source of motivation.

Analysis/Results: The top three reasons for participants’ enrollment were 1) improvement of health (58%), 2) interest in the Activity (26%) and 3) improvement of their grade point average (16%). The pre and post LAPOPECQ and LCQ results indicated that significant number participants perceived their course to be beneficial to the development of their motor skills. The results also indicated that the participants perceived the instructional climate to be supportive of their autonomy and competence. However, there were no significant changes in the participants’ questionnaire responses over the progress of the semester. The participant responses to the pre- and post- interviews, focus groups, questionnaires gave deeper insight into the participants’ perceptions and motivations toward their participation and engagement in the courses.

Conclusions: The findings indicate that clarification of students’ perceptions and source of motivations, as well as an instructional climate that promotes autonomy and perceived competence is beneficial for instructors of C/UIPAPs in the development of fitness goals and objectives for their students. This research provides insight into college/university students’ motivations towards enrollment in physical activity courses, their value of the importance health and fitness, as well as their perception of their respective instructors approach to teaching.

Objective Evaluation of Teachers’ Need-Supportive Instructional Practices in Physical Education

Begona Chapatte-Ramos

Joseph Cole Fish

Jerry W. Loflin

Sami Yli-Piipari

University of Memphis

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: During the past two decades, studies on teachers’ instructional practices have increasingly been conducted from the perspective of self-determination theory. Previous studies have shown that need-supportive instructional practices that provide autonomy, structure, and relatedness are instrumental in student motivation and learning in various educational settings. Although it has been shown that some physical education (PE) teachers in the Mid-South U.S. are more vested in improving the performance of their varsity athletic teams than in educating all students to be physically literate, there is a lack of studies examining PE teachers’ instructional practices using objective measures. Thus, the aim of this study was examine urban PE teachers’ need-support during authentic PE lessons and its predictive strength on school students’ self-determined motivation in PE.

Method: The sample comprised five urban middle schools, seven PE teachers, and 347 students (11 to 14 years old) located in the Mid-South U.S. All PE teachers were experienced (M_age = 46.75 years) and tenured teachers (M_{teachingexperience} = 17.25 years) in the local school district where their teaching was audiotaped across an 8-week unit. Utilizing the checklist of Haerins et al. (2011), three researchers individually coded 49 PE lessons for 5-min intervals to examine teachers’ need supportive instructional practices during three stages of PE class (i.e., warm-up, activity, and cooldown). The 16 predetermined instructional practices were coded using a 4-point frequency scale, ranging from 0 (never observed) to 1 (sometimes observed), to 2 (often observed), and to 3 (observed all the time). Students’ self-determined motivation was measured using a self-report.

Analysis/Results: The study showed that teachers provided very little autonomy-support during PE classes (M_warm-up = .39[.11]; M_activity = .51[.12]; M_cooldown = .86[.04]). However, teachers often facilitated relatedness (M_warm-up = 1.89[.30]; M_activity = 1.82[.46]; M_cooldown = 2.73[.24]) and sometimes provided structure (M_warm-up = 1.03[.23]; M_activity = 1.00[.32]; M_cooldown = 1.79[.02]). Path analyses showed objectively measured instructional practices to explain 12-15% of the changes in self-determined motivation (intrinsic motivation and identified and introjected regulation) toward PE, whereas teachers’ need-support did not predict their extrinsic regulation and a motivation.

Conclusions: The study showed that urban PE teachers facilitated students’ need-support by mainly providing structure during their PE classes. However, teachers’ instructional practices were more controlling instead of autonomy-supportive. The findings of the study indicated that teachers’ need-support has a role in facilitating urban middle school students’ self-determined motivation.

Impact of Expectancy Value on Students’ Fitness Levels

Han Chen

Haichun Sun

Xiaozan Wang

East China Normal University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Motivation is a key for students to learn and engage in physical activity. Expectancy value is one of the primary motivation sources. The expectancy value theory includes expectancy belief and task values. Expectancy belief refers to the individual's self-perception of success for the upcoming activity. Task values have been identified to include three major components (i.e., attainment value, interest value, and utility value). The purpose of the study was to examine how expectancy beliefs and task values predict health-related fitness (HRF) performance of Chinese sixth graders.

Method: Participants were 200 six graders aged 12 years from one middle school in Shanghai, China. The 10-item Expectancy-Value Questionnaire was used to measure students’ expectancy beliefs and task values in physical education. This instrument has been translated into Chinese by a group of bilingual researchers from U.S. Students’ height/weight, PACER, push-ups, and curl-ups were measured on day one and mile run after seven days. BMI was categorized based on age and gender specific percentile curves of Shanghai children.

Analysis/Results: Independent t-tests were used to examine the gender and weight differences in fitness components. Four simultaneous multiple regression analyses were conducted to examine the contribution of expectancy belief and task values to the participants’ performance on PACER, mile run, curl-ups, and push-ups, respectively. The study found boys and normal weight participants performed significantly better in PACER, mile run, and curl up. No gender and weight differences were found in push-up performance. The Cronbach alpha reliability coefficients (r = .86 for expectancy belief and r = .89 for task values) indicated good internal consistency among items in the scale. The expectancy beliefs and task values accounted for 11.7% and 12.9% of variance in PACER and mile run performance, respectively. However, only expectancy beliefs predicted PACER performance, F (4, 174) = 5.76, p < .001. Expectancy beliefs and attainment value were predictors for mile run, F (4, 161) = 5.97, p < .001. The study also found neither expectancy beliefs nor task values predicted curl-ups scores. Only attainment value predicted push-ups performance.

Conclusions: Gender and weight differences found in cardiovascular endurance and abdominal strength/endurance tests were consistent with previous study conducted in other countries. Physical educators need to foster students’ competence in physical education and emphasize the personal importance of doing well in PE in order to improve students’ HRF levels.

Exercise Motivational Factors and College Students

Dongwook Cho

Emily Phillips

Oklahoma State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The benefits of exercise are well documented as it can help control weight, keep muscle strong, mange health problems. Although the benefits of exercise for college students are well identified, only half of them regularly participate in exercise (Schoenhoen, Adams, &Peregoy, 2013). The purpose of this study is to determine the primary motivational factors for participating in exercise among college students. Furthermore, research was conducted to determine if these motivational factors are different based on demographic such as a sex and classification.

Method: A convenience sample was taken at a university in the southwestern United States. A total of 110 college students between the ages of 18-27 participated in the survey (48 males and 62 females). Participants completed a survey comprising the Exercise Motivation Inventory – 2 (EMI - 2) and were asked to identify sex and classification. 51 exercise motivation questions were measured on a six-point Likert type scale (1 = not at all true for me…6 = very true for me). These questions were integrated to 14 exercise motivational factors as means to determine what exercise motivational factors were thought by college students to be the strongest factors to participate in exercise (Markland, 1997).

Analysis/Results: Mean scores indicated that the two strongest factors were ‘positive health (4.95)’ and ‘strength & endurance (4.84), while the two weakest factors were ‘health pressures (2.97)’ and ‘affiliation (3.29)’ among 14 exercise motivational factors. ANOVA was performed for data analysis to examine the effects of age and classification on exercise motivational factors. The results revealed statistically significant differences between ‘competitions [F(1, 107) = 4.95; p = .028]’, ‘ill-health avoidance[F(1, 107) = 4.17; p = .044]’ and ‘weight management[F(1, 107) = 14.02; p = .000]’ (p < .05) of the exercise motivational factors and sex of participants. Female students had higher in 11 exercise motivational factors than males, while male students had higher factors in 3 categories (competition, affiliation and social recognition). Only ‘affiliation [F(4, 105) = 3.24; p = .015]’ was statistically significant with classification of college students.

Conclusions: The findings from this study suggest that college students may have more incentive to participate in exercise activities if an appropriate exercise program is provided. Additionally, female subjects seem to be more motivated by appearance and general wellness, while males might be more socially motivated. The findings of this research are significant to practitioners that enable college students to have more enjoyable exercise activities throughout more sufficient programs.

The Role of Maturity in Predicting Physical Self-Worth

Anne E. Cox

Kelly R. Laurson

Illinois State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Research has demonstrated a negative relationship between physical maturity and physical self-worth (PSW) in girls. However, this relationship is not particularly strong and may depend on how maturity interacts with key psychological predictors including perceived competence, conditioning, strength and body attractiveness. The purpose of this study was to test the moderating role of physical self-perceptions in the relationship between maturity status and PSW separately for females and males during early adolescence.

Method: Students in grades 5–8 (N = 241; 57% females; 70% White, 10% Black, 4% Hispanic; M_age = 12.3 years) completed a questionnaire assessing physical self-perceptions (i.e., perceived competence, conditioning, strength and body attractiveness), PSW and maturity status. Hierarchical multiple regression was used to test the interactions between maturity status and each physical self-perception predicting PSW separately for males and females.

Analysis/Results: In girls, the results of step 1 of the regression analysis were significant (F_5,131 = 79.90, p <  0.001, R² = 0.75) and the interactions explained significant additional variance in step 2 (DF = 3.49, p = 0.01, DR² = 0.02). Perceived competence and conditioning were positive predictors of PSW (p <  .01) and perceived attractiveness interacted with maturity status to predict PSW (p <  .01). The interaction showed that maturity was positively related to PSW only for girls with higher body attractiveness. Results were also significant for boys (F_5,98 = 46.66, p <  0.001, R² = 0.70) and the interactions explained significant additional variance (DF = 2.5, p = 0.05, DR² = 0.03). Perceived conditioning and attractiveness were positive predictors of PSW (p <  .05) and an interaction between perceived strength and maturity (p = .01) indicated that maturity related positively to PSW, but only for boys with higher perceived strength.

Conclusions: Results showed that the predictors of PSW differ between girls and boys and depend partly on maturity status. Supporting past research, when girls felt more competent at physical activities and in better physical condition, they experienced higher physical self-worth. Maturity status in girls, however, was a positive predictor of PSW only when perceived body attractiveness was higher. Parallel results emerged for boys except with respect to perceived strength. These findings are consistent with greater societal value placed on muscular development in males and physical appearance more generally in females. Since PSW is a key predictor of physical activity behavior, it is important to understand the interplay between maturation and physical self-perceptions.

21^st Century Sport: Micro or Macro System?

Dean Culpepper

Lorraine Killion

Texas A&M University, Kingsville

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: We do not live in a single value world, rather in multiple value worlds which collide and overlap, thus sending multiple messages, some in agreement and some conflicting. Developmental psychologist Uri Bronfenbrenner (1979, 1992, & 2005) developed a language of ecologies to describe how particular contexts and their processes overlap, influence, and are influenced by individual members. This is apparent in the world in which young adults live today with the influence of sport. According to Bronfenbrenner, an individual lives within multiple microsystems, each of which has proximal processes (language, interactions, and practices) by which members interact and learn the lessons of the ecology (i.e., play, love, math, reading, care, competition, or teamwork). Each microsystem is influenced by its macrosystem of overarching patterns of several microsystems. Thus, football is a microsystem in the macrosystem of NCAA athletics. Yet sport, with the rise of 24 hour ESPN, may be more than a microsystem. Sport and the structure of sport have taken on a new character with self-perpetuating motivations and thus may no longer be set apart (Tenenbaum, 2007) for individuals live in sport all the time. This is certainly true with athletes who have shown lower scores on moral reasoning tests. If sport is becoming a macrosystem, then similar scores should appear in other microsystems. The purpose of this study is to examine whether sport has taken on the characteristics of a macrosystem by examining moral reasoning across groups and settings.

Method: 315 subjects completed a demographic form and the HBVC Inventory. Qualitative follow-up interviews were then conducted among groups to determine themes.

Analysis/Results: A MANOVA (Wilks’ Lambda = .430, p < .005) was conducted with Scheffé post hoc tests to determine differences. Athletes scored lowest (p < .001). After controlling for athletics, Sport Science majors scored equivalently (p < .001) to athletes in terms of lower moral reasoning scores. Qualitative interviews revealed that athletes and Sport Science majors spent similar amounts of time thinking, watching, reading, exercising, and discussing sport.

Conclusions: These findings may suggest that those involved in sport (whether participating or studying) are operating in a milieu differently from those who are not. They are functioning in an all-pervasive structure or meaning-making system that does shape and has shaped how they reason morally. Future studies should look at sport as a macrosystem and how it influences other microsystems such as sport consumption, aggression, sexism, and gender roles.

Exploring the Effectiveness of a Resilience Curriculum Implemented in Sport

Policarpio DeCano

Sharon Varela

Clayton Cook PhD

University of Washington

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: A troubling number of school-aged children experience mental health problems that negatively impact wellbeing and performance across social, emotional, and academic domains (Cook, Burns, Browning-Wright & Gresham, 2010). Research shows that roughly one in five children between ages 6- and 20-years of age experience a diagnosable mental health issue (Costello, Mustillo, Erkanali, Keeler, & Angold, 2003). To combat mental health problems, children must exercise effective coping skills, such as resilience, a form of social-emotional skills. These skills do not develop automatically and require explicit teaching. An effective approach to teach children resilience skills is through a universal prevention intervention (Durlak, Weissberg, Dymnicki, Taylor & Shelling, 2011; Pahl & Barrett, 2010). To ensure access to such interventions, researchers have recommended implementing universal interventions where children already exist (Cobham, 2012; Hudson & Dodd, 2012; Kazdin, 2008; Kazdin & Blase, 2011). One such context is that of sport. Upwards of 30 million school-age youth (ages 6–19 years) participate in organized youth sport in and out of school settings. Additionally, sport includes a necessary ingredient for cultivating resilience skills, adversity (Pahl & Barrett, 2010). This study examined the effectiveness of implementing a resilience curriculum in the sport context.

Method: Participants included 41 female and 37 male rowers aged 13 – 18 years (M = 15.88). Researchers implemented a pre-post experimental design using quantitative methods (Creswell, 2007). The measures to determine the effectiveness of the Resilience in Sport curriculum were: 1) The Perceived Stress Scale (Cohen, Kamarck & Mermelstein, 1983); 2) a modified General Self- Efficacy Scale (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995); and The Satisfaction with Life Scale (Diener, Emmons, Larson, & Griffin, 1985).

Analysis/Results: Participants reported increases in perceived self-efficacy in sport (p = . 015) and perceived life satisfaction (p = .014) and decreases in perceived stress (p = .015) that were statistically significant.

Conclusions: Findings from the present study are promising, lending initial support for using the sport context as a forum for universal prevention interventions. Leveraging sport to foster resilience skills and combat the personal and societal harm of mental illness is imperative. Any way researchers can identify ways to help youth thrive in the face of adversity should be considered and sport has shown itself to be a powerful context within which resilience skills can grow. Ultimately, these are skills that can help young people succeed on the field of play and for the rest of their lives.

A Conditional Process Analysis of Children's Enjoyment of Physical Activity

Alex C. Garn

Erin E. Centeio, Bo Shen, Jeffrey Martin

Nathan McCaughtry

Wayne State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Enjoyment is a powerful motivator for children's participation in physical activity (PA). Within Eccles's expectancy-value theory of motivation, socializing agents such as parents and friends precipitate PA outcomes such as enjoyment. Ability beliefs and subjective task value are considered key mediators in the relationship between social agents and PA outcomes. Few researchers to date, however, have examined the conditional nature of this mediation process. We hypothesize that PA ability beliefs and subjective task value mediate the relationship between friends' PA social support and PA enjoyment (hypothesis 1; H1). We stipulate, however, that indirect relationships (i.e., social support à ability beliefs; social support àsubjective task value) are moderated (i.e., conditional) by children's self-efficacy to seek out PA support (H2).

Method: A total of 330 children (Mage = 9.39, SD = .44) completed questionnaires related to PA social support from friends, PA ability beliefs and subjective task value, PA support seeking self-efficacy, and PA enjoyment. Analysis supported the factor structure and reliability of these measures. H1 was tested with a parallel mediation regression model. H2 was tested in the same fashion with the addition of support seeking self-efficacy as a moderator of indirect relationships. Bootstrap confidence intervals (95%CI) were used to determine mediation (H1) and moderation (H2). CIs not straddling zero were considered significant (p < .05).

Analysis/Results: The relationship between friends' social support and enjoyment (R² = .18) was mediated by ability beliefs (95%CI = .07–.31; R² = .29) and subjective task value (95%CI = .12–.33; R² = .22). Further investigation revealed that the relationship between social support from friends and PA ability beliefs was conditional on children having average (M) to high (+1SD) levels of support seeking self-efficacy for PA. Children with low self-efficacy ( − 1SD) to seek support for PA were not able to capitalize on the association between friends' social support and ability beliefs. The mediated relationship between social support and enjoyment via subjective task value was not conditional on support seeking self-efficacy.

Conclusions: Findings of the conditional process analysis (i.e., moderated mediation) supported the unconditional mediating role of subjective task value as proposed in expectancy-value theory. However, the mediating role of ability beliefs was conditional on support seeking self-efficacy. Support seeking self-efficacy appears to be an important mechanism in the relationship between socializing agents and motivational outcomes as operationalized in expectancy-value theory. This study suggests that motivational processes highlighted in expectancy-value theory may be more complex than originally theorized.

Exercise Mindsets: An Initial Validation Study

Joseph Otundo

Alex C. Garn

Louisiana State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Dweck has recently changed terminology in her highly productive self-theories framework to “mindsets”. A growth mindset represents individuals who believe that personal characteristics and abilities can be fostered through effort. A fixed mindset represents individuals who believe personal characteristics and abilities are stable and innate. Individuals with growth mindsets are more likely to create an individual/mastery framework of success whereas individuals with a fixed mindset are more likely to validate ability through successful social comparisons. The purpose of this study was to develop a valid and reliable measure of mindsets specific to the exercise domain.

Method: A group of undergraduate students (N = 205) enrolled in exercise classes completed a total of 10 items (5 growth items e.g., when I'm faced with a difficult exercise situation, I'm likely to view it as an opportunity to learn and grow; 5 fixed items e.g., my approach to exercise situations is to prove my basic self-worth, competence, and likeability) related to exercise mindsets on two occasions approximately one-month apart. Students also completed surveys related to mastery-oriented competence, physical self-concept, and contingent self-esteem.

Analysis/Results: An exploratory factor analysis revealed two distinct mindset constructs accounting for 56.82% of the variance (fixed = 36.83%; growth 19.99%). Items loaded on their intended factor (fixed .59–.86; growth .60–.76) without double loading and communalities ranged from .36–.75 (M = .50, SD = .12). The internal consistency for growth and fixed mindsets were .77 and .83. Reliability was also supported by a one-month test-retest using intra-class correlations (fixed ICC = .76 95, 95%CI = .69–.82; growth ICC = .71, 95%CI = .62–.78). Both convergent and divergent validity were supported for growth exercise mindset (r = .51 mastery competence; r = − .19 contingent self-esteem) while convergent validity was supported with the fixed exercise mindset (r = .23 contingent self-esteem).

Conclusions: Growth mindsets are integral to cultivating adaptive psychological and behavioral outcomes whereas fixed mindsets breed stagnation. Because exercise participation often challenges individuals both mentally and physically and gratification is typically delayed, promoting a growth mindset may not always be an easy task. This measure can assist exercise leaders in evaluating exercise mindsets in order to capitalize on growth mindsets already present or remediate fixed mindsets.

Scoring the Toughness of High School Student Athletes

Matthew A. Grant

J. Tobin Grant

Southern Illinois University Carbondale

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The Reduced Mental, Emotional and Bodily Toughness Inventory for Adolescents (Reduced MeBT-Ad) was developed to measure toughness of youth athletes (Grant & Grant, 2014). Developed specifically to accommodate the reading level and instrument length conducive for younger participants, this survey also permitted valid comparisons across gender, which was a weakness of its parent survey – the MeBTough (Gao, Mach, Ragan, & Ragan, 2012; Grant & Grant, 2014). The next stage of development for the Reduced MeBT-Ad was to find the normative scores so that practitioners could use this instrument when evaluating the toughness of adolescent athletes. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to find the norm-based scores for mental, emotional and bodily toughness of high school student athletes.

Method: Researchers surveyed a sample of high school athletes (n = 372) in the Southeastern U.S. All athletes were contacted via their high school coaches. After proper consent was give, student athletes completed the nine Likert-scale items of the Reduced MeBT-Ad via the Qualtrics online program. Data collection was conducted within two weeks of the midpoint of the particular season in which the athlete was participating. All data were then analyzed to find the valid and reliable mean scores, or norm-based scores, of high school student athletes.

Analysis/Results: Researchers scored the Reduced MeBT-Ad surveys and converted them to a 100-point scale. Results showed a negatively skewed distribution of the mean score for the total sample (M = 72.02, SD = 18.6) as well as based on sex (male M = 74.77, SE = 1.1; female M = 67.41, SE = 1.7). Independent Sample T Tests and ANOVA analysis revealed no significant differences between or within groups based on gender, age, grade, or sport as well as types of sport, i.e., individual versus team. Cronbach's alpha (a = 0.805) indicated good internal consistency for measuring toughness. Normative scores were considered valid and reliable for high school student athletes.

Conclusions: The current study supplied norm-based scores of the mental, emotional and bodily toughness of high school athletes using the Reduced MeBT-Ad instrument. Results provided practitioners with evaluation standards for assessing the toughness of young athletes. Future research could expand this study by investigating the toughness of middle school student athletes as well as adolescent athletes outside of school, i.e., club teams.

Climb to Freedom: Autonomy, Competence and Relatedness in Rock Climbing

L. Kent Griffin

Karen S. Meaney

Leslie Podlog

The University of Utah

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Deci and Ryan (2008) suggest that the components of autonomy, relatedness and competence are key factors when examining the degree of motivation in an individual. What is lacking in the research literature is the examination of how particular activities influence ones self-determined beliefs. Rock climbing is a sport that involves risk, adventure (autonomy) and is almost always done with others (relatedness). In addition, the sport depends on a high degree of skill (competence) in order to participate. The purpose of this investigation is to explore and describe the components of self-determination of those participating in rock-climbing.

Method: Participants for this study were college age students (N = 18; 10 males and 8 females with a mean age of 21 years of age). The sample was drawn from those who actively participate in the sport of rock climbing and were solicited from a university setting. The Psychological Need Satisfaction (PNS) instrument was used to describe the sample. The questionnaire was adapted to the activity of rock climbing. In addition, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 8 of the participants (4 males and 4 females) to further investigate motivation from a self-determination perspective.

Analysis/Results: Data were analyzed descriptively using means and standard deviations. In addition to quantitative data, interview data were analyzed using a thematic network process (Attride-Sterling, 2001). Data from the PNS suggests that those participants engaging in the sport of rock-climbing scored high on measures of autonomy, relatedness and competence. Additionally, themes that emerged from the interviews support the quantitative data. Participants expressed a sense of control (autonomy), connectedness (relatedness) and skill-fullness (competence) while participating in rock-climbing.

Conclusions: Results from this investigation may be useful to practitioners who are involved in recreational programming at the university level. In a broader way, this information may also be useful to those who work with individuals participating in outdoor/adventure activities. Also, physical education specialist in high schools may draw indirect implications from these findings. While the sample in this study was taken from university students, perhaps the motivation of high school students would be enhanced if rock-climbing were a part of the physical education curriculum. Further investigations need to be conducted that take into account different age groups.

Empowerment-Related Constructs as Predictors of Student Leadership Qualities

Lila Murphy Gutuskey

Erin E. Centeio

Nathan McCaughtry

Alex C. Garn

Cheryl Somers, Jeffrey Martin, Noel L. Kulik

Bo Shen

Wayne State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Regular participation in physical activity (PA) is linked to a reduced risk of obesity and positive cognitive and emotional benefits. Most school PA initiatives are led by outside programmers or teachers who rarely incorporate students in the decision making and implementation processes. Youth empowerment theory posits that including student leaders in health interventions could produce positive outcomes including improved leadership capabilities. Previous research on youth empowerment programs has primarily targeted adolescents, but little is known about the impact of elementary empowerment programs. Some outcomes, based on adolescent programs, may relate to situation specific self-confidence, perceived control, problem solving, decision making, and community engagement. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine how changes in empowerment-related constructs predict student leadership qualities over the course of a school health initiative.

Method: Twenty Midwestern elementary schools formed student-led teams focused on improving the school health environment and student health behaviors. Teams identified potential school health improvements in the fall and implemented initiatives throughout the year. Students completed questionnaires at the beginning and end of the year (n = 130, 41% male) with validated scales assessing global self-concept, school attachment, and PA related social responsibility. An additional scale measuring student leadership qualities was also included.

Analysis/Results: Data were screened for missing values, outliers, and normality. Change scores were calculated. Using a hierarchical multiple regression, change scores for school attachment, PA social responsibility, and global self-concept were used to predict post scores in student leadership, while controlling for age, gender, ethnicity, and pre student leadership scores. The model was statistically significant, F(7, 122) = 14.703, p < .001, and accounted for approximately 42.6% of variance. Student leadership pre scores (β = .56; p < .001; D Adj. R² = .25) was significant, while changes in school attachment (β = .29; p < .001) and PA social responsibility (β = .17; p <  .05) were the strongest predictors of post student leadership scores, with an additional D Adj. R² = .19.

Conclusions: Guided by youth empowerment theory, this study adds understanding to predictors of student leadership qualities for elementary students involved in a school health initiative. Providing students with empowering opportunities that increase connections to schools and enhance social responsibility appear to maximize student leadership qualities. Future research should further identify psychological and behavioral outcomes experienced by elementary students who are given opportunities to lead, as well as types of health initiatives that are developed and implemented by students.

Mastery Motivational Climate: Influencing Vocational Students' Enjoyment of Physical Activity

Laura C. Hohengasser

Pamela J. Russell

Bridgewater State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Physical activity in children declines more than a third from 9–15 years of age (Nader et al., 2008). Consequently, drug abuse and smoking have taken a backseat to obesity the top health concern for parents in the United States because of its link to disease (American Heart Association, 2010). Children of particular concern are vocational high school students, because their career lifestyle may be linked to poor health habits, such as low physical activity (AHA, 2010; Pampel, et al., 2010). Exposing these students to a mastery motivational climate classroom (e.g., Duda, 1996; Grasten, et al., 2012, Ntoumanis & Biddle, 1999) may increase physical activity enjoyment, thus physical activity during adolescence and perhaps lifelong physical activity habits. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of a mastery motivational physical education classroom climate on vocational students' physical activity enjoyment.

Method: Eight-four (males = 53, females = 31) first year students who attended a New England vocational school were randomly selected as participants. Institutional review board approval was obtained from Bridgewater State University prior to conducting research. A hybrid of the Sport Education Model and Teaching Games for Understanding Model was used to create a mastery motivational climate. Pre and post measures of the participants' perceptions of motivational climate and physical activity enjoyment were assessed using the Perceived Motivational in Sport Questionnaire (Newton, Duda, & Yin, 2000) and the five question Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (Raedeke, T.D. & Amorose, A.J., 2013). A series of paired samples t-test with appropriate Bonferroni corrections determined significant post-intervention changes.

Analysis/Results: Findings suggested that students perceived a significantly greater mastery motivational climate (post = 3.72+1.03; pre = 3.44+1.08 {p = .032} and a significantly higher level of physical activity enjoyment (post = 4.98+1.68; pre = 4.28+1.98 {p = < .001} compared to the pre-tests. Females (4.25+0.94) perceived a significantly greater {p = .008} mastery motivational climate than males (3.69+1.05); both had significantly higher {female p = .008; male p = .001} physical activity enjoyment levels (female 4.99+1.67; male 5.01+1.67).

Conclusions: Mastery motivational climate created through the hybrid SEM/TGFU Models effectively increased vocational students' physical activity enjoyment levels, especially for female students. Future vocational student health may benefit from exposure to a mastery motivational climate in physical education as it could influence the development of lifelong physical activity habits.

Validation of IPMS for Korea Archery

Sae-Hyung Kim

Han-Byul Kim

Tae-Gyu Kim

Chang-Hwan Choi, Min-Su Jeon

Minsoo Jeon

Korea National Sport University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The purposes of this study were to develop and calibrate the Importance of Performance Measurement Scale (IPMS) for Korea archery using the Rasch model, and to validate the scale through known group difference approach. If the Experience of Archery (EOA) score is more than 10, independent coaching is generally possible (Korea Archery Association, 2012).

Method: Based on the literature review and consultation of content and measurement experts, the 27-item IPMS was generated. The scale was administered to 463 Korean elite archeries in Seoul universities. Rasch measurement computer program, WINSTEPS(Linacre, 2009), was used to analyze the data. Model data fit was determined by Infit and Outfit statistics ( ≥ 0.70 and ≤ 1.30). The unidimensionality of the scale was determined by Infit and Outfit (mean square) using Chi-square fit statistics. If the values of the Infit and Outfit are 1.00, the observed score perfectly fit the expected model. One-way ANOVA was used to establish the known group difference validity evidence of the IPMS through SPSS 21.0 statistical software. Alpha level was set at 0.05. A statistically significant mean difference in the archeries' importance of performance between EOA score level( < 10, ≥ 10) would provide known group difference validity evidence for the IPMS.

Analysis/Results: 22-item of the 27 items had good model-data fit with acceptable fit statistics. The five items were eliminated from the final estimation (the 5-item's infit and outfit statistics index were over 1.30). Overall, a unidimensional model fits the data well and the 7 rating categories functioned well; threshold advanced with category. The item separation index (2.57) and separation reliability statistic (.98) provided evidence that the items had good variability with a high degree of confidence in replicating placement of the items from another sample. There was a statistically significant mean difference in the person's logits score between categorized the EOA group( < 10, ≥ 10), F(1, 461) = 7.609, p < 0.006. This result supports the known group difference validity evidence of the IPMS.

Conclusions: Results provided support for using the IPMS. The scale can be used to assess the importance of performance of individuals and provide information to Korea Archeries. The newly developed IPMS for archer in Korea should be validated to another sample to increase external validity.

Exploring Perceived Motivations of AXIS Dancers

Boni Boswell

Bomna Ko

Seok Yoon

Jihoun An

Yun Soo Lee

Middle Tennessee State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Although the inclusion of dancers with disabilities in professional dance companies has expanded in the past decade, there is a lack of research concerning the impact of social-environmental factors on participation in integrated dance companies. Findings of studies involving only typical dancers (Quested & Duda, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2013) have provided support for the used of self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000) to gain understanding of the social-environmental dance climate. Yet, literature concerning integrated dance companies consists primarily of essays and testimonies. This qualitative study explored the perceptions of motivations, challenges, and rewards of dancers participating in the AXIS Dance Company, a physically integrated dance company with international acclaim. Self-determination theory (SDT) served as the foundational framework. Research questions were: 1) What social-environmental factors were most relevant to these dancers and impacted their motivations to dance with the AXIS Dance Company? 2) Did the dancers' perceptions of their participation correspond to a key tenet of the basic needs mini theory of SDT, specifically, the three areas of need (autonomy, relatedness, and competence)? 3) In what ways did the challenges and rewards voiced by these dancers impact their participation with AXIS?

Method: This study employed a phenomenological study design to “describe the meaning for several individuals of their lived experiences of” (Creswell, 2007, p. 57) involvement in the integrated AXIS Dance performance. In-depth semi-structured face-to-face interviews with 10 dancers (F = 6, M = 4) were recorded and transcribed verbatim. Among those, three were dancers with disabilities.

Analysis/Results: Content analysis was used to analyze the data. Several strategies were utilized to ensure and maintain credibility and trustworthiness of the findings in this study including triangulation between investigators, peer review and debrief, and member checking between investigators and participants. Four themes emerged which significantly impacted their participation with AXIS: 1) passion for dance, 2) commitment to inclusion, 3) dedication to innovation, and 4) sense of belonging.

Conclusions: Two themes voiced by these dancers, dedication to innovation and sense of belonging, clearly supported the tenets of SDT, specifically the mini theory of basic needs. These results highlighted the importance of creating an integrated dance environment which values and fosters discovery of unique movements, individual decision making, and a sense of belonging.

Middle School Students' Perceptions of Caring and Attitudes Toward PE

Weidong Li

The Ohio State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: According to Noddings (1992), the ethic of caring can occur when a connection is made between the ‘one-caring’ and the ‘cared-for’, and “Caring is the very bedrock of all successful education (p. 27).” Teachers are effective when they care for student learning. Qualitative studies have shown that teachers' caring behaviors were associated with students' attitude toward physical education (PE) and engagement (e.g., Ennis et al., 1997; Cothran et al., 2003; Larson, 2006). However, limited research has been conducted to quantitatively investigate how students' perceptions of caring are linked to their motivation in PE. Students' attitudes toward PE strongly predict their engagement and learning. Therefore, this study was to examine the relationship between students' perceptions of caring and attitudes toward PE.

Method: 179 6^th–8^th graders enrolled in PE from a USA Mid-West region volunteered to participate in the study. PE teachers at the selected two suburban schools were experienced and committed to teaching. Participants completed a package of surveys including 42-item perceptions of caring with a 7-likert scale (Li & Kim, 2014), demographic information (gender, ethnicity, grade, and age), attitudes toward PE (Subramaniam & Silverman, 2007), and other surveys for research purposes during their scheduled PE time. Instructions were provided to participants. It took participants about 30 minutes to complete the survey package.

Analysis/Results: The construct validity of perceptions of caring were validated in a Li and Kim (2014) study. Participants with missing data for perceptions of caring and attitudes toward PE were excluded from data analysis. The internal Cronbach Alphas for caring, enjoyment subscale, and usefulness subscale were.98, .94, and .94. Two Multiple regressions with either enjoyment or usefulness as a dependent variable were conducted to examine the relationship between perceptions of caring and attitudes toward PE by accounting for gender, ethnicity, and grade effects. The independent variables included perceptions of caring, gender, grade, and ethnicity. The normality assumptions were met after deleting one outlier, which had no impact on the results. Participants reported that their PE teachers cared for them (M = 5.23, SD = 1.27). Students' perceptions of caring significantly predicted their attitudes toward PE: Usefulness, F(1, 141) = 135.39, p < .0001, R-square = .58 and enjoyment, F(1, 141) = 146.55, p < .0001, R-square = .59.

Conclusions: Students who perceived that teachers cared for them had better attitudes toward PE. It is suggested that PE teachers should employ effective strategies to foster a caring learning environments. These strategies include making task adaptations, building interpersonal rapport, and creating a positive, motivating climate.

Achievement Goals and Motivational Regulations in a Summer Sports Camp

Jiling Liu

Ping Xiang, Ron E. McBride, Xiaoxia Su, Melissa Scarmardo

Maiya Otsuka

Texas A&M University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: School physical education programs face serious challenges in promoting students' physical activity, due to the reallocation of time and resources to core academic subjects (Public Health Institute [PHI], 2010). After-school physical activity programs provide supplementary opportunities for students to participate in physical activity in and out of school (e.g., Garn et al., 2014). Recent research revealed children's motivation and participation in physical activity are influenced by achievement goal orientations (e.g., Xiang, Liu, McBride, & Bruene, 2011). This study examines the predictability of achievement goals on at-risk boys' motivational regulations in a summer sports camp.

Method: One hundred and two at-risk boys, aged 11–15 (M = 12.93, SD = 1.22), volunteered as participants. All were enrolled in a 3-week summer sports camp in Southwest Texas. The Achievement Goal Questionnaire – Physical Education (AGQ-PE; Guan, McBride, & Xiang, 2007) assessed mastery-approach, mastery-avoidance, performance-approach, and performance-avoidance goals, and the Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire (BREQ-2; Markland & Tobin, 2004) assessed five types of motivational regulations: amotivation, external regulation, introjected regulation, identified regulation, and intrinsic motivation. Both instruments have demonstrated acceptable reliability and validity in physical activity/physical education settings.

Analysis/Results: A path analysis modeling the relationships between achievement goals and motivational regulations was performed with Mplus 7.0 (Muthén & Muthén, 1998–2012). The initial proposed model yielded a marginal fit (χ²/_df = 1.740, p = .0744; RMSEA = 0.086; SRMR = 0.050; CFI = 0.963). With one path added, the modified model generated a good fit (χ²/_df = .838, p = .569; RMSEA = 0.000; SRMR = 0.041; CFI = 1.000). To better demonstrate the predictability of achievement goals to motivational regulations, a parsimonious model was finalized with good model fit (χ²/_df = .256, p = .905; RMSEA = 0.000; SRMR = 0.041; CFI = 1.000).

Conclusions: Consistent with previous research (Gao et al., 2012; Su et al., in press), MAp goal positively predicted identified regulation and intrinsic regulation, and negatively predicted amotivation. In line with Gao et al.'s (2012) but different from Su et al.'s (in press) findings, PAp goal positively predicted intrinsic motivation. MAv goal negatively predicted intrinsic regulation. These results indicated that physical activity instructors can focus on helping students set mastery approach goals to increase intrinsic motivation and reduce amotivation. Further research can increase the generalizability by increasing sample size, including all socioeconomic backgrounds and both sexes.

Effect of Fitness Classes on Beliefs of Physical Activity Participation

Jingwen Liu

Rulan Shangguan

Langston Clark

Xiaofen Keating

Ke Zhou

Louis Harrison

The University of Texas at Austin

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Recent research has shown that more than 70% of college students gained weight over the four-year period (Gropper, Simmons, Connell, & Ulrich, 2012). This demonstrates a need for immediate attention to intervention on college students' Physical Activity (PA). An effective means of promoting PA is to provide positive experiences in PA that leads to beliefs of positive consequences for participation. Since few study has addressed this topic, this study was designed to explore the effect of a fitness class on college students' beliefs about consequences of participating in PA.

Method: College students (N = 54) were recruited from a 4-year university in U.S. All participants were enrolled in a fitness class, in which they were introduced to knowledge of goal setting, fitness and nutrition, in addition to a weekly 45-minute PA session designed to provide positive PA experiences in various activities such as basketball, soccer, aquatic games, aerobic dance, yoga, and jump rope. A pre-validated questionnaire of Beliefs about the Consequence of Participating in Physical Activity Survey was completed by participants at the beginning and end of the semester.

Analysis/Results: Using paired sample t-test, a significant increase in beliefs about consequence of participating in PA was found, t (53) = 2.28, p = .03. Mixed-design ANOVA was performed to test gender and ethnicity differences between pre-post tests, with gender and ethnicity as between-subject variables. No significant difference in pre-post change in beliefs about the consequences of taking part in PA was found between male and female students or among students of different ethnicities.

Conclusions: The one-semester fitness class enabled college students to experience positive consequences that came with participating in PA, such as gaining muscle, enjoyment, and friendship. It was unexpected that no gender and ethnicity differences were found. Future research is needed to identify the specific elements in the fitness class that are associated with positive beliefs about participating in regular PA.

Self-Efficacy Scale Towards Teaching Lifetime Physical Activities: Development and Validation

Kason O'Neil

East Tennessee State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Due to the emphasis numerous national, state, and local organizations have placed on the promotion of lifetime physical activity in our school physical education programs, it is imperative that researchers continue to examine how lifetime physical activities are being taught in schools, and what teachers specifically think about their confidence towards instruction of these activities. As a result, a valid measure is needed to assess how teachers perceive their abilities to teach lifetime physical activities. To address the gap in the research, a new scale with strong evidence for validity and reliability is needed.

The purpose of this study was to develop and begin the validation process of an instrument that measures efficacy perceptions of physical educators towards teaching lifetime physical activities. This instrument, the Physical Educator Efficacy Scale for Teaching Lifetime Physical Activities (PEES-LPA), was constructed and developed through expert review, and pilot procedures, and exploratory factor analysis.

Method: This study was conducted in four different phases. The first phase was a literature review that involved both inductive and deductive item generation. The second phase was the prepilot review, which consisted of focus group (N = 6) and expert review (N = 6) feedback. The third phase was the full validation study, which solicited 182 in-service secondary physical educators to complete the 63-item survey (PEES-LPA) using online survey software distributed through state-level AHPERD email listserves. Finally, the fourth phase was the assessment of reliability and construct validity

Analysis/Results: Exploratory Factor Analysis revealed a six-factor model that accounted for 67.8% of the total observed score variance (PAF extraction/Varimax rotation). Additionally, results demonstrated: (a) resulting factors showing simple structure that aligns with literature supporting the classification of lifetime physical activities (b) high factor scores on each factor (>.40) with no double loadings, (c) efficacy items relating to Net/Wall activities and Target activities loading together, and (d) internal consistency showed to be very high for both the full model (.95) and each individual factor (.92–.95). Results did also show moderately-high correlations between self-efficacy items relating to Feedback and Assessment, as well as Identifying and Presenting critical skill elements

Conclusions: The PEES-LPA appears to be an appropriate instrument for measuring self-efficacy perceptions of physical educators, demonstrating evidence for both reliability and validity, though further revisions should be explored to help remove redundant items that may influence multicollinearity.

Motivation Mediates Relationship Between Determinants of and Actual Physical Activity

Steve Palmer

Dierdra Bycura, Meghan Warren, Erica Pratt

Jay Sutliffe

Northern Arizona University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Autonomous motivation predicts outside of school physical activity (PA) and future engagement in PA among youth. Grounded in self-determination theory (SDT), Physical Education Dedicated to Activity for Life (PEDAL) aims to improve self-determined motivation for PA through student learning objectives and instructional tasks that target correlates and determinants of PA. The purpose of this study was to explore how autonomous motivation (Relative Autonomy Index - RAI) mediates the relationship between five determinants of PA (barriers efficacy, perceived environmental safety, perceived environmental access, sport-ability beliefs and perceived sport competence) and PA.

Method: Seventh grade youth (n = 318) completed a six page survey made up of the following; Perceived Physical Environment Inventory, measure of perceived self-efficacy for overcoming barriers, Physical Self-Perception Profile, Conceptions of the Nature of Athletic Ability questionnaire version 2, the Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire version 2, and the Weekly Activity Checklist.

Analysis/Results: The independent association of neighborhood safety, equipment accessibility, barriers efficacy, sport competence, and sport ability beliefs with RAI and PA were analyzed with linear regression. The influence of RAI on the relationship between each independent variable and PA was calculated using linear regression. In reviewing relationships between the five independent variables with PA, only barriers efficacy resulted in explaining significant variance (R² = 5.3%; p < .0001). Barriers efficacy (R² = 25%), sport ability beliefs (R² = 10.9%), neighborhood safety (R² = 6.0%), and equipment accessibility (R² = 3.9%) were significantly associated with RAI. After adjusting for RAI, all measures were significantly associated with PA (p < .001) and R² was greater for each (sport ability beliefs from 0.2% to 4.7%; sport competence 1.0% to 4.8%; barriers efficacy 5.3% to 6.2%; neighborhood safety 0.4% to 4.1%; equipment accessibility 1.4% to 4.6%).

Conclusions: Motivation measured by RAI effectively mediates the relationship between PA and the five PA determinants tested. Results support prior recommendations that motivation may be an appropriate target for PA intervention among 7th grade youth.

Service Learning and Volunteer Self-Efficacy: Working With People With Disabilities

Jill Katherine Pawlowski

Ryan T. Willoughby, Shelby L. Porter, Jennifer Beamer

Joonkoo Yun

Oregon State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Current practice in many health and physical activity disciplines incorporate service learning as a way to prepare health professionals for their future positions. Service learning experiences are incorporated based on the belief that practical experience will enhance an individual's ability to be successful. One way that service learning could influence future success is by increasing the individual's self-efficacy for completing tasks within their field. This increase in self-efficacy could be accomplished by providing a positive experience for individuals during which they are provided the opportunity to have mastery experiences, learn through vicarious experiences, and have positive interactions with current professionals. Through the incorporation of constructs of self-efficacy, a positive service learning experience may increase an individual's self-efficacy. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the effects of an adapted physical activity based service learning experience that incorporated self-efficacy constructs on participant's self-efficacy of working with people with disabilities as well as examining the factors that influence changes in self-efficacy.

Method: Fifty-eight college students were recruited to complete weekly surveys throughout their 8 week service learning experience to promote physical activity for individuals with disability. A baseline survey was administered after the first day of their service learning that included demographic information and a self-efficacy questionnaire. Seven weekly surveys were completed measuring the four constructs of self-efficacy (vicarious experience, mastery experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological response) with an additional self-efficacy questionnaire completed after the last day of their service learning. All survey responses remained anonymous through a coding system.

Analysis/Results: A paired t-test showed that there was a significant increase in self-efficacy scores from baseline to post service learning experience, t (57) = 3.24, p < .01. A multiple linear regression was used to examine factors affecting changes in self-efficacy scores. The results indicated that the model explained 10% of variance, and revealed that the participants attitude toward working with disabilities significantly predict changes is Self-efficacy (beta = 1.06, p < .05), but none of the four constructs of self-efficacy significantly influenced changes in self-efficacy scores.

Conclusions: The results of this study support that idea that a service learning experience can increase an individual's self-efficacy for working within their chosen field. However, the lack of findings establishing relationships between the self-efficacy constructs and changes in self-efficacy scores leaves room for future research to tease out aspects of a service learning experience that increase self-efficacy to inform better practice in the future.

Exercise Experiences, Flow, Anxiety, Comfort and Motivation Among Women

Caitlyn R. Pecinovsky

Christy Greenleaf

University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The objectification of women's bodies often results in a number of negative psychological and behavioral outcomes, including poor body image and avoidance of physical activity (Vartanian & Shaprow, 2007). Moreover, women's physical self-perceptions are associated with exercise experiences, often influencing the degree to which a woman experiences flow, anxiety, comfort, and motivation (Frederick son & Roberts, 1997; Strelan, Mehaffey, & Tiggeman, 2003). While these psychosocial variables impact the exercise experience independently, there is a gap in the literature regarding the associations between the flow experience, anxiety, comfort, and motivation during exercise. This study examined the relationships between flow, anxiety, comfort, and exercise motivation among recreationally active women.

Method: Participants, 278 women (M age = 26.75, SD = 9.05), completed the following measures via an online survey: Flow State Scale (Jackson & Eklund, 2002), Social Physique Anxiety Scale (Hart et. al, 1989), and Exercise Avoidance Motivation Scale (Vartanian & Shaprow, 2007). Additionally, participants answered a single item on exercise apparel comfort.

Analysis/Results: Flow was negatively associated with social physique anxiety (SPA) and exercise avoidance motivation (EAM). Correlations between flow subscales and SPA ranged between − .42 and − .27, p's < .001. Associations between flow subscales and EAM ranged between − .46 and − .37, p's < .001. Flow was positively related with participants' exercise apparel comfort. Flow subscales and comfort had correlations between .12 and .18, p's < .05. There were also significant relationships between PSA and EAM (r = .49, p < .001); SPA and comfort (r = − .37, p < .001); and EAM and comfort (r = − .23, p < .001).

Conclusions: Better understanding the role of flow in the exercise experiences of women may be a useful approach to creating and promoting healthy exercise environments for women. As a first step, the results of this study indicate that women with less frequent flow experiences have higher levels of SPA and EAM. Exercise environments that lessen body objectification may influence the formation of intrinsic motivation, allowing for improved self-perceptions and valuing of physical activity. Future research should explore the impact of enhancing the flow experience to decrease anxiety, and increase comfort and motivation in a fitness setting.

Second-Order Latent Variables of the Sport Motivation Scale: Physical Education

Keven Prusak

William Christensen

Brigham Young University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Traditionally, amotivation has been placed on the SDT continuum on the opposite end of intrinsic motivation and adjacent to the lowest form of extrinsic motivation (external regulation) giving the impression that the locus of its regulatory mechanisms lies externally. This assumption was explored in this study that examined both the first order latent variables and then the validity of the means for calculating the self-determination index (SDI) score using the traditional, albeit arbitrary, weighting system first proposed by Blais, et al. (1990). Therefore the purpose of this study was to use CFA to examine both first- and second-order latent variable effects via the modified sport motivation scale for PE (SMS-PE) in secondary PE students in the US and the UK.

Method: Data from 1438 US and British secondary PE students were gathered using the 28-item, 7-factor SMS-PE. CFA to assess and compare the goodness of fit of the original scale to several alternative versions of the SMS. CFA was again used to test the validity of the traditional SDI score calculations by examining the second-order latent variables. CFA and the graphic depiction of the resulting model were generated by AMOS-SPSS (2011).

Analysis/Results: Results show that the SDI score was not one-dimensional as originally supposed but was more fully represented by two, second-order latent variables (internal and external). As expected, external regulation was increasingly evident in lower levels of extrinsic motivation and internal regulation was increasingly associated with identified regulation and intrinsic motivation. However, amotivation was entirely associated with internal (behaving more like the antithesis of intrinsic motivation) rather than external as has been formerly postulated.

Conclusions: This study provides support for the notion that amotivation is not simply a lower or lowest form of externally regulated behaviors. Results suggest that the regulatory mechanisms for amotivation may actually reside internally but that they are manifest in a negative rather than a positive direction (as with intrinsic motivation). In other words, amotivated behavior is personally owned but negatively manifested by persons who choose to disengage for a variety of reasons rather than be forced out by externally driven motives.

Teaching Elementary Physical Education Self-Efficacy Scale: A Confirmatory Factor Analysis

Keven Prusak

William Christensen

Brigham Young University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Self-Efficacy is situationally or contextually specific and thus there are no all-purpose models. Elementary physical education (EPE) is demanding in its curriculum and methodologies. PETE students often feel overwhelmed at the prospect of learning to teach EPE. However, no self-efficacy scale exists to measure student confidence toward teaching DPE. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to develop and test the psychometric properties (via traditional scale development techniques and confirmatory factor analysis, CFA) of the Teaching EPE Self-Efficacy Scale (TEPESE) to measure teacher confidence in their ability to teach EPE.

Method: The scale development consisted of two phases (a) item development and (b) confirmatory factor analysis. First, five PETE professors created thirty four statements intended to assess student confidence in six areas of instruction and management specific to DPE. Seven additional PETE professors familiar with DPE were asked to assessed each item for content and construct validity. Then, 120 former DPE students categorized the items into one of each of the six categories. CFA reduced the scale to 32 items demonstrating adequate fit indices. Next, factor scores for each self-efficacy factor were calculated using the parameter estimates from the factor analysis model. In contrast to simply averaging the item scores within each category, this approach facilitates an optimal quantification of each underlying factor.

Analysis/Results: Item development results show accurate categorization for the majority of the items. Problematic items were identified and reexamined for further consideration. CFA results on the remaining 32-item, six-factor scale indicate an adequate fit (CFI = .840, RMSEA = .091). Factor loadings indicate strong relationships to proposed factors. Figures depict scale structure and tables list factor loadings and itme means.

Conclusions: Researchers and PETE programs can benefit from an instrument that will assess the confidence with which students enter and exit preparation courses for DPE. This scale will provide the means to assess student self-efficacy toward key factors. Informed decisions about course content to optimize student self-efficacy can be made. This instrument can also be used for in-service teachers.

College Student Texting and Driving: Testing the Theory of Planned Behavior

Michael E. Sandlin

Judy R. Sandlin

Rosanne S. Keathley

Sam Houston State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Texting while driving occurs in drivers of all ages; however, the greatest at-risk population is young drivers. Eighty percent of college students have reported texting while driving within the past week. This study tested the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) and examined college student drivers' use of cell phones to send and read text messages while driving.

Method: Participants (n = 777) completed a 24-item instrument using a 7-point Likert scale where 1 = Strongly Disagree and 7 = Strongly Agree. The survey measured phone use while driving during the previous and upcoming week. Questions examined frequency of use, intent/likelihood to use their cell phone, how they and others feel about their cell use, and their perceptions of peers' cell use.

Analysis/Results: Participants revealed that sending texts was “bad” (M = 5.73), “unwise” (M = 5.89), “valuable” (M = 2.81), and “positive” (M = 2.42). They disclosed an awareness that reading texts was “bad” (M = 5.40), “unwise” (M = 5.57), “valuable” (M = 2.99), and “positive” (M = 2.65). Statistically significant correlations were observed between plans/intent to send/read texts and the feelings and approval of important people in students' lives for sending/reading texts – Pearson r ranged from r = .19 to r = .27. Negative correlations were observed between plans/intent to send/read texts and feelings of guilt and going against individual principles. All correlations were significant and ranged from r = − .22 and r = − .32.

However, one-third (35.5%) of the participants reported they plan to send a text while driving during the next week, while 48.8% plan to read a text. A total of 46.2% of participants reported they were likely to send texts with 61.0% stating they would likely read a text. Plans for and the likelihood of sending and receiving texts were highly correlated with previous actions for these behaviors (as indicated by rates of sending and reading texts). Pearson r correlations ranged from r = .66 to r = .86 for these behaviors.

Lastly, participants indicated high levels of self-control over whether they send/read a text while driving (M = 6.19 and M = 6.1, respectively). They also indicated that they believed a high number of their friends/peers would send/read texts while driving (M = 5.33 and M = 5.66, respectively).

Conclusions: Findings validate previous outcomes that beliefs and attitudes regarding texting, behavioral intentions, and perceived controls fail to result in positive behavior change. Further, the normative beliefs and subjective norms identified in TPB were not indicative of positive behavior change among subjects. Texting may need to be managed by prevention through regulation which can result in fines, imprisonment, and suspension of driver's license.

Lesson Context, Situational Interest, and In-Class Physical Activity

Lauren C. Scott

Alanna Price

Bo Shen

Wayne State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Situational interest is a powerful motivator for elementary school students and its construct has been articulated as multi-dimensional including attention demand, challenge, exploration opportunity, instant enjoyment and novelty. Situationally interesting learning tasks can attract students to increase engagement time and enhance achievement. Situational interest is sensitive to the learning environment defined by the content, instructional strategies, and learners. Under different lesson environments, it is argued that the role of situational interest in physical education may vary. Using the multidimensionality of situational interest, we designed this study to examine the moderate effect of lesson context on the relationship between situational interest dimensions and in-class physical engagement.

Method: Participants were 125 4^th and 5^thgraders (63 females, age range = 9–12 years, mean age = 10.40 years) in an urban elementary school. Data collection took place during three selected instructional lessons (lesson 1: fitness-oriented; lesson 2: skill-oriented; and lesson 3: game-oriented). In each lesson, situational Interest Scale and Yamax SW-200 Digi-walker pedometers were administered to assess students' situational interest dimensions and quantify their in-class physical engagement (steps), respectively. System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time (SOFIT) was conducted to code each lesson context (i.e., management, knowledge, fitness activity, skill practice, and game play). Three multiple regression analyses (one for each lesson) were conducted with steps as the dependent variable and situational interest dimensions as predictors.

Analysis/Results: SOFIT coding was consistent with the instructional design. The greatest proportion of class time was devoted to fitness activity (62%) in lesson 1, skill practice (44%) in lesson 2, and game play in lesson 3 (48%). Overall percentage of moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) ranged from 44% to 56% in the three lessons. Regression analyses revealed that predictive role of the situational interest dimensions varied in terms of lesson context. In lesson 1, the significant predictors of steps were attention demand (β = .33, P < .01) and novelty (β = .27, P < .01); in lesson 2 were challenge (β = .30, P < .01) and novelty (β = .20, P < .05); and in lesson 3 were enjoyment (β = .28, P < .01) and novelty (β = .27, P < .01).

Conclusions: Results support that lesson context in physical education can moderate the function of situational interest and its dimensions on student behaviors. There is a strong independent effect of the dimensional sources in different lesson contexts. Physical educators should incorporate situationally interesting learning experiences and consider lesson environment and content specificity when designing effective strategies to enhance students' learning and physical engagement.

Motivation in Sport Education and Traditional University Weight Training Classes

Benjamin A. Sibley

Shawn M. Bergman

Rachel V. Cheek

Appalachian State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: According to Self Determination Theory, motivation is driven by three basic psychological needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness. The extent to which these three needs are satisfied will determine how people are motivated in a given setting. Motivation can be intrinsic, extrinsic, or non-existent. It has been consistently found that intrinsic motivation and more-internalized forms of extrinsic motivation will lead to more well-adapted exercise behaviors. The purpose of this research was to examine relationships between basic psychological need satisfaction, self determined motivations, and student attitudes and exercise intentions in university weight training classes, and to examine differences in these constructs between classes that use a traditional teaching model and the sport education model.

Method: University students enrolled in traditional weight training classes (n = 166) and sport education weight training classes (n = 59) completed the Basic Psychological Needs in Physical Education Scale, the Self Regulation Questionnaire – Physical Education, items from the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory to assess enjoyment, and three items that measured future intentions to exercise.

Analysis/Results: Correlations between need satisfaction, exercise motivations, enjoyment, and future intentions were calculated for both the traditional model and sport education classes. T-tests were conducted to examine mean differences between the two conditions. Results indicated that psychological need satisfaction had weak significant correlations with introjected regulation (r = .23 to .29) and amotivation (r = − .21 to − .27), moderate correlations with identified regulation (r = .37 to .49) and future intentions to exercise (r = .29 to .36), and strong correlations with intrinsic regulation (r = .42 to .53) and enjoyment (r = .49 to .59). Correlations with identified regulation, intrinsic regulation, enjoyment, and future intentions were of a much larger magnitude in the sport education condition. Intrinsic and identified regulations were strongly correlated with enjoyment (r = .62, .53) and moderately correlated with future intentions (r = .40, .36), and amotivation was strongly negatively related to enjoyment (r = − .50). Correlations of intrinsic and identified regulation with future intentions to exercise were of a much larger magnitude in the sport education condition. No significant mean differences were found on any of the variables between the two conditions.

Conclusions: Consistent with the tenets of Self Determination Theory, this study confirmed that for students enrolled in university weight training classes, satisfaction of basic psychological needs plays an important role in motivation, enjoyment, and intentions to engage in future exercise. Psychological need satisfaction played a much more salient role in in sport education classes than in traditionally taught classes.

Elementary Teachers' Autonomy Support for Children's Recess Physical Activity Motivation

Megan Babkes Stellino

Michelle L. Thornton

Heather Erwin

University of Kentucky

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Physical activity opportunities during recess may contribute between 5–40% toward daily physical activity recommendations (Ridgers, Sratton, Clark, Fairclough, & Richardson, 2006). Recess provides valuable amounts of physical activity for children, as they are active, on average between 63–78% of recess time (Beighle et al., 2006).The amount of recess physical activity (RPA) children engage in is both theoretically and practically impacted by school-based social influences, such as classroom and physical education teachers. According to Self-Determination Theory (SDT), perceptions of how autonomy supportive versus controlling significant others (e.g., teachers) are with regard to the climate surrounding the pursuit of activity in a particular context will predict the levels of intrinsic motivation individuals in pursuit of that activity in that context experience (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Deci & Ryan, 1991). Perceptions of greater autonomy support, versus control, from key social influences in the form of positive feedback, support, and encouragement are factors that can ultimately predict how intrinsically motivated children are to be physically active during discretionary-time periods such as elementary school recess. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between children's perceptions of, and teachers' self-reported, autonomy support for RPA and children's RPA motivation.

Method: Children (N = 272; 3^rd–5^thgrade, 140 females) from three elementary schools in the Southeastern US completed surveys of their RPA motivation and perceived autonomy support versus control for RPA from their classroom teacher (CR) and physical education (PE) teacher. Elementary teachers from each school (N = 24 CR; N = 3 PE) completed self-reported autonomy support versus control for children's RPA.

Analysis/Results: T-tests indicated children's perceived PE and CR teachers' autonomy support for RPA was significantly lower than both PE and CR teachers' self-reported levels of autonomy-support for RPA. CR teachers, both perceived and self-reported, were significantly less autonomy supportive of children's RPA as compared to PE teachers. Regression analyses revealed children's perceptions of PE teachers' and CR teachers' autonomy support for RPA significantly, and positively, accounted for 20.1% of the variance of children's intrinsic motivation for RPA. PE teachers' self-reported autonomy support for RPA significantly, and negatively, predicted 8% of children's externally-regulated RPA.

Conclusions: Findings provide important evidence of the impact teachers have on children's motivation for school-based physical activity during discretionary times such as recess. Results also establish further support for the use of SDT in examination of the social psychological processes associated with promotion of children's school-based physical activity.

Girls on the Run: Positive Youth Development Outcomes

Sarah Ullrich-French

Amy Cole, Anne E. Cox

Eunsaem Kim

Washington State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Girls on the Run (GOTR) is a physical activity-based positive youth development program for girls in 3rd – 5th grade. The program is implemented over 12 weeks with a 24-lesson curriculum combining training for a 5K running event with activities designed to enhance girls' social, psychological, and physical competencies to successfully navigate life experiences. However, little evidence documents the effectiveness of this program for developmental outcomes aligned with the curriculum. Through curriculum review and focus groups with coaches, parents, and past participants in GOTR-Puget Sound (PS) we identified emotional self-efficacy, perceived physical competence, and physical self-worth as relevant to the program curriculum to represent program outcomes. Autonomy support from coaches and running buddies, based in self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000), was also considered relevant as a potential mechanism to explain change in the three outcome variables. The purpose of this study was to test for change in the three psychological outcome variables and examine the relationship between perceived autonomy support and change in these outcomes across the program.

Method: This study was conducted with GOTR-PS participants (N = 249) in the fall of 2014. Participants in GOTR-PS completed a survey assessing the three program outcomes at the second session of the fall season and the same survey with the addition of the autonomy support measure after completing the 5K run during the final session.

Analysis/Results: MANOVA results demonstrated a significant multivariate effect across time, F (3, 197) = 7.07, p < .01, Wilk's Λ = .903, partial η² = .097. Univariate follow-ups showed a significant effect for physical self-worth, F(1, 199) = 20.22, p < .01, partial η² = .092. Results for emotional self-efficacy and perceived physical competence were non-significant (p>.05). Participants' perceived autonomy support at the end of the program was positively related to the gain in physical self-worth (r = .262, p < .01). However, there was no significant relationship between perceptions of autonomy support and gains in perceptions of physical competence or emotional self-efficacy.

Conclusions: Findings support that positive changes in physical self-worth occur during participation in GOTR-PS. Perceived autonomy support is one potential mechanism explaining this change. Future research should also consider a comparison group to better document program effects. Overall results suggest that the quality of the program experience is important and should be intentionally incorporated in staff and leader training.

Fitsporation Vs. Thinsporation: Is There a Difference?

Heather I.D. Van Mullem

Lewis-Clark State College

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Obesity is a global epidemic (“Overweight and Obesity,” n.d.). The Internet can be a source for ideas and strategies to create a plan to achieve weight loss goals. While access to sound and healthy weight loss alternatives are available on the Internet, unhealthy practices are also plentiful (Lewis & Arbuthnott, 2012). In particular, much research has focused on the presence and impact of pro-eating disorder websites (Lewis & Arbuthnott, 2012; Roleau & von Ranson, 2011; Harper, Sperry & Thompson, 2008; Andrist, 2003; Norris, Boydell, Pinhas & Katzman, 2006; Abbate Daga, Gramaglia, Peiro & Fassino, 2006). Lewis and Arbuthnott (2012) indicate that sites using terms like “Thinspo” or “Thinsporation” often contain content most likely to lead to damaging weight loss practices. Terms used to promote engagement in healthy behavior choices like “Fitspo” or “Fitsporation” are increasingly popular on the Internet. Critics (Dahl, 2013; Fabello, 2013) note that images on these sites are similar to images on sites that support the concepts of “Thinspo” or “Thinsporation.”

The purpose of this research was to explore if people can distinguish between images intended to promote fitness versus images promoting disordered eating.

Method: Undergraduate participants (152 males, 146 females) viewed images posted to Pinterest, an online social media website that allows users to share or “pin” images by content area. Images chosen for comparison were examples tagged on Pinterest threads as “Fitsporation” or “Thinsporation.” After reading a definition of “Fitsporation” and “Thinsporation,” participants identified on which type of thread they would expect to find each image.

Analysis/Results: Mean scores showed that male participants believed “ Fitsporation” images were more likely to be found on a “Fitsportation” website (9 out of the 15 images) and females reported the location correctly for 5 of 15 images. When reviewing “Thinsporation” images, males' perceived location was accurate for 7 of 15 images. Females scored accurately for 8 of 15 images. Mean scores indicate participants were challenged to distinguish between types of images. T-tests of unequal variance revealed that female participants were more critical of site expectation. Thirteen of the 15 “Fitsporation” and “Thinsporation” images showed a statistically significant response by gender.

Conclusions: Results revealed that male and female college students had a difficult time distinguishing between images of women used to promote fitness versus images of women meant to promote disordered eating. Findings can contribute to the body of scholarship addressing the impact of media on behavior choices.

Entity Beliefs Negatively Predict Resiliency in Olympic Weightlifters

Jason von Stietz

James Garbanati

Alliant International University, Los Angeles

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Olympic weightlifting is a demanding sport that involves both physical and psychological factors. It is widely agreed that mental toughness or resiliency is a predictor of successful outcomes in sport. Several studies show that implicit theories, an individual's often unspoken assumption about the stability or malleability of core personal qualities, are related to resiliency in sport and non-sport settings. The implicit theories model consists of two theories or mindsets: entity and incremental. An entity belief is an assumption that a core quality of a person is a fixed entity and is not malleable. An incremental belief is an assumption that a core quality of a person is malleable and can change over time. The present study examined the relationship between implicit theories, goal orientation, perceived self-competence, and resiliency in Olympic weightlifters.

Method: Participants were 140 adults competing in the sport of Olympic weightlifting (98 males, 42 females, M_age = 31.01 years, SD = 10.904, age range = 18–71). Most participants were Caucasian, had competed at the local/regional level, and had been training in Olympic weightlifting for one to two years. A correlational design was used and data was collected online utilizing Qualtrics survey software. Predictor variables consisted of incremental beliefs, entity beliefs, task orientation and ego orientation. Perceived self-competence was tested as a moderator variable. The criterion variable was resiliency.

Analysis/Results: Significant relationships were found between entity beliefs and resiliency as well as task orientation and incremental beliefs. A simultaneous regression found that entity beliefs negatively predicted resiliency as expected. However, incremental beliefs did not significantly predict resiliency. A linear regression found that task orientation significantly predicted incremental beliefs. Furthermore, a hierarchical regression found that perceived self-competence did not moderate the relationship between entity beliefs and resiliency.

Conclusions: The present study extended previous findings that entity beliefs negatively correlated with resiliency to an Olympic weightlifting setting. The findings were in contrast to previous findings that incremental beliefs positively correlated with resiliency. It is possible that incremental beliefs only relate to resiliency when the likelihood of failure is high. The measure of resiliency did not assess for resiliency in situations in which it was made explicit that failure was highly likely. The findings were consistent with earlier studies that found task orientation to positively correlate with resiliency. Future studies should examine a more culturally diverse sample. Mental skills training involving decreasing entity beliefs and increasing task orientation could possibly improve sport performance.

Three Types of Perceived Competence in a Summer Sports Camp

Ping Xiang

Xiaoxia Su, Ron E. McBride, Jiling Liu

Melissa Scarmardo

Texas A&M University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Perceived competence (PC) is defined as students' perceptions of what they can do and how good they are at different tasks (e.g., Xiang & Lee, 1998). PC plays a critical role in students' motivation, engagement and performance in physical activity/physical education settings. Recent research (Spray & Warburton, 2011) revealed high school physical education students in England were able to distinguish three types of perceived competence: task mastery referenced (PC mastery), self-referenced (PC self), and other-referenced (PC other). The current study examines the differentiation and prediction of three types of perceived competence in effort among adolescent at-risk boys in a summer sports camp.

Method: As part of a larger project, participants in this study are 79 boys placed at-risk aged 10–14 years (M age = 11.91, SD = 1.21) attending a 3-week summer sports camp located in Texas during the summer of 2013. The population included 50.6% Hispanic-American, 25.3% Caucasian-American, 20.3% African-American and 3.8% others. A 10-item questionnaire assessed the three types of perceived competence and effort with the stem, “In my physical activity sessions at this camp…” Items were adapted from the research literature (e.g., Guan, Xiang, McBride, & Bruene, 2006; Spray & Warburton, 2011) and were accompanied by a five-point Likert scale ranging from not at all true (1) to very true (5).

Analysis/Results: An exploratory factor analysis yielded three distinct categories of perceived competence accounting for 81.65% variance. Factor loadings ranged from .86 to .90. The three-factor model was supported by a confirmatory factor analysis (χ ²/df = 1.33, CFI = .997, TLI = .993, RMSEA = .006, SRMR = .008). Cronbach's alphas for the scores of PC mastery, PC self, PC other, and effort were .77, .82, .69 and .74, respectively. A multiple regression analysis revealed three types of perceived competence collectively accounted for 34% of variance in effort (F (3, 77) = 12.51, p < .001), with PC mastery (β = .42, t = 4.014, p < .01) and PC self (β = .272, t = 2.465, p < .05) emerging as significant positive predictors.

Conclusions: Consistent with previous research, three types of perceived competence were distinguishable among these adolescent at-risk boys in the present study. Given that PC mastery and PC self positively predicted boys' effort, we recommend that this summer sports camp focus on helping the boys construe competence based on how well they master the camp's physical activities and how much they improve in those activities.

A Study of Youth Tennis Players' Motivation in Suzhou

Zhenhao Zeng

Li Sheng Xie

Changsu International School of JiangSu Province, PRC

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: In recent years, the sport of tennis has obtained great progress in China; research involving tennis players' motivation, however, was rarely covered. The purpose of this study, therefore, was to examine what are the essential factors that motivate youth tennis players to continually engage in practices and competitions. Firsthand information and meaningful feedback can provide much to the international tennis community that will improve their teaching/coaching and help manage various competitions more effectively.

Method: Participants were 120 youth tennis players (boy = 78, girl = 42; age 11–17) from the metropolitan area of Suzhou (PRC). The Adapted Questionnaire of Athlete's Motivation (AQAM, Zeng, 2013) was employed for data collection; the AQAM consists of 30 items wherein 10 items in the first part asked participant's general information; 20 items in the second part asked what factors motivate he/she to engage in the practices and competitions continuely. Each motivation question (MQ) allowed the participant to respond in a five point Likert type scale (5 represents “Strongly fit”, and 1 represents “Somewhat fit “).

Analysis/Results: Data analyses techniques, like descriptive statistics and independent samples t test, revealed: (a) the top five mean scores from the 20 MQs are: MQ15 “reduce pressure” M = 3.81+4.84; MQ6 “make new friends” M = 3.70+1.31; MQ7 “contest winners” M = 3.61+1.33; MQ1 “high technical content and unique value” M = 3.55+1.54; and MQ4 “have fun and happiness” M = 3.53+1.55. (b) The comparison analyses on the mean score between the boys and girls revealed: fifteen out of twenty comparisons reached significantly different (p < .05 or higher) levels, whereas the boys scored significantly higher than those of the girls on MQ1, 3, 4, 6, 9, 11, 12, 15, 16, and 17 (e.g., MQ3 “For health”, MQ11 “foster self-esteem”, MQ12 “improve my own literacy” and MQ17 “develop skills”); the girls scored significantly higher than those of the boys on MQ2, 13, 18, 19, and 20 (e.g., MQ2 “for fun and get rid of boredom”, MQ13 “for establishing prestige among classmates/friends”, MQ18 “hope to become tennis coach”, and MQ19 “satisfy the will of family”).

Conclusions: In conclusion, the results of this study provided quantitative data regarding the essential factors that motivate the youth tennis players to keep practicing and attending competitions. Meaningful feedback and suggestions are made; much of the detail and reasons behind these results/findings were analyzed and discussed.

Implicit Theories of Ability in Sports and 2×2 Achievement Goals

Qi Zhao

Weidong Li

The Ohio State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Students' ability conceptions are a strong predictor of their engagement in PE. According to implicit theories of ability (Dweck, 2002), there exist two dimensions: Entity/fixed and malleable through effort. These ability beliefs determine what goals students would adopt in an achievement context. Students endorsing entity views of ability would pursue ego goal orientations where social comparisons are focused, while students with incremental views would pursue task goal orientations where task mastery are emphasized. Elliot and colleagues (Elliot, 2005; Elliot and McGregor, 2001) has advanced the traditional dichotomous goal perspective by amalgamating the approach and avoidance forms of motivation. They propose a 2 × 2 achievement goal model: mastery-approach goals (developing self-referent competence), mastery avoidance goals (avoiding developing self-referent incompetence), performance-approach goals (demonstrating normative competence), and performance-avoidance goals (avoiding demonstrating normative incompetence). The previous research has mainly examined the relationship between implicit theories of ability and achievement goals from a dichotomous perspective. The purpose of this study was to examine implicit theories of ability and achievement goals under the 2 × 2 model.

Method: Participants were 272 5^th Chinese graders. They completed a demographic survey, implicit theories of ability in sports, 2 × 2 achievement goals, and other questionnaires for research purposes in their classroom. All the surveys were translated into Chinese and back-translated into English by the second author (bilingual and affluent in Chinese and English). The translations were also checked by three experts who are affluent in Chinese and English.

Analysis/Results: Correlational analysis was conducted to examine the relationship between implicit theories of ability in sports and 2 × 2 achievement goals. The entity subscale was dropped from analysis due to low Cronbach's alpha of .55. The standardized cronbach's alphas for other scales ranged from .68 to .88. Participants held high incremental views, mastery-approach and performance approach goals. The correlational analysis showed that incremental views were positively related to mastery-avoidance, r(272) = .21, p < .0004, mastery-approach, r(272) = .53, p < .0001, and performance-approach, r(272) = .22, p < .0002.

Conclusions: The findings of this study supported the previously established link between incremental views of ability in sports and dichotomous achievement goals. Additionally, we found that participants with incremental views were likely to adopt performance-approach goals. It is suggested that students who believe in the efficacy of effort can focus themselves on developing both self-referent and normative competence. This study is significant as it lays a foundation to further explore how students who endorse incremental views and pursue performance-approach goals would respond in the face of difficulties.

Motor Behavior and Measurement

Implementation Facilitators and Barriers of the Presidential Youth Fitness Program

Jeanne M. Barcelona, Hannah G. Calvert

Jessica Duncan Cance

Seraphine Pitt-Barnes

Jane Wargo

Darla M. Castelli

The University of Texas at Austin

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The Presidential Youth Fitness Program (PYFP) is a multifaceted program that offers resources to improve student health through fitness and physical activity in order to promote lifelong health. Its primary aim is to enhance fitness education through quality of physical education (PE) programming in schools by providing continual professional development (PD) for teachers, health-related fitness assessments, associated motivational recognition for students, and encouraging communication with students and family. Given the potential student health related benefits and the multitude of resources for teachers, the PYFP is a useful tool for educators seeking to improve the health of their student body. The purpose of this study was to investigate the facilitators and barriers to implementation of the PYFP in schools.

Method: Using a mixed methods approach, three hundred seventy four schools across the US were awarded a PYFP grant, which provided teachers with access to online professional development. As a component of the teacher PD, a twenty question, valid and reliable survey was administered at baseline and at year's end. Phone interviews with teachers and site visits with 10% of the sample were also conducted to give meaning to the contextual variables that aided or hindered implementation of the PYFP.

Analysis/Results: Triangulation of the data sources demonstrated that year-end survey results corroborated the findings of the baseline survey suggesting that there were three main facilitators of implementation: provision of resources (77.69%), supportive administration (58.46%), and student desire to receive awards and recognition (40%). Other facilitators (16.15%) included grant money and facilities. The three key barriers to implementation of the PYFP were technology (81.91%), communication (14.89%), and administrative support (10.64%). Teacher phone interviews confirmed these findings and provided additional, contextual strategies for overcoming these barriers, such as working at the district level to resolve issues related to the technology.

Conclusions: Physical education teachers identified a variety of facilitators and barriers to PYFP implementation. Some factors are more modifiable than others. However, these results indicate that in order to successfully implement the enhanced version of PYFP teachers must be provided with proper resources. Without access to proper technology and software teachers face an uphill battle toward implementation. Programs such as the PYFP provide key resources essential for enhancing physical education leading to improved student health and fitness.

Early Childhood Girls SKIPing with Preschool Teachers to Motor Competence

Ali S. Brian

Jacqueline D. Goodway, Sue Sutherland, Jessica A. Logan, Emi Tsuda

Ruri Famelia

The Ohio State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Young girls may display greater object control skill (OC) deficits than similar aged boys (Goodway et al., 2010). Competence with OC skills is an important mechanism that may predict physical activity of young girls (Barnett et al., 2008; Stodden et al., 2008). Early motor skill intervention (MSI) provided by motor development (MD) experts shows that girls could significantly improve their OC skills and catch up to boys (Goodway et al., 2010). However, early childhood centers within the USA do not typically employ MD experts. As such, there is limited literature in regards to the capability of early childhood teachers to teach OC skills (Logan et al., 2011). Therefore, this study examined the influence of a MSI taught by preschool teachers on the OC skills of preschool girls.

Method: Students were assigned to either a MSI (n = 26: 13 girls) or a comparison group (n = 31: 14 girls). The MSI group received 2, 30-minute intervention sessions per week for six weeks. The MSI was based on the Successful Kinesthetic Instruction for Preschoolers (SKIP) program (Goodway & Branta, 2003; Robinson & Goodway, 2009) and delivered by the classroom teacher. A MD expert provided 60 minutes of pre-intervention training to the teachers (N = 2) as well as on-going coaching during the six-week SKIP intervention. Teacher's coaching was based on the PE and classroom professional development literature (Patton & Parker, 2012; Shelton & Jones, 1996) and was faded across the six-weeks of SKIP delivery. All students' were pretested and posttested on the OC subscale of the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (Ulrich, 2000).

Analysis/Results: A 2 Group X 2 Gender ANOVA on pretest OC standard scores yielded non-significant main effect for group (F[1,53] = 2.12, p = .256). However, there was a significant interaction for gender as boys were significantly better than girls at the pretest (F[1,53] = .215, p = .048). In order to examine intervention effects a two-level Hierarchical Linear Model nesting students within teachers revealed significant predicted posttest OC scores for SKIP students (p < .001) with no significant differences for SKIP girls and boys (p = .714). A One-Way ANOVA examining between-group posttest OC measures was significant (F[1,53] = 5160, p < .001).

Conclusions: These findings demonstrate that preschool teachers can be coached to deliver an MSI called SKIP and bring about change in the OC skills of girls and boys. As such, girls catch up to boys in their OC skills. These results have implications for pre-service training of PE teachers, preschool teachers, and future policy.

Human Capital Survey Development

Lynne Bryant

Darla M. Castelli

The University of Texas at Austin

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Human capital is a term used to describe one's varying levels of physical, emotional, individual, social, intellectual and financial assets. Asset rich adolescents participate in fewer unhealthy behaviors, have outcomes that are more positive in school, and frequently engage in physical activity. The purpose of this research was to develop a valid and reliable survey instrument to assess adolescent perceptions of human capital.

Method: This was a multi-phase research study involving interviews and focus group protocols designed to determine face and content validity of the human capital survey questions. In phase one, 20 physical education teacher education graduate students and eight physical education teachers evaluated the face and content validity of the human capital survey, by taking the survey and responding to semi-structured and open-ended interview questions. In phase two, 330 high school seniors completed the 36-item self-assessment of human capital survey and an exploratory factor analysis was conducted to determine construct validity.

Analysis/Results: Response options ranged from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO = 0,630) and the Bartlett Test of sphericity (value 3,347.61, p < 0.001) indicated that the raw data were suitable for imputation of a factor analysis in SPSS V20. As anticipated, six factors were interpreted as physical (mean variation for this factor = 0.66, n = 8), individual (M = 0.61, n = 3), emotional (M = 0.59, n = 7), intellectual (M = 0.55, n = 6), financial (M = 0.55, n = 6), and social capitals (M = 0.50, n = 3) subscales, although not every question significantly contributed to the overall capital. Together all subscales accounted for 44% of the variance. Cronbach alpha reliability tests conducted with all participants (N = 330) found the overall survey reliability was 0.81.

Conclusions: With some modifications to the original questions, a valid, reliable survey of adolescent human capital was constructed to determine the differences of perceived human capitals across the six subscales. Creation of this instrument is important because it will help to identify the potential contribution of health promotion efforts and participation in quality physical education programming in expanding perceptions of human capital. Future research should include conducting a confirmatory factor analysis with a larger adolescent sample.

Rasch Calibration of the 20-Item NHANES Physical Function Questionnaire

James L. Farnsworth

Brian G. Ragan

Minsoo Kang

Middle Tennessee State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Physical function is an important health outcome variable that has been highly associated with patient hospitalization, nursing home admission, falling, level of dependency, and death in adults. The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) is a biannually administered program of studies designed to evaluation the health and nutritional status of adults in the United States. As part of their examination process the NHANES uses a 20-item 4-category Likert scale questionnaire to assess physical function. Despite its use, very little evidence has been provided regarding the calibration of this tool. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to calibrate the 20-item NHANES physical function questionnaire (PFQ) using the Rasch rating scale model.

Method: Data from the 2005–2006 NHANES was analyzed for this study. A total of 1883 participants (Mean Age 62.37 ± 14.67) provided valid responses to the 20-item PFQ. The Rasch analysis was performed using WINSTEPS Rasch measurement software. First, model-data fit was evaluated by examining mean square residuals for each item. Second, the level of physical function item difficulty and person's level of physical functioning was estimated. Third, an item-map distribution was evaluated to determine the relative distribution of physical function items across person-ability measures. Lastly, the rating scale was evaluated for proper functioning.

Analysis/Results: Overall, with the exception of two items, the Rasch rating scale model fit the data well. Two of the items “managing money difficulty” and “preparing meals difficulty” were removed as the result of mean square residuals outside the acceptable range ( ≤ 0.5 and ≥ 1.5). Data was person-mean centered (0 ± 1.20 logits) to allow for comparisons of item difficulty across ability measures. The item difficulty ranged from 1.09–5.21 logits, where a higher value indicates an easier item. The item “walking between rooms on the same floor” was identified as the easiest item, while “stooping, crouching, kneeling difficulty was the most difficulty. Item-map distribution indicated poor item distribution with a lack of item coverage with higher functioning individuals. In addition, the four-category structure of the PFQ demonstrated poor rating scale function.

Conclusions: The NHANES PFQ is commonly used to assess physical function in adults. However, the results from this study suggest that the current questionnaire may not sufficient for assessing physical function in the general population. Additional items should be developed for the NHANES PFQ in order to evaluate a more dynamic range of physical function.

Sagittal Abdominal Diameter Measured Visceral Obesity in American Adults

Yong Gao

Haichun Sun

Liyun Ding

Boise State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Sagittal abdominal diameter (SAD) is a simple measure of visceral obesity and has been recently added to the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) to provide population-based reference data for obesity-related health risk assessments. The purposes of this study were (a) to describe sagittal abdominal diameter assessed visceral obesity in American adults across demographical characteristics, and (b) to examine the independent relationship between visceral obesity and self-reported physical activity.

Method: A total of 5218 adults (2620 males, 2598 females) aged 20 years and older completed the 2011–2012 NHANES' anthropometric measurements, demographics and physical activity questionnaires. Their data were included in the study.

Analysis/Results: SAS survey procedures were used for data analysis. The average SAD score among the American adults was 22.51 cm. About 54% of adults were viscerally obese (SAD> = 22 cm for male, SAD> = 20 cm for female). There was no gender difference in the percentage of adults being viscerally obese (53.58% of males vs. 55.12% of females, p = 0.16). However, more non-Hispanic Blacks (63.88%) were viscerally obese compared with non-Hispanic Whites (54.29%, p < 0.0001), Hispanics (57.79%, p = 0.007), and non-Hispanic Asians (26.35%, p < 0.0001), whereas non-Hispanic Asians had the lowest visceral obesity rate compared with other race/ethnicity groups, p < 0.0001. Visceral obesity rate increased with age, with 41.22% of younger adults (20–39 yrs) being viscerally obese compared with 62.36% of middle aged adults (40–59 yrs) and 60.24% of older adults (60+ yrs), p < 0.0001. Adults with college education or above had lowest visceral obesity prevalence (46.33%) compared with those with less than high school education (59.94%, p < 0.0001), high school education (57.83%, p < 0.0005), and some college education (57.05%, p < 0.0001). There was no difference in the prevalence of visceral obesity between adults with high income (poverty-income-ratio [PIR]>400%; 51.49%), middle income (PIR > = 200% but < 400%; 55.68%), and low income (PIR < 200%; 56.16%). SAD was negatively correlated with moderate-to-vigorous leisure-time physical activity (LTPA) hours (r = − 0.15, p < 0.0001), and positively associated with sedentary time (r = 0.12, p < 0.0001), but had no relationship with total amount of PA participation, transportation PA time, and moderate-to-vigorous workplace PA hours. The prevalence of visceral obesity was higher in adults who reported no moderate-to-vigorous LTPA (61.65%) than those who engaged in moderate-to-vigorous LTPA (48.39%), p < 0.0001.

Conclusions: More than half of American adults are viscerally obese when assessed by SAD. The prevalence of visceral obesity varies across race/ethnicity, age group, and education. Low participation in moderate-to-vigorous LTPA is associated with large SAD scores and high visceral obesity rates.

Assessing Physical Activity Levels through Motion Sensors in Exergaming

Zan Gao

Xingyuan Gao

Yuanlong Liu

Jung Eun Lee

University of Minnesota

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Recently exergaming has been integrated into school-based programs to promote children's physical activity (Gao et al., 2013). Pedometers and accelerometers have been widely used in assessing exergaming physical activity in adults and children. However, the validity and reliability of using such motion sensors in exergaming of children remain unanswered. This study was designed to examine the validity and reliability of motion sensors in assessing physical activity levels in an elementary school-based exergaming program.

Method: Participants were 377 first through fourth grade children (190 girls; 20 classes) enrolled in a suburban Title I elementary school in Texas. Twelve exergaming stations were set up in a classroom, offering 8 different Wii exergames. Children attended the 30-minute exergaming class every other day, rotating from station to station every class. Their physical activity levels were assessed by New-Lifestyles -1000 pedometers and ActiGraph GTX3 accelerometers for 27 exergaming classes in 2012. Children's steps was used as the outcome variable for pedometers, and time engaged in sedentary, light, and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity were used as the outcome variables for accelerometers.

Analysis/Results: 377 students received 17 repeated assessments by accelerometer after data screening. There was no difference among trails, p = .53, indicating no learning or fatigue effect. Intraclass correlation (ICC) was calculated through two-way mixed effects model. A low degree of reliability was found (single measure ICC = .03). For pedometers, ANOVA did detect a possible learning effect for 27 classes, p < .01. The single measure ICC was .20. To explore the relationship between pedometer and accelerometer data while controlling children's background (age, gender, and race) and aforementioned learning effect, Hierarchical Linear Modeling was conducted. Children's pedometer steps had a significantly positive relationship with moderate-to-vigorous physical activity of accelerometer. However, only 1.3% variance was explained by pedometer as a predictor.

Conclusions: It appears motion sensors demonstrated low reliability in assessing physical activity levels in exergaming of elementary school children, as the ICCs were far from ideal. Such low reliability shown by ICC may primarily due to the following reasons: different exergames children played in different classes and inconsistency of instrument placement over trails due to the young age of children. The results may lead to the implication for future exergaming research: same exergames need to be employed when motion sensors are used to eliminate the variability caused by different games; and consistency of the device placement should be given much more attention.

Examining Motor Skill, Body Weight and Physical Activity in Kindergarteners

Xiangli Gu

Karen Weiller

Tao Zhang

University of North Texas

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Obesity has reached epidemic levels in the pediatric population and conveyed an increased risk of obesity later in life (Ogden, 2010). Increasing levels of physical activity and physical fitness are often proposed as a critical way to prevent childhood obesity and develop healthy lifestyle (USDHHS, 2010). It is generally recognized that fundamental motor skills are the basis for physical activity and health weight status, and should be promoted in the early childhood (Bonvin et al., 2012; Stodden et al., 2009). Stodden and his colleagues' conceptual model (Stodden et al., 2008) also suggests that developing motor skill competence is paramount to understand why students choose to be either active or inactive, which may help identify behavioral mechanisms of obesity in early childhood. However, the data in kindergarteners is limited in the current pediatric literature. Guided by Stodden et al's conceptual model, the main purpose of this study was to examine the interactions among motor skills, body mass index (BMI), and physical activity in 5–6 year old children.

Method: A prospective design was used in this study across two semesters. Participants (n = 258, boys = 135, girls = 123) were randomly recruited and assessed from three public kindergartens. Children's motor skills including dribbling, hopping, throwing, and sliding (PE Metrics ^TM; NASPE, 2010) and BMI were assessed in the middle of the Fall semester. Moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) was measured by accelerometers in the subsequent spring semester.

Analysis/Results: Both locomotor skills (hopping and sliding; β = .14, p < .02; β = .21, p < 0.01, respectively) and manipulative skills (throwing; β = .23, p < 0.01) were positively related to MVPA. Hopping and sliding were positively associated with BMI. There was no correlation between BMI and MVPA among this age group. Gender was a significant predictor of manipulative skills but not for MVPA. Regression analyses indicated that, for girls, locomotor skills explained significant variance in their MVPA (β = .34, p < .001). For boys, manipulative skills emerged as significant predictors of their MVPA (β = .18, p < .036).

Conclusions: Young children with higher levels of motor skills were more active than their peers with lower more skills. The results provide primary evidence to support Stodden et al.'s (2008) conceptual model that physical activity can be directed towards skill acquisition, which is an essential element needed in school endeavors for fighting childhood obesity in early childhood.

Motor Competence and Physical Activity in School-Age Children: A Meta-Analysis

J. Megan Irwin

Alan E. Wilson, Kara Palmer

Leah E. Robinson

Auburn University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The purpose of this study was to conduct a meta-analysis to 1) investigate the general relationship of motor skill competence (MSC) and physical activity (PA); 2) examine the relationship by motor skill type; and 3) examine the relationship by differences in intensity of physical activity.

Method: An extensive literature search was conducted in Academic Search Premier, PsycArticles, PsycInfo, SportDiscus and ERIC. Studies were selected upon the following criteria: 1) examined relationships between motor skill performance and physical activity; 2) participants were 5–10 years of age; 3) participants were typically developing; 4) physical activity was measured using accelerometry methods. Fischer's r-z transformations were performed for all motor- physical activity correlations and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were calculated for each effect size. Publication bias was evaluated using the fail-safe number method. All statistical analyses were conducted using Comprehensive Meta-Analysis software, version 2.2

Analysis/Results: Four studies met the inclusion criteria from which 40 correlations were obtained (N = 40). MSC was significantly correlated with PA [Z = 3.952; p < 0.001; 95% CI 1.077, 0.225]. There was no significant overall effect for physical activity intensity [Z = 1.246; p = 0.213; 95% CI − 0.069, 0.302] or effect at low intensity [Z = − 0.812; n = 10; p = 0.417; 95% CI − 0.235, 0.099] yet there was significant effect for high intensity [Z = 4.436; n = 25; p < 0.001; 95% CI 0.112, 0.283]. There were no significance effects between skill type and PA. Significance effects were found for total skill competence [Z = 2.988; n = 12; p < 0.05; 95% CI 0.074, 0.343]. The fail-safe number (557) indicates no publication bias.

Conclusions: Current literature is inconsistent in its consensus of relationships between motor competence and physical activity for school-aged children. This meta-analysis suggests that these variables are significantly related and that the relationship not as dependent on a specific skill type but on the intensity of physical activity. Additional research is needed to better understand this relationship and inform movement programming for this population.

Optimal Categorization of the NHANES Function Questionnaire: An Exploratory Study

Minsoo Kang

James L. Farnsworth

Brian G. Ragan

Middle Tennessee State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Physical function is an important factor for maintaining a healthy lifestyle among adults. The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) currently uses 20 items with a 4-category Likert scale to assess physical function in the general population. However, the proper functioning of the categories is not known. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to determine the optimal number of categories for the NHANES physical function questionnaire (PFQ) using the Rasch rating scale model.

Method: Data from the 2005–2006 NHANES were analyzed for this study. A total of 1883 (Mean Age 62.37 ± 14.67) participants provided valid responses to the 20-item PFQ. The four-category response options are 1 = “No Difficulty”, 2 = “Some Difficulty”, 3 = “Much Difficulty”, and 4 = “Unable to do.” Data analysis was conducted using the WINSTEPS Rasch measurement software. The effectiveness of the category structure was evaluated using 4 criteria: (1) Did the average measure advance with each category? (2) Was the mean square residual ( < 2) appropriate? (3) Were the boundaries between categories ordered? (4) Were the discrimination (separation) indexes appropriate?

Analysis/Results: The original four-category structure (1234) did not function well: the mean square residual exceeded the acceptable level (>2). Through Rasch analysis and collapsing categories, six different category combinations (1223, 1233, 1123, 1222, 1122, and 1112) were developed and examined to determine the optimal categorization of the PFQ. For all six newly created category combinations, the average measure advanced with each category, the mean square residuals were < 2, and the boundaries between categories were ordered. Collapsing categories 2, 3, and 4 together (1222) and collapsing categories 2 and 3 together (1223) were preferred over other combinations with better item and person separation indexes.

Conclusions: The current PFQ with four categories may not be effective. Although the two-category structure (1222) was superior, a three-category structure (1223) may be preferred to discriminate participants with functional limitations versus those with severe functional limitations who may be unable to perform the selected task. Further investigation is needed to provide confirmatory cross-validation evidence of the PFQ with a two- or three-category structure.

Examining Impulse-Variability in Kicking in Young Adults

Sergio Molina

Andrew Chappell

Jonathon Mckibben

David Stodden

University of South Carolina

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine variability in kicking speed and differences in spatial error (i.e., accuracy) at various percentages of maximum kicking speed to test the prediction of an inverted-U function (i.e., Impulse-Variability Theory; Sherwood & Schmidt, 1980) and the speed-accuracy trade-off in young adults.

Method: Twenty-eight young (mean age = 20.3 yrs) adults (23 men) were tested for maximum kicking speed using a radar gun and were familiarized with the testing protocol on day 1 of testing. One week later, participants kicked a playground ball at six different percentages of their max speed (50, 60, 70, 80, 90, and 100%) in random order for a total of 10 blocks of trials at a target on a wall located 9.1 meters away. Participants were instructed to hit the target and kick at the specified percentage of maximum speed. Speed feedback was provided on every trial.

Analysis/Results: Kicking speed variable error and spatial error (accuracy) were calculated using repeated measures ANOVA with built-in polynomial contrasts. Results indicated there was a significant inverse linear trajectory for kicking speed variability (p < 0.001, η2 = .345) where 50% and 60% maximum speed percentages had significantly higher variability than the 100% condition. A significant quadratic fit was found for spatial error scores of mean radial error (p < .0001, η2 = .474) and subject-centroid radial error (p < .0001, η2 = .453) indicating the general lack of a speed-accuracy trade-off as kicking speed increased.

Conclusions: Overall, these data support other recent studies (Juras et al., 2009; Urbin et al., 2012; van den Tillaar and Ettema, 2006) indicating that variability and accuracy of multijoint, ballistic skill performance may not follow the general principles of impulse-variability theory (i.e. inverted-U function) or a speed-accuracy trade-off. These data have instructional implications for promoting the acquisition of multijoint ballistic skills.

Development and Cross-Validation of Prediction Equation of Body-Fatness from NHANES

Junbae Mun

Youngdeok Kim, James L. Farnsworth

Minsoo Kang

Middle Tennessee State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Obesity is one of the world's leading health concerns, requiring field researchers to develop accurate measures of body fatness. The use of prediction equations based on anthropometric measures has been practically advocated in large-scale epidemiological studies; however, few have been developed using a nationally representative sample of U.S. adults. Therefore, the aim of this study is to develop and cross-validate a body fat percentage (BFP) prediction equation from a U.S. national representative sample of adults.

Method: Data from the 1999–2006 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) were analyzed for this study. A preliminary prediction equation was developed using the 1999–2004 NHANES data which included 10,684 adults ( ≥ 20 years, male = 5,450). Body mass index (BMI) measured by height (cm) and weight (kg), waist circumference and demographic characteristics such as age, gender, and race/ethnicity were considered as predictors. BFP was measured by Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), the criterion measure. The preliminary equation was then cross-validated using data from the 2005–2006 NHANES which included 2,845 adults ( ≥ 20 years, male = 1,472). The final equation was developed from the total sample. Regression analyses were applied to develop and cross-validate the preliminary and final prediction equations. The accuracy of prediction equations was evaluated by R², root mean square error (RMSE), and mean signed difference (MSD) against BFP.

Analysis/Results: The average age, BMI, and BFP in the total sample were 45.45 ± .26 years, 27.90 ± .09 kg/m², and 33.72 ± .12%, respectively. Inversed body mass index (1/BMI), age, gender, and race/ethnicity were retained in the preliminary prediction equation. R², RMSE, and MSD of the preliminary equation were .84, 3.50%, and − .01%, respectively. In a cross-validation sample, R², RMSE, and MSD were .84, 3.49%, and − .57%, respectively. The final equation based on total sample was 61.93–680.06 × (1/BMI) − 12.05 × (gender)+.08 × (age)+[ − 1.95(African American (AA)) or .36(Mexican American (MA)) × (ethnicity)] where female = 0 and male = 1 for gender, age in years, and Caucasian American = 0, AA = 1, and MA = 2 for ethnicity, explaining 84% of variance in BFP with 3.50% and − .15% of RMSE and MSD, respectively.

Conclusions: The developed equation to predict BFP had strong R² and moderate RMSE in a nationally representative sample. This equation can be a useful and practical method for estimating BFP with reasonable accuracy for U.S. adults.

Supine-to-Stand Time as a Measure of Functional Status in Childhood

Danielle R. Nesbitt

Maria T. Cattuzzo

Sergio Molina, David S. Phillips

David Stodden

University of South Carolina

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: A child's ability to rise from the floor to a standing position is seen as a developmental milestone in their physical independence. In addition, the supine-to-stand (STS) test for time is used to examine functional status in the elderly. However, the association of STS time to cardiorespiratory fitness and other functional motor skills in children is not known. The purpose of this study is to examine the association between STS and cardiorespiratory endurance and standing long jump distance in preschool children.

Method: A convenient sample of 63 (girls = 32) four and five year-old children participated in the study. To measure STS time, children started in a supine position on the floor with their heels against a line nine inches from a wall and were asked to stand as quick as possible and touch a designated spot on the wall in front of them. Children performed five trials of the STS task with their average time, measured using a stopwatch, used for data analyses. Children also performed the 15-meter PACER test (accompanied by an adult lure) and the standing long jump for distance. All tests were conducted on two separate occasions to examine reliability (using intraclass correlations) in this early childhood population.

Analysis/Results: A test-retest reliability using the intraclass correlation coefficient was conducted for the STS and Pacer test. Results showed a substantial agreement in both Pacer (ICC = .718, p < .00) and STS (ICC = . 782, p < .00). Data were analyzed using Pearson's correlation with an alpha of p ≤ 0.05 used to determine significance (IBM SPSS version 22). Results demonstrated moderately high inverse correlation (r = −  .66, p < .01) between STS task and the number of PACER laps. Data also revealed a moderately high correlation (r = − .61, p < .01) between STS task and standing long jump distance.

Conclusions: We found evidence to support an association between STS time and measures of cardiorespiratory endurance and gross motor function in preschool children. The results from this study suggest STS time may be an important and practical way to assess functional and health status in early childhood.

Effects of Multiple Recess Intervention on Attentional Focus in Children

Deborah J. Rhea

Alexander P. Rivchun

Texas Christian University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Much of the research has stated that children are not moving enough throughout the school day, therefore they become less attentive and focused. No known study has examined multiple recesses daily for a four month period in the schools. The purpose of this study was to examine whether attentional focus and off-task behaviors changed in K and 1 children after implementing an intervention of three 15-minute recess periods throughout the school day for four months.

Method: Kindergarten (n = 61) and first grade (n = 62) students from a Fort Worth, TX area private school participated in a pilot study during the 2013–2014 school year. Baseline data and teacher training were executed in the Fall, followed by implementation of the intervention (three 15-minute recess periods daily) beginning in January and post data collection in May. Two assessments were used to measure the impact of the intervention on classroom off-task behaviors and listening skills. The Listening Comprehension Curriculum Measurement (ref?) assessed the student's ability to actively listen and was measured by an experienced diagnostician one time per child in the Fall and Spring. A classroom behavior observation tool was used to measure the frequency of off-task behaviors (moving, stationary, vocal, or low tone) in a total of six k-1 classrooms for three observations per classroom pre and post times. This totaled approximately 18 sessions per semester. Three trained researcher members were assigned to observe in each classroom and were responsible for observing approximately six students per class over a 40 minute segment. All students per class were observed for each designated time period.

Analysis/Results: An ANOVA revealed that overall listening scores (n = 123) significantly improved (p < .01) from pre (M = .71, SD = .15) to post-test (M = .93, SD = .08). No significant differences were found for gender or grade level. Both groups significantly changed from pre to post times. A MANOVA revealed that incidences of all types of off-task behaviors were significantly lower (p < .05) at the post-test when compared to pre-test. Self-injurious, disruptive, and aggressive behaviors also decreased, but represented a minimal proportion of total observed behaviors (less than 1% pre or post-test).

Conclusions: Recess appears to have significant impacts on student's abilities to focus in the classroom and perform on listening tasks. These results support previous research that physical activity and especially unstructured outdoor play can enhance student's performance in the classroom. Recess is an undervalued tool in the improvement of children's academic performance and overall well-being.

Who Are Active Teens? Profiling Their After-School Activities, Motivation and Fitness

Haiyong Ding

Haichun Sun

Xueping Wu

Ang Chen

The University of North Carolina at Greensboro

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Literature indicates that pre-adolescence is a critical time for teenagers to develop active lifestyles. Previous research has identified several important determinants influencing physical activity behavior among teenagers. It is not quite clear, however, what specific motivational and behavioral indicators are that separate active and sedentary teens. The purpose of this study was to identify the extent to which they differ in expectancy-value motivation in physical education, physical fitness, and the ways they spend after-school hours.

Method: The study involved a sample of 544 6^th, 7^th, and 8^thgrade students selected from eight middle schools, randomized at both school and class levels, in Shanghai, China. There were 268 (49%) boys and 276 (51%) girls. They were in standardized school curriculum and schedule including two physical education classes per-week, daily school-wide calisthenics (20 minutes), and daily one-hour after-lesson physical activity period. Trained research assistants measured expectancy-value motivation (Wigfield & Eccles, 2002) in physical education, physical fitness (PACER, curl-up, push-up, trunk-lift, BMI) and time spent on various activities at home from 3:00pm to 10:00pm (modified from Weston, Petosa, & Pate, 1997).

Analysis/Results: Students who spent at least 30 minutes at home doing sports, fitness exercises, and physical play by themselves were classified as active; those spending less than 30 minutes in these activities were as sedentary. MANOVAs revealed no status-gender interaction but main effects by status (Hotelling's T = 1.29, p = .001, η² = .56) and gender (Hotelling's T = 2.16, p = .03, η² = .03). Follow-up univariate analyses showed that active teens were more motivated in physical education than sedentary teens acknowledging higher expectancy for success (p = .04) and stronger attainment (p = .03), intrinsic (p = .001), and utility (p = .001) values in physical activity. They spent more time at home on sport and fitness activities (p = .001), less time on homework (p = .02), rest (p = .001), and sedentary socializing (p = .01), and equal time on other physical play (p = .92) and sedentary entertainment (p = .56). Gender effect was observed only on boys spending more time than girls in sedentary entertainment. There were no fitness differences between the groups (pranging .172 to .624).

Conclusions: The results suggest that active teens are more motivated due to stronger expectancy for success and better acceptance of the values in physical education. At home they spend more time on sport and fitness activities but less time on homework and socializing. It is important to realize that active and sedentary teens do not differ in fitness measures. These identified differentiating motivational and behavioral variables can be targeted in future interventions.

Physical Educators and Technology: Comfort Level of Integration

Megan Adkins, Nita Unruh

Matthew Ryan Bice

Vicki Worrell

Emporia State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The U.S. Department of Education federal program Enhancing Education Through Technology, supports improving student academic achievements through the use of educational technology (U.S. Department of Education, 2009). Opportunities to engage individuals with technologies are not limited in the traditional classrooms but can expand to the gymnasium. Schools across the U.S. are asking teachers to complete professional development activities to enhance teacher understanding of how to integrate technology in their classrooms to increase student learning (Zemelman, Daniels, & Hyde, 1998; Snyder, Tan, & Hoffman, 2005).

The purpose of the research was to examine; a) comfort level of PE teachers in integrating digital technologies geared specifically for the gymnasium, b) type of professional development provided to PE teachers to prepare them for the use of technology, c) barriers PE teachers must overcome to integrate and use various technologies.

Method: The current research study surveyed practicing teachers in the Central District SHAPE. Of those provided the survey only PE teachers were asked to complete the study, and 231 completed and responded to the questionnaire. The survey was administered by an online system, Qualtrics. The survey consisted of directional questions developed to ask queries pertaining to Physical Educators' response to survey questions. Following data collection, survey responses were uploaded to and analyzed in SPSS version 20. Descriptive statistics and variables were analyzed. The statistical analysis used to determine these outcomes were empirical sound descriptive notations, relationship correlations, and T-Tests. Significant alpha level was established at 0.05.

Analysis/Results: PE teachers reported they felt comfortable with technology use in their classroom; 87.7% reported to agree that they felt comfortable integrating technology in existing student activities and 80% agreed that they were comfortable with the knowledge base of how to use the technology that was available at their school. However, over 45% reported that they had not received adequate professional develop on technology devices and usage. Teachers with 16+ years of experience reported to have the most difficulty in integration and technology knowledge represented by higher discomfort levels compared to teachers with less experience. Funding and resources were noted in the research as the main barriers for little technology integration.

Conclusions: The research reports positive feedback concerning comfort levels integrating technology; however professional development and resources were limited. Future research should examine college education preparation courses for Physical Educators, and professional development opportunities in regards to technology.

Looking Inside the Black Box: Fidelity Assessment of Motor Intervention

Ali S. Brian

Phillip Ward, Jacqueline D. Goodway, Sue Sutherland

Jessica A. Logan

The Ohio State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The Active Start Guidelines (NASPE, 2009; SHAPE, 2014) recommend that young children receive daily structured physical activity and develop fundamental motor skills. Few early childhood centers employ staff with a background in motor development (MD) and/or physical education (PE). Therefore, it is necessary to provide early childhood teachers with continuous professional development (PD) to promote Active Start Guidelines. This study was part of a larger project seeking to determine the influence of a teacher-led motor intervention on the object control (OC) skills of young children who are disadvantaged. However, this portion of the study served to provide a detailed account of what occurred during the process of the intervention. This description provides a snapshot inside the motor skill intervention “Black Box”. The purpose of this study was to describe the processes for how teachers demonstrated PE/MD knowledge and implemented an OC intervention with fidelity.

Method: Teachers (N = 5) participated in a six-hour initial PD workshop focusing on OC skills and were evaluated on six MD video exams to assess their MD/PE content knowledge. Subsequently, teachers implemented an eight-week (30 min × 2xs / week) OC motor intervention to their students (n = 63). Continuous PD was provided to teachers during intervention sessions on a faded schedule. A fidelity instrument was created that identified Level-1 non-negotiable pedagogical behaviors and Level-2 highly desired pedagogical behaviors. In addition, total numbers of practice trials and percentage of correct practice trials were calculated from video recordings of each session (N = 15; one lost due to weather).

Analysis/Results: Descriptive analyses demonstrated teachers' knowledge after the initial workshop, mean percent fidelity by level, and numbers of correct practice trials during the intervention. Teachers achieved over 80% (M = 91%, SD = 8%) on each MD/PE exam and overall fidelity mean of 47% (SD = 12%). Furthermore, teachers scored a 52% mean (SD = 13%) for Level-1 fidelity and a 34% mean (SD = 7%) on Level-2 fidelity. Students participated in 13,847 OC practice trials across all six OC skills in which 60% (SD = 12%) were successful.

Conclusions: Teachers demonstrated MD/PE knowledge after the initial workshop. In turn, teachers promoted the Active Start Guidelines by providing an OC intervention for students with opportunities to practice and improve OC skills. The results of this study offer an evidence-base for assessing a teacher-led motor intervention. Future research is needed to analyze the frequency and duration of each pedagogically based behavior within fidelity levels and also to increase teachers' fidelity by improving PD methods.

Steps Count and Moderate to Vigorous Physical Activity (MVPA) Across Middle School Physical Education Activities

Timothy A. Brusseau, .

The University of Utah

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Physical education is one of the few remaining opportunities for youth to accumulate physical activity while at school. Physical activity monitors (i.e. pedometers and accelerometers) have become increasingly utilized by teachers to provide feedback and assess students during class. To date, very little is known about expected values (steps/MVPA) across various fitness and sport activities taught during physical education. Therefore, the purpose of this project was to determine the daily physical activity accumulated by middle school youth by the type of activity (i.e. sport skill, sport game, fitness, etc.) being taught.

Method: 279 7^th and 8^th grade youth from an urban middle school in the Southwest US wore the NL-1000 piezoelectric pedometer for 122 days of physical education classes during the 2013–2014 academic year. Physical education classes averaged 40 minutes in length and included a variety of team, lifetime, and individual sports, as well as regular fitness days. Lessons included a brief warm-up before beginning the planned activities for the day.

Analysis/Results: Overall, youth averaged 1760 steps and 9.3 minutes of MVPA per physical education lesson. Youth were most active on physical fitness days; 2116 steps and 11.7 minutes of MVPA followed by game days (1410 steps; 6.9 minutes MVPA) and skill development days (1247 steps; 5.7 minutes MVPA).

Conclusions: On average youth spent approximately 25% of class time engaged in MVPA falling well short of the recommended 50% of class time. Fitness activities provided the greatest amount of activity for youth. Greater emphasis on maximizing MVPA is recommended.

Reducing Risk: A Health Intervention Targeting Lower Income Black Women

Sarah M. Buck

Chicago State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The epidemic of obesity shows no signs of slowing despite the focus in the media and escalating healthcare costs. Although obesity crosses demographic lines, there is a disproportionate prevalence in the Black community. Specifically, Black women have the highest prevalence of obesity at a BMI of 30 and above compared to women in other racial groups. Compounding the gender and ethnicity issues is the inverse relationship between obesity and socioeconomic status, suggesting that as income levels decrease, obesity levels increase. The purpose of this pilot study was to provide a six month health coaching program to lower income Black women (N = 8; M_age = 53.3 years) in a large Midwestern urban city. The targeted participants for this study were at a higher risk due to ethnicity, socioeconomic status, family history, and access to quality affordable health care.

Method: Participants completed a demographic questionnaire as well as a pre- and post-study Beck Depression Inventory and General Self-Efficacy Scale. Additionally, weight, blood pressure, blood glucose, and cholesterol were monitored throughout the study. Participants met individually with a health coach twice a month for fifty minutes covering topics such as family relationships, food quality and quantity, self-care, achieving balance, healthy snacks, breaking the cycle of unhealthy habits, stress management, and heart health.

Analysis/Results: Results indicated a significant decrease in weight, BMI, and systolic blood pressure, and a marginally significant decrease in blood sugar from the beginning to the end of the intervention. Further results indicated significant correlations between diastolic blood pressure, weight, and BMI, indicating they all decreased together. No significant differences were observed for the psychological inventories or for cholesterol.

Conclusions: Given that the risk of disease and early mortality is highest amongst minority females, the current study sought to improve the standard of living amongst this group, with the additional impact of those in the participants' immediate social circle. Results suggest that a focused health intervention with an at-risk population has the potential to improve cardiovascular markers.

Harnessing the Energy Balance: Exploring Ways to Enhance Students' Knowledge

Senlin Chen

Xihe Zhu

Old Dominion University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Schools play a key role in educating youth with knowledge related to energy balance (EB). EB knowledge refers to the concepts, principles, and strategies in relation to the balance between an individual's energy intake and energy expenditure, the scientific mechanism underlying weight fluctuation. The study aimed to evaluate the effects of a pilot intervention that involved a two-lesson constructivist instructional unit and a behavior monitoring technology package in enhancing adolescent students' EB knowledge.

Method: The participants were 114 sixth and seventh grade students in a U.S. mid-western state who were randomized, at the class level, into two groups: (1) receiving educational treatment (i.e., two EB lessons taught in physical education classes; n = 52) and (2) receiving combined treatment (i.e., two EB lessons + self-monitoring energy flux for two weeks using a Sensewear armband monitor (BodyMedia / Jawborn) and a portable diet journal; n = 62). Three physical educators taught the two scripted lesson plans focused on EB knowledge. The participating students were instructed on how to use the technology prior to the experiment, and were provided informational feedback on energy tracking in the course of experiment. EB knowledge was pre- and post-measured using a standardized written test. Situational interest was measured at the end of the experiment for both treatment groups. Repeated measure analysis of variance (RMANOVA) was conducted to capture the differences in EB knowledge by time and group; while one-way ANOVAs were conducted to capture the differences in situational interest between the two groups.

Analysis/Results: The between-subject test revealed that EB knowledge performance in the posttest was similar between the education (M/SD = 6.57/1.89) and the combined groups (M/SD = 6.59/1.97; F_1,112 = 1.26, p = .27, η² = .01). The within-subject test captured a significant increase in EB knowledge in both groups (F_1,112 = 11.85, p = .001, η² = .10). However, the significant interaction effect demonstrated that the combined group had a greater increase in EB knowledge than the education group (F_1,112 = 5.36, p = .02, η² = .05). Overall, the two groups were found having similar levels of situational interest (education group: M/SD = 4.00/.68; combined group: M/SD = 4.17/.74; p = .18); in other words, both groups were equally motivated to participate in the experiment.

Conclusions: The two lessons and the technology package exerted independent as well as collective effects on enhancing students' EB knowledge. The EB unit needs to increase the number of lessons to enlarge treatment effect.

Multilevel Analysis of Student Activity Levels in Hawaii Physical Education Classes

Lehua B. Choy

Rebekah Rodericks

Jennifer Ryan

Denise Darval-Chang

Yvette Ikari

Jay Maddock

University of Hawaii

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Through a partnership between the Hawaii State Departments of Health and Education, seven schools were selected to be physical education (PE) model schools. Over a three-year program period, the model schools enhanced their PE curricula and teachers participated in professional development opportunities. This study analyzes PE classroom data collected at the end of the program to examine student activity levels.

Method: The System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time (SOFIT) was used to measure physical activity levels during PE classes (n = 33) in the model schools. The SOFIT data were reorganized to determine the moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) levels of the observed students (n = 132). Teacher and classroom variables were tested as level-2 predictors using multilevel modeling techniques.

Analysis/Results: Across all model schools, approximately half of the students in (52.3%) were observed engaging in MVPA for at least 50% of class time. Girls had significantly lower MVPA levels than boys. In the final model, the only statistically significant level-2 predictors were school level (middle and high school students were more active than elementary school students) and class size (smaller class sizes were associated with higher MVPA). In addition, there was a significant interaction between student gender and teacher gender, in which a female student-female teacher combination predicted higher MVPA. Observed teacher characteristics such as encouragement, enthusiasm, and praising were not significantly associated with student MVPA levels.

Conclusions: The majority of students in the model schools achieved recommended levels of MVPA during PE classes. Except for teacher gender, teacher characteristics did not significantly predict student MVPA. However, the relatively small sample size may have limited the analysis. This study presents a different way of analyzing SOFIT data using multilevel modeling techniques. Study findings indicate that school level, class size, and teacher gender should be considered as factors that influence MVPA levels, particularly among female students.

Perceptions of Physical Competence and Motor Proficiency in Middle Childhood

Jeff R. Crane

Viviene A. Temple, Rick Bell, Andrew Donovan, Buffy-Lynne Williams

Patti-Jean Naylor

University of Victoria

([email protected]

Abstract

Background/Purpose: Developmental studies demonstrate that self-perceptions of competence decline and become more sensitive to success and failure experiences during the elementary school years. It is theorized that by middle-childhood, perceptions more accurately reflect actual competence. This study examined motor skill proficiency and perceptions of competence of grade 3 children, as well as relationships with sex.

Method: Participants were 271 grade 3 children (Mage = 8y8m; boys = 46%) from eight schools. The Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD-2) was used to assess the locomotor skills (run, jump, hop, slide, gallop, and leap) and object control skills (throw, roll, kick, strike, catch, and bounce) of the children. Each class was divided into four small groups (∼ 5 children) and these groups rotated around four stations across two physical education lessons during the 2013–14 school year. The behavioural components of each motor skill were scored from video; 0 or 1 depending on whether the component was completed correctly. The range of possible scores for each TGMD-2 subscale was 0 to 48. Perceptions of physical competence were assessed using the Self-Perception Profile for Children (SPPC, score range 6 to 24).

Analysis/Results: Mean scores for the dependent measures locomotor skills, object control skills, and perceptions of competence for girls were: 32.0 ± 4.6, 29.5 ± 5.6, and 20.8 ± 3.2, respectively; and for boys were: 30.9 ± 5.6, 35.8 ± 6.4, and 20.8 ± 3.0. A multivariate analysis of variance with sex as a factor and age in months as a covariate showed a significant overall effect for the dependent measures (Wilk's lambda = .65 with F(3, 266) = 48.1, p < .001). Univariate F-tests revealed only one significant difference, boys' object control skills were significantly higher than girls' (p < .001). One modest relationship between object control skills and perceptions of competence was identified for boys (r = .24, p = .007).

Conclusions: Contrary to theory, mean perceptions of competence of both boys and girls were high in grade 3 (nearly 21 on a 24 point scale). This may account for the modest relationship between boys' object control skills and perceptions of competence and the lack of relationship between skills and perceptions for girls. Our data suggests that the theoretical decline in self-perceptions may occur later than 8–9 years of age.

Data Sources and Collection Procedures in K-12 Physical Education

Brian Dauenhauer

Xiaofen Keating

Dolly Lambdin

The University of Texas at Austin

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Data-driven decision-making (DDDM) has received extraordinary attention in education, but few studies have explored how the process unfolds within the context of K-12 physical education. The purpose of this study was to conduct an in-depth investigation into data sources and collection procedures in a large urban school district that was awarded a federal grant.

Method: A multi-site case study design was employed in which one school district served as the overarching case and eight schools served as embedded cases. The criterion for selection was that the district was awarded a Carol M. White Physical Education Program (PEP) grant. A data classification system proposed by Marsh, Payne, and Hamilton (2006) guided the investigation. The data classification system included four types of data: input, process, outcome, and satisfaction data. Case study evidence was gathered through interviews with teachers/district coordinators, direct observations of physical education lessons, and via the collection of documents/artifacts.

Analysis/Results: Evidence was coded for common themes using open and axial coding. Data were further analyzed using integrative memos, pattern matching, and negative case analysis. Member checks and peer debriefing were used to ensure the trustworthiness of the findings. Results indicated that sources of data in the district were determined primarily by state policy and grant requirements. Data included measures of physical activity, fitness, and nutritional behaviors and rarely included data related to motor skill development, knowledge, social skills, and/or student values. There was minimal collection of data related to school/program level characteristics (i.e., input data), the teaching/learning process (i.e., process data), and the opinions of students, parents, and teachers (i.e., satisfaction data). Furthermore, evidence indicated that the data collection process was time consuming and educators expressed concerns over the validity/reliability of the data collected. Many educators were not convinced of the importance of using data in their teaching and reported limited professional training in connection with data-use at all educational levels.

Conclusions: Data-driven decision making is still in its infancy in physical education. In this setting, data collection was only aligned with one state/national content standard: health-related fitness. The consideration of input data, process data, and satisfaction data as identified by the Marsh et al. (2006) classification system was minimal. Specific professional development is needed to enable in-service physical education teachers to use data effectively in their teaching.

Motor Skills and Adaptive Skills in Preschoolers With Down Syndrome

Shelby Jones

Amanda Young

Phil Esposito

([email protected]).

Texas Christian University

Background/Purpose: Adaptive skills or activities of daily living are the skills needed to maintain a normal quality of life. Adaptive skills are a key indicator of disability status. The purpose of this study is to examine cognition, motor skills, and adaptive skills in a sample of preschool children with Down syndrome. Many individuals with Down syndrome experience developmental delays. These delays can be cognitive, physical, or social. By better understanding the developmental profiles of preschool children with Down syndrome, service providers can better target educational and therapeutic services to improve adaptive function and decrease disability status.

Method: Adaptive skills, intellect, and motor skills were evaluated in 10 children (aged 36 to 65 months) with Down syndrome (6 female: 4 male). Participants were recruited from a comprehensive early childhood education program. Adaptive skills were evaluated using the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales – Interview Edition. Non-verbal IQ was measured using the Leiter international performance scale (Leiter-R) brief IQ. Motor skills were measured using the Peabody Developmental Motor Scales, 2^nd edition. Data was collected over a month with one week dedicated to each test. The 4^th week was used to measure students who were absent during testing.

Analysis/Results: Results of the sample indicated that children with Down syndrome developmentally lag from typically developing peers across all motor skills by 10 to 20 months. Cognitive testing indicated that children with Down syndrome developmentally lag from typically developing peers in cognitive domains by 9 to 13 months. Participants performed slightly better at fluid reasoning tasks compared to fundamental visual tasks. In the motor domain participants showed delays ranging from 16 to 20 months. Participants were the most delayed in grasping and object manipulations tasks. Adaptive skill strengths included receptive language and interpersonal relationships. Overall, participants showed the greatest delays in the motor domain. Significant and positive correlations were found between communication skills and motor abilities (stationary skills, locomotor skills, and object manipulation).

Conclusions: Results of this study support previous work demonstrating global delays in children with Down syndrome. This study took a comprehensive approach to examining intellect, motor skills, and adaptive skills. By better understanding the adaptive strengths and weaknesses, educators and allied health professionals can better focus therapeutic interventions to decrease developmental delays.

Issues on Fidelity of Implementation of the Randomized Controlled Intervention

Joseph Cole Fish

Begona Chapatte-Ramos

Jerry W. Loflin

Sami Yli-Piipari

([email protected]).

University of Memphis

Background/Purpose: The SHAPE-funded randomized controlled intervention to improve physical education (PE) teachers' self-determination support showed to be moderately effective in terms of intended outcomes, such as students' PE motivation and physical activity (Yli-Piipari et al., in review). However, the implementation of evidence-based interventions in authentic urban PE can be challenging. For instance, to obtain intended results in student outcomes, attention must be given to teachers' adherence, that is fidelity of implementation, toward planned contents of the interventions. Research has shown that the level of implementation fidelity can undermine the effect of educational interventions. Thus, the aim of this study was to examine the relationships between self-report and objectively-measured teachers' fidelity of implementation to the 8-week middle school PE teaching style intervention and student self-determined motivation.

Method: The sample comprised three experiment condition middle schools, four PE teachers, and 197 students (ages 11–14 years) located in the Mid-South U.S. All PE teachers were experienced (M_age = 46.75 years) and tenured (M_{teachingexperience} = 17.25 years) in the local metropolitan school district. Pre-and post-intervention data were collected by: a) audiotaping and coding 34 PE lessons (utilizing the checklist of Haerins et al., 2011), b) conducting teacher self-reflection surveys, and c) surveying changes in students' self-determined PE motivation. Self-report data were collected using a 5-point Likert scale (0 = strongly disagree … 4 = strongly agree) and relative autonomy index was calculated based on Ryan and Connell (1989) guidelines. Growth scores for self-report and objectively measured teacher fidelity and students' self-determination score were calculated by deducting the pre-scores from the post-scores.

Analysis/Results: The study showed that teachers were overly optimistic about their ability to change their teaching practices toward self-determination. Teachers' self-report growth scores showed 21.4% (+.74 growth in Likert scale) growth in self-determination support, whereas objectively measured audiotaped scores showed only 11% (+.22) growth. Multiple regression analysis with teachers' self-report and objectively measured fidelity scores as the predictors and self-determined motivation as the criterion variable, indicated that fidelity scores accounted for 31% of the variation in students' motivation growth (β_self-report = .02, p = ns; β_{objectivelymeasured} = .28, p <  .001).

Conclusions: Based from the findings of this study, it appears that objective measures, such as observation or audio/videotaping, are more reliable measures for teachers' fidelity of implementation compared to teachers' self-report reflection. This study findings also highlight the role of teachers' fidelity of implementation to achieve intervention outcomes in urban schools.

Critical Elements that Affect a Collegiate Athletes' Risk of Eating Disorder

Rachel A. Gaines

Eddie T.C. Lam

([email protected]).

Cleveland State University

Background/Purpose: In the United States, 24 million people suffer from eating disorders – the highest mortality rate among mental illness (The Renfrew Center Foundation for Eating Disorders, 2003). In the athletic setting, athletes are pressured to eat specific foods, weigh a set amount, and to acquire a certain body type, creating an environment that is often very unhealthy (Anderson, Petrie, & Neumann, 2012). It is important to address the risk of developing an eating disorder among athletes because clinical appearances of maladaptive eating behaviors continue to increase, and athletics is a high stress environment that could be a contributing factor (Atkinson, 2011). The purpose of this study was to examine the critical factors that affect collegiate athletes' risk of developing an eating disorder.

Method: Collegiate athletes (N = 277) from Divisions I, II, and III institutions participated in this study. Participants completed an online demographics questionnaire and the Eating Attitudes Test-16. A hierarchical multiple regression (HMR) was used to predict eating disorders from gender and other independent variables. Factorial ANOVAs were used to examine the main effects and interactions of genders and divisions as well as between sexual orientation and type of sport on the risk of developing an eating disorder.

Analysis/Results: The tolerance (from .288 to .866) and the variance inflation factor (from 1.154 to 3.474) suggested low levels of multicollinearity among the independent variables. In step 1 of the HMR, only one predicting variable (gender) was entered. This model was statistically significant (F(1,243) = 9.15; p < .05) and explained 3.6% of the total variance. After three predictors (height, weight, and age) were entered in step 2, the total variance explained by the model was 6.1% (F(3,240) = 2.12; p < .10), a 2.5% change of explained variance. In step 3, division 1to3, division 2to3, freshman, sophomore, and junior were entered. This model was statistically insignificant (F(5,235) = .29; p = .92) since it added merely 0.6% to the total variance. Meanwhile, results of the factorial ANOVAs supported the HMR outcomes that female athletes had a significantly (F(1,265) = 9.39, p = .002) greater risk of eating disorder than male athletes.

Conclusions: Gender differences in eating attitudes suggest that eating disorders remain more prominent in female athletes, but are present in male athletes. These results suggest that training and awareness programs must be established within athletic departments to promote early detection and create understanding and comfortable environments for athletes, and athletes should be taught healthy eating habits and exercise regimens that are conducive to their sport.

Perception of Pedometers for Engagement and Assessment of Physical Activity

Grace Goc Karp

Helen Brown

Philip W. Scruggs

([email protected]).

University of Idaho

Background/Purpose: Education and public heath entities have recommended physical education policy for students to receive a significant dose of daily physical activity comprising of moderate to vigorous physical activity within quality physical education (PE) programs (CDC, 2013; USDHHS, 2008). Physical activity standards for physical education physical activity have been established and validated using the electronic pedometer (Scruggs, 2013). Assessment of this policy has been problematic in this state due to issues with widespread policy adoption and/or implementation of a practical assessment mechanism. The purpose of this study was to examine how PE teachers perceived the usage of pedometers as a tool for increasing engagement in activity and assessment of activity engagement during class time.

Method: Twenty PE teachers were randomly selected across six state districts, and across elementary, middle and high school levels. They were provided with pedometers and asked to use the pedometers and collect pedometer data for five consecutive days for their classes. Each teacher was individually interviewed before and after the pedometer usage, and 14 teachers were interviewed at the end of the following semester as a follow-up. Interview questions related to teacher perceptions about the usage of pedometers for activity and assessment, and the impact of pedometer on student engagement, and instruction. Inductive analysis was used to code data into categories and themes. Data trustworthiness was established through triangulation and peer reviewers.

Analysis/Results: The teachers perceived: (a) value in using pedometers to raise activity and motivation levels with all students and particularly those overweight and amotivated in PE; (b) that the pedometers increased awareness of activity time spent during PE and motivated them to examine their instruction and curriculum; (c) pedometer usage aligned with their philosophy regarding the role of PE; (d) advantages and barriers to using pedometers for assessment. One semester later, the majority of teachers reported pedometer usage for increasing physical activity but less so for assessment. However, a promising finding was that a number of teachers indicated identifying baseline pedometer levels for specific activities as a formative assessment measure.

Conclusions: Teachers perceived pedometer usage to increase awareness of PE physical activity time and shows promise as a practical assessment measure. Recommendations include training teachers in pedometer use to increase moderate to vigorous physical activity time during PE; the use of pedometers for assessment, and tying policy adoption with specific assessment mechanisms.

Impact of Healthy Lifestyle Choices on Students Who Smoke Cigarettes

Mitchell W. Jenkins

Dean Gorman

Anthony Parish

([email protected]).

Armstrong Atlantic State University

Background/Purpose: Smoking cigarettes is the leading cause of preventable death for Americans (Hahn et al., 2009). Together, smoking and exposure to secondhand smoke cause more than 443,000 premature deaths each year (MMWR, 2008). Young people are at an increased risk to start smoking, and college students are no exception (Rigotti, Regan, Moran, Wechsler, 2003). Identifying variables with strong relationships to tobacco usage is vital in producing effective youth cessation programs. The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether college smokers who otherwise demonstrate healthy lifestyle behaviors, choose to disregard the positive impact of healthy behavior, and smoke at similar rates as college smokers who demonstrate unhealthy lifestyle behaviors.

Method: Secondary data from the American College Health Association's bi-yearly National College Health Assessment was used for this study. This assessment/survey encompasses college students' habits, behaviors, and perceptions regarding prevalent health topics. The sample for this study consisted of 14,515 college students who identified themselves as having smoked within the last 30 days. Fruit and vegetable intake per day, days per week of vigorous exercise, Body Mass Index, and exercisers trying to lose weight were the healthy lifestyle choices this study related to smoking behavior.

Analysis/Results: Data analysis initially began with descriptive statistics. Within this sample, demographic information was analyzed. Linear multiple regression revealed 1) college students who ate zero fruits and vegetables per day were likely to smoke 2.31 more days per month than those who ate five or more per day, 2) for every day per week a smoker partook in vigorous exercise, they smoked 0.76 days fewer per month, 3) for every one unit increase in participants Body Mass Index, an increase of 0.06 in days smoked per month can be expected, 4) college students who are not currently exercising to lose weight smoke 2.11 more days per month than those students who are currently exercising to lose weight. Overall, the majority of healthy lifestyle choices considered in this study significantly impacted the amount of days per month a college smoker, smoked cigarettes.

Conclusions: The goal of this study was to illustrate the impact healthy behavior choices had on smoking behavior among college students who smoked cigarettes. This study illustrated a number of health behaviors that had a significant relationship to the number of days college smokers, smoked cigarettes. The information from this study is intended to help educators create insight driven programs relating to tobacco usage.

The Self-Determined Beliefs of Students in an After-School Bike Program

L. Kent Griffin

Karen S. Meaney

([email protected]).

Texas State University

Background/Purpose: Self-determination theory proposes that the degree to which individuals experience a sense of motivation is influenced by their feelings of their own abilities (i.e., competence), their sense of control about the situation or various aspects of the task (i.e., autonomy), and their sense of shared goals or belonging (i.e., relatedness) to others in the setting (Ryan & Deci, 2008). Evidence is scarce regarding the benefits of specific types of physical activities on the components of self-determination theory. Understanding how specific activities impact motivation in adolescents may be of particular interest given the current activity levels of today's youth. This investigation examined the impact of participation in an after school mountain bike program on the self-determined beliefs of high school students (grades 9-12). The program was intended to teach high-school students the skill and fitness required of mountain biking within a mastery motivational climate.

Method: Participants (N = 17, age range = 15–17, M = 11 F = 6, ethnicity = 3 Caucasian, 1 Asian, and 13 Hispanic.) Self-determined beliefs and motivational profiles were collected qualitatively via semi-structured interviews. Each participant was interviewed once at the end of the program with the average length of the interview lasting approximately 20 minutes. The mountain bike program lasted from January to early May and met three days per week for approximately 1.5 hours per day.

Analysis/Results: Using a qualitative data analysis approach, results indicate that regardless of age or gender, students participating in the after school mountain bike program exhibited behaviors indicative of self-determination. (i.e., relatedness, competence and autonomy).

Conclusions: After-school mountain bike programs may be an effective avenue to increase motivation to be physically active in high school students. Programs such as these may be particularly important in light of the recent reports regarding youth fitness levels. In addition, physical educators may seek to implement biking programs in their curriculums. If, in fact, innovative programs such as these enhance motivation to be physically active, perhaps students will seek out other equally challenging opportunities as well as continuing their pursuit in the sport of cycling.

Evaluating Fidelity in Online Professional Development for Physical Educators

Sean Healy

Andrew M. Colombo-Dougovito

([email protected]).

University of Virginia

Background/Purpose: The online environment is being increasingly utilized to deliver professional development courses to physical educators. Assessing fidelity allows us to determine adequacy of course models and allows us to quantify the degree to which elements of the course have been adequately implemented: this allows for accurate interpretation of the course's effects (Mowbray, Holter, Teague & Bybee, 2003). This study aims to determine the fidelity of an asynchronous online professional development course offered to elementary school physical educators in Virginia. This course was focused on the implementation of peer tutoring in physical education.

Method: Three fidelity measures were created and applied to assess the online course, following guidelines proposed by Mowbray, Holter, Teague and Bybee (2003):

a) Structure fidelity measures: adherence to principles of adult learning theory which influenced the course structure were assessed by a team of experts, using a Likert scale.

b) Content fidelity measures: Evidenced-based ‘best practices’ of peer tutoring were compared with the course's content, by an expert team, using a Likert scale.

c) Process fidelity measures: Elements of content delivery were also assessed: first, podcasts, the primary method of content delivery, were assessed by experts, for adherence to the cognitive theory of multimedia learning as reflected in Mayer's principles of instructional design. Second, a sample of learners' (n = 8) interaction with the course was assessed, through screen-recording, as they used the course. Learners' behaviors were assessed using a rubric created from the planned course process.

Inter-rater reliability measures were also calculated.

Analysis/Results: Results indicated fidelity of structure relating to all but one of Knowles principles: the need for self direction. Specifically, a lack of opportunity for self direction was identified related to the structure of the course's evaluation. All process criteria and content criteria showed to be adhered to, as noted by all expert raters.

Conclusions: With the increased emphasis on the need for evidenced-based practices in professional development, the significance of fidelity measurement is great. As online professional development in the area of physical education grows, course designers are challenged with creating evidence-based courses. This study demonstrates how fidelity criteria can be created and applied to an online professional development course for physical educators. Implications for course design and implementation are discussed.

References

Mowbray, C., Holter, H., Teague G. & Bybee D. (2003). Fidelity Criteria: Development, Measurement, and Validation. American Journal of Evaluation, 24(3), 315–340.

Physical Education Cooperating Teachers' Perceptions of Student Teachers' Skills

Mary L. Henninger, Margaret M. Coleman, and Skip M. Williams, Illinois State University

([email protected])

Background/Purpose: Cooperating teachers serve as the primary facilitators of future teachers' on the job training during student teaching. Cooperating teachers' perceptions of the needs of their student teachers can have a big impact on how they mentor student teachers during that formative period. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore the perceptions of potential physical education cooperating teachers' perceptions of student teachers' skills needed for success and common weaknesses within a large Midwestern urban school district.

Method: Participants, K-12 physical educators (N = 25) with between 5 and 35 years experience in a large, Midwestern urban school district were surveyed about their desire to become cooperating teachers. Survey questions, which were created by the district's physical education administrators and a teacher educator from a nearby university, asked participants to discuss the common skills needed to be successful in their school and common weaknesses of student teachers. The survey was sent out to all physical educators eligible to serve as cooperating teachers using Survey Monkey.

Analysis/Results: Participants' responses to the following questions, “Briefly describe some indicators you would look for to determine student teacher success”, and “Briefly describe what you think are some common weaknesses of novice teachers?” were analyzed through the process of open coding to identify initial themes and categories. Peer debriefing was used to verify themes and categories. Findings will be reported in two main themes, a) Skills needed to be successful and b) Common weaknesses of student teachers. Common skills needed for success were planning and organization, flexibility, professionalism, and the ability to reflect. Common weaknesses were identified as difficulty planning, lack of flexibility/adaptability, being unprofessional and behavior management and organization.

Conclusions: Common skills needed to be successful as physical educators and common weaknesses of student teachers, as perceived by cooperating teachers were identified in this study. Findings from this study may be helpful to physical education teacher educators in terms of how students are prepared for student teaching and how cooperating teachers are prepared to become mentors. Since there was considerable overlap between perceived skills needed for success and weaknesses observed, teacher educators could purposefully address those areas. Second, findings may be helpful to other physical education teachers who serve as mentors in terms of being more aware of what to look for when working with future teachers. Third, the findings provide future teachers a better understanding of what is expected from professionals in the field.

Identification of School Physical Activity Leader Competencies Using Concept Mapping

Kiel Illg

Sean M. Bulger

([email protected]).

West Virginia University

Background/Purpose: Various public health and educational organizations have called for the implementation of comprehensive approaches at the state, district, and school levels to promote physical education and physical activity among children and adolescents. Proponents have argued that physical education teachers are positioned to assume the role of director of physical activity in the school setting; however many physical educators do not see directing comprehensive school physical activity programs (CSPAP) as their responsibility, nor have they been formally trained to provide this measure of leadership. Furthermore, there is limited research on CSPAPs and the associated leadership roles integral to planning, implementing, managing, and evaluating change in this area. The purpose of this exploratory study was to identify the knowledge, skills, and behavioral competencies that a school leader would need to develop in order to implement and sustain a CSPAP.

Method: Researchers used an integrated approach to concept mapping that involved brainstorming, statement analysis and synthesis, sorting and rating of ideas, multidimensional scaling and cluster analysis, and development and interpretation of multiple graphic organizers. These steps were delivered in sequential phases using a web-based communication platform: anonymous brainstorming (n = 51), sorting and rating of ideas by key stakeholders (n = 18), and interpretation of maps through semi-structured interviews (n = 3). The participants across all phases included K-12 physical educators, school administrators, and higher education researchers identified through systematic review of the literature and snowball sampling.

Analysis/Results: Data aggregation and analysis were completed using multi-dimensional scaling and cluster analysis to determine relationships among brainstormed statements. A variety of maps were developed to graphically display these relationships. Five primary clusters of ideas were identified: (1) Teambuilding and Facilitating, (2) Capacity Building, (3) Knowledge of Instructional Practices, (4) Content Knowledge, and (5) Program Development and Management. Data from the semi-structured interviews were analyzed inductively and used to verify results, determine final cluster names, and identify possible implications for teacher preparation.

Conclusions: The findings support the need for the development of transformational leaders in schools who are capable of empowering others through modification of the work environment, facilitating intrinsic motivation among colleagues, and supplying necessary resources. Teacher education and educational leadership programs have an opportunity to help develop transformational leaders in the area of school physical activity by modifying curricula to provide opportunities for pre-service and in-service teachers to develop the knowledge, skills and behaviors pre-requisite to the implementation and maintenance of CSPAPs within 21st century school environments.

Adequate Adapted Physical Education Training for Pete Majors?

Jooyeon Jin

Manny Felix

Garth Tymeson

([email protected]).

University of Wisconsin-La Crosse

Background/Purpose: A student teaching opportunity is very important in order to develop and maintain positive teaching behavior of pre-service physical educators in physical education teacher education (PETE) programs (Jin, Yun & Wegis, 2013). For instance, this student teaching experience helps pre-service teachers to be prepared to effectively accommodate students with disabilities in a real general physical education class, which is different compared to lab-based environment (i.e., a one-on-one gym/swimming setting). Many PETE programs only offer one introductory adapted physical education course to pre-service teachers based on an assumption that offering this basic course would adequately train pre-service teachers toward inclusive physical education classes. However, this premise has not been examined. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether PETE majors with and without an adapted physical education minor have the same self-efficacy toward inclusion after their student teaching.

Method: A total of 100 PETE majors who did student teaching between fall 2011 and spring 2014 (6 semesters) at a university in Midwest participated in this study. Before their student teaching, adapted physical education minors (n = 43) took six disability related courses, whereas non-minors (n = 57) took only one introductory adapted physical education course. The student teaching included both elementary and secondary levels for nine weeks each and was supervised by an assigned PETE faculty member. To assess participants' self-efficacy, they were asked to complete the Self-Efficacy Scale for Physical Education Teacher Education Majors toward Children with Disabilities (Block et al., 2013) at the end of their student teaching.

Analysis/Results: A series of independent t-tests were conducted to achieve the study purpose. Across intellectual disability, physical disability, and visual impairment, it was found that PETE majors with an adapted physical education minor had significantly higher self-efficacy for peer instruction, staying on task, safety, and specific adaptations that are critical elements toward successful inclusion, compared to non-adapted physical education minors (P < .001). In addition, adapted physical education minors had significantly higher self-efficacy when conducting fitness testing, teaching sport skills, and actually playing the sport that are different situational contexts in inclusive physical education classes, across all three disability types (P < .001).

Conclusions: Findings indicate that offering one introductory adapted physical education course is not adequate to well train future physical educators toward inclusion. It may be necessary that PETE programs offer more disability related courses to help all pre-service teachers increase self-efficacy toward inclusion and eventually provide quality physical education to all students.

Influence of Social Media on Adolescent Females' Body Image Perceptions

Kate Kalnes

([email protected]).

New Trier High School

Background/Purpose: Exacerbated by media and its portrayal of the thin ideal, high levels of body dissatisfaction among female adolescents have been linked to depression and eating disorder behavior. Although approximately 75% of all teens use social media sites, little is known about how social media can influence perceived body image. The purpose of this qualitative case study, based on theories of psychosocial development and social comparison, was to investigate the influence of social media use on adolescent females' perceptions of their body image.

Method: Qualitative case study

Analysis/Results: Participants were drawn from a large Midwestern public high school using purposeful sampling. Via horizontalization, 4 themes emerged from individual semistructured interviews and participants' 3-day record of social media use

Conclusions: The 4 themes included: (a) female adolescents' daily activities are influenced by perceived body image; (b) there is a distinct change in perceived body image with age; (c) social comparison is a constant activity for adolescent females; and (d) the area in which these students reside, which includes parental influence to fit the high ideal of the community, has a direct effect on perceived body image. Moreover, participants strongly believed that use of social media plays a major role in each of these themes. These findings were used to develop a curriculum for discussing body image, examining the influence of social media use on adolescents' perceived body image, and drawing attention to the negative consequences of body dissatisfaction. It is expected that improving the perceived body image of female students will increase their self-esteem and body satisfaction, and thus reduce symptoms of depression and eating disorder behavior.

Teaching Students with Disabilities: Perceptions of Physical Educators

Cathy Lirgg

Dean Gorman, Cole Shewmake

Michael Merrie

([email protected]).

University of Arkansas

Background/Purpose: Establishment of PL 94-142 guarantees children with disabilities free and appropriate public education that includes special education and related services, e.g. physical education (PE). According to Lieberman and Houston-Wilson (2002), PE teachers felt they were not prepared to teach in an inclusive setting. Therefore, this study investigated the preparedness and perceptions of current PE teachers who instruct children with disabilities in a PE setting.

Method: Seventy-five PE teachers from the southern United States completed on-line surveys concerning their adapted PE preparation and experiences. Besides demographics, teachers rated on 9-point scales their undergrad experiences (not prepared at all to very well prepared), their difficulty in including students with disabilities in their classes (not difficult to very difficult), and barriers that might affect inclusion (no barrier to extreme barrier).

Analysis/Results: Descriptive statistics showed that 68% taught either elementary or a combination of elementary and secondary PE. Fifty-two percent had no field experiences in adapted PE prior to student teaching, and only 41% taught students with disabilities during student teaching. Thirty percent had no undergraduate class in adapted PE. However, most teachers (89%) currently have students with disabilities in their classes, with 90% of those classes being fully included. Surprisingly, 45% of the teachers were never involved in IEP's while another 30% were involved only some of the time. Also, only 47% reported that aides were present during PE class. The two most frequently encountered disabilities were autism and learning disabilities. Interestingly, teachers felt that their undergrad classes and field experiences were least adequate for teaching children with autism; 50% felt that their field experiences did not prepare them at all, while 38% felt that their classwork did not prepare them at all for instructing children with autism. Consequently, teachers reported that children with autism (M = 5.67) presented the most difficulty to include in class; children with learning disabilities (M = 2.97) were perceived as easiest to include. The greatest barrier to teaching students with disabilities was large class sizes (M = 6.42) followed by limited adaptive equipment (M = 4.97).

Conclusions: With an increasing number of children being diagnosed with autism, undergraduate teaching preparation needs to include ample instruction and experiences to insure that teachers feel prepared and confident. Further, administrators need to understand the problems teachers encounter and react appropriately by providing additional resources and limiting class sizes to facilitate better instruction.

Examination of Teachers' Rationales for Changing a Physical Education Intervention

Jerry W. Loflin

Catherine Ennis

([email protected]).

The University of North Carolina at Greensboro

Background/Purpose: New school-based curricular interventions are fundamental in meeting the diverse needs of today's students and improving student outcomes. Furthermore, the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB; 2003) states that educators must use scientifically based teaching methods and strategies proven to be effective. In terms of curricular interventions, teachers are the primary implementation agents; therefore, the fidelity of such interventions depends on teacher adoption and delivery. The purpose of this study was to investigate teachers' perceptions and justifications for changing critical intervention components and design principles of a research-based physical education curricular intervention. The data gathered in this study provide information about the variables that enhanced or constrained the effectiveness of a large-scale physical education intervention and teacher rationales for intervention adaptations within their context.

Method: This qualitative research study examined the contextual components and implementation mechanisms contributing to the variation in teachers' perspectives and methods of implementing the Science of Healthful Living (SHL) curriculum. Purposeful sampling (Patton, 2002) was used to select six middle school physical education teachers participating for the first time in the SHL project. The participating teachers taught the same 20-lesson unit from the SHL curriculum to their sixth-grade physical education students. During lesson implementation, I collected detailed observation field notes while comparing the lesson taught with the structured, scripted lesson that was provided in the intervention. After each lesson observation, I interviewed each teacher in their gymnasium asking unique questions based on the recently completed lesson observation.

Analysis/Results: I analyzed the interview data through open, axial, and selective coding (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). The concepts identified during the open and axial coding process were organized into seven categories that spoke to reasons why teachers changed lesson structure, tasks, or task order. One core category, school contextual constraints, emerged within this examination of the curriculum implementation process. The results of this study suggested a multitude of preexisting contextual factors, such as lack of instructional time, space, and equipment, influence teachers' fidelity to the intended curriculum.

Conclusions: Intervention researchers should consider the nature of the contextual factors and whether they negatively impact the intervention when designing and revising school-based interventions. The current findings show potential for informing scholars of the merit and efficacy of the intervention on student outcomes. Thus, research on implementation fidelity has the potential to advance the quality of evidence-based program development and research.

Politicizing Free: Maternal and Reproductive Health Policy in Sierra Leone

Fredanna A.D. M'Cormack

Fredline A.O. M'Cormack

([email protected]).

Coastal Carolina University

Background/Purpose: On April 27, 2010, Sierra Leone implemented the Free Health Care Initiative (FHCI) for its most vulnerable populations: pregnant women, lactating mothers and children under the age of five, to address dire mortality rates. Anecdotal data from the previous study supported newspaper and documentary reports suggest that the delivery of quality care is still a problem and that there is lack of professionalism in service delivery. Study examines the services provided as a result of the free health care policy from the perspective of the professional health worker, lay health volunteer and women beneficiaries.

Method: This was a mixed method design. Data were gathered from a satisfaction survey and focus groups discussions with beneficiaries and interviews with health care workers and volunteers. As the study was conducted during the outbreak of the Ebola crises, travel around the country was restricted so two districts and Western Area were used in the study.

Analysis/Results: Data were collected from thirteen communities out of the 20 communities initially selected for the study. The majority of participants lived in rural environments. Three of the communities had a clinic present on site. The perspectives of the Free Health Care Initiative implemented by the Government of Sierra Leone were mixed.

Conclusions: Perceptions of the government provisions and availability of services were mixed for drugs availability, accessibility to health providers, and services delivery, including contraceptives.

Student Engagement in Different Motivational Climates in Elementary Physical Education

Ellen H. Martin

Ivan Hartle

Tiandra Billings

([email protected]).

Columbus State University

Background/Purpose: Researchers have focused on two contrasting goal orientations (ego and mastery) to examine student behavior in achievement settings. The orientation a student adopts can be influenced by the type of climate the teacher creates such as ego or performance climate (Goodway & Branta, 2003, Gråstén, et. al., 2012; Valentini & Rudisill, 2004) and mastery or task climate (Bryan, & Solmon, 2012; Liukkonen et. al., 2010; Martin, et. al., 2009; Wadsworth et. al., 2013). Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate the mastery, ego, and mixed motivational climates and their effect on student engagement in elementary physical education.

Method: Students from three separate classes from a rural school in the southern United States. The Physical Education Climate Assessment Instrument (PECAI) developed by Curtner-Smith & Todorovich (2002) was used to verify the authenticity of each motivational climate (ego, mastery, and mixed). Each class randomly received three separate golf (putting, chipping, and putting/chipping) lessons in each climate over a two week period. All lessons were videotaped and student engagement was coded using the low inference interval system Opportunities to Respond (OTR). Discrete skill responses were coded into one of four major categories: motor engaged appropriate (i.e., successful and unsuccessful trials), motor engaged inappropriate (i.e., free play, task change), not motor engaged motor supporting (i.e., setting up equipment, receiving instruction), and not motor engaged inappropriate (i.e., idle, passive).

Analysis/Results: Descriptive statistics showed students on average were appropriately engaged in the mastery climate 93% of the time, the mixed climate 86.6%, and the ego climate 82.9% of the time respectively. This finding supports the research which indicates a mastery climate is most beneficial for students, but also suggests that students exposed to a mixed climate would be more engaged than students in an ego climate.

Conclusions: Teachers might find creating mixed climates can help meet the needs of all students by incorporating some ego tasks in their lessons.

Children's Physical Activity and Nutritional Status and Perceptions of Lifestyle

Gabriella Maria McLoughlin

Kim C. Graber

([email protected]).

University of Illinois

Background/Purpose: The need for lifestyle education is increasing as a result of childhood obesity and accompanying health complications (Agron et al., 2010), and school environments hold great potential as settings of lifestyle interventions through enhancement of physical activity (PA) and nutrition education (Mendoza et al., 2011; Siega-Riz et al., 2011). The combination of regular PA and well-balanced nutritional intake (NI) has been attributed to a healthy lifestyle and can be altered or changed to improve child and adult health. Analysis of these two variables can help to identify ways in which they can be improved, and it may be possible that a correlation is present between those who follow PA and NI guidelines (Siega-Riz et al., 2011). Thus, the purpose of this investigation was to employ Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1994) to assess PA, NI, and weight status, along with children's perceptions of their lifestyle habits.

Method: A mixed-methods approach using a 3-day time frame to assess PA, NI, weight status, and a qualitative interview to assess knowledge and attitudes of these factors was undertaken with a sample (n = 30) of fifth grade children. Participants were given accelerometers, PA and food diaries to self-report their lifestyle habits; and weight, height and waist circumference measurements were taken to obtain weight status.

Analysis/Results: Data were analyzed using Pearson product moment correlations and linear regression to assess association and potential linear relationships. Qualitative thematic analysis was conducted to develop themes from interviews. Results showed mixed findings that reflect the divergent evidence base between those who have high daily PA and those who meet recommendations for diet. Correlations between PA and nutrition variables revealed insignificant findings; however BMI, energy intake (EI) and waist to height ratio (WHTR) were significantly related. While participants stated that fruits and vegetables were part of a healthy diet, the majority did not consume more than one or two servings per day. Interview data indicated that children often do not have positive influences or reliable sources of information from which to gain information about lifestyle and expressed lack of both teacher and parent awareness.

Conclusions: Teachers and parents heavily influence children in regards to lifestyle choices. Although educating children's role models may help ameliorate children's inappropriate behaviors regarding physical activity and nutrition, enforcing teacher's responsibility to incorporate health education into the curriculum may prove to be particularly effective. More research in this area is warranted and intervention studies should be considered.

Physical Education's Contribution to Daily Physical Activity in Adolescents

Charles F. Morgan

Jimmy G. Charos

Nathan M. Murata

([email protected]).

University of Hawaii, Manoa

Background/Purpose: One of the primary purposes of the Let's Move Active Schools initiative is to help youth achieve national physical activity goals. Physical Education is considered the foundation of the initiative and as such determining PE's contribution to daily physical activity (PA) is important. An emerging body of evidence has emerged in children but very limited data exist using objective PA measures in adolescents.

Method: A total of 21 students between the ages of 13 and 15 wore an ActiTrainer accelerometer (ActiTrainer™, Fort Walton Beach, FL) to assess weekday PA over a two week period during school and outside of school. Freedson's cut points for adolescents were used to determine PA intensity.

Analysis/Results: The sample accumulated 34 (14%) more minutes in light physical activity (LPA), 12 (41%) more minutes in moderate to vigorous (MPVA), 99 (30%) more movement counts per minute, and ∼1,700 (24%) more steps/day on school days with PE compared to school days without PE. Similar to children we found that this sample of adolescents did not compensate for missed physical activity on school days with no PE. Sedentary activity was similar between school days with and without PE.

Conclusions: PE's contribution to daily PA in adolescents more than doubles the contribution reported in numerous studies in children. Using accelerometer derived minutes in MVPA increased PE's contribution to daily PA by more than 40% compared to using accelerometer derived step counts in the current study. Previous pedometer studies may have underestimated the contribution PE makes to daily PA by 25–40%.

Physical Activity Level and Well-Being: Youth Living in Rural Areas

Hyun-Ju Oh

Aiko Yoshino

Sharon Rana

Myung-Ah Lee

Rhonda Hovatter

([email protected]).

Shepherd University

Background/Purpose: Substantial evidence exists for the benefits of being physically active on physical health and psychological well-being of adult populations (Hardman & Stensel, 2003: Biddle, Fox, & Boutcher, 2000). Evidence for the benefits of physical activity on the physical health and psychological well-being of secondary school youth living in rural areas is limited. Therefore, the purpose of this preliminary study was to explore the relationship between physical activity (PA) and psychological well-being in secondary school youth from rural areas.

Method: Participants were 43 male and 47 female secondary-school youth (average ±  SD): age, weight, height, BMI, 13.51 ± 1.57 y, 92.70 ± 36.55 kg, 161.65 ± 9.25 cm, 35.68 ± 14.29 kg/m², respectively. Participants wore a sealed pedometer (New Lifestyles NL-1000) for 7 days to measure PA (i.e., steps/day). Participants also completed the 18-item Ryff Scale of Psychological Well-Being (SPWB, Ryff, 1995), that assesses 6 dimensions of wellness, including autonomy, environmental mastery, personal growth, positive relations with others, purpose in life, and self-acceptance by combining 3 six-point Likert-type responses (i.e., agree strongly to strongly disagree) for each dimension of wellness. The higher the score (maximum 18) is, the better that dimension of wellness. Reliability of the Ryff's SPWB ranges from 0.33 to 0.56 and stability over time ranges from 0.81 to 0.88 (Ryff, 1989; Ryff & Keyes, 1995). Parents of the participants also completed a questionnaire asking about the parental income, educational, and activity levels.

Analysis/Results: Only 6 participants were classified as active using daily pedometer step criteria (Tudor-Locke et al., 2004). Regardless, independent t-tests were run for each of the 6 dimensions of wellness between the active and non-active groups, yet no significance was found (p>0.05). The largest difference was found for self-acceptance (2.37 points), with the active group having a score of 15.5 and non-active group 13.1 (p = 0.086). However, parents who reported being active for at least 20 minutes, most days of the week had youth with a higher score for personal growth than those parents who reported being sedentary (14.65 versus 11.92, p = 0.011). No other differences were found in the wellness scores.

Conclusions: This preliminary study revealed that there was no significant relationship between the participants' PA level and psychological well-being. However, those with more active parents showed a higher score for personal growth. Future studies with more participants may detect main effects on the relationship between PA and psychological well-being variables.

Behaviors for Building and Elevating High School Coach-Athlete Relationships

Hannah O. Olson

([email protected]).

University of Washington

Background/Purpose: The relationship between a coach and an athlete lies at the heart of the athletic experience. This relationship can profoundly impact how a student-athlete experiences their sport, as well as their overall development as a young adult. Despite this, research focused on effective coaching practices remains an under-studied area of inquiry, particularly at the high school level. The purpose of this research was to better understand coaching behaviors that lead to quality coach-athlete relationships and how positive relationships manifest themselves at the individual and team levels.

Method: This qualitative study examined 24 high school Varsity head coaches and assistant coaches in the Pacific Northwest. Surveys, semi-structured interviews, and on-site observations were utilized to solicit coach opinions and perceptions on how relationships with athletes are built and elevated. Components of the International Sports Coaching Framework and Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory were adapted to create a conceptual framework in which this study was grounded.

Analysis/Results: Findings suggest that a strong coaching philosophy and baseline of sport knowledge underlie the relationship building process between high school coaches and their athletes. Demonstration of care and passion, effective communication, as well as consistent and transparent behavior emerged as primary themes for relationship building. Findings also identify the creation of leadership and ownership opportunities for athletes as a cornerstone of effective coaching. Individual behaviors resulting from quality coach-athlete dyads are discussed, including the constructs of commitment, hard work, collaboration, risk taking, and leadership development. Positive culture, the primary finding tied to team outcomes, is discussed as it relates to the high school athletic context. Lastly, findings tied to the barriers of relationship building are summarized, in addition to ways in which this study can inform future research centered around quality coaching practices in the high school environment and broader athletic context.

Conclusions: This work is most significant in that it contributes to a relatively understudied area of athletics research, focusing on the relationship between coach and athlete as a unit of analysis. Because coaches often receive little to no formal training related to specific behaviors central to effective coaching, this study provides valuable information for athletic directors, school administrators, and coaches who seek a tool that defines such behaviors.

The Influence of Self-Efficacy and Self-Regulated Motivation in Service-Learning Course

K. Andrew Richards

Chantal Levesque-Bristol

Angelika Zissimopoulos

([email protected]).

Purdue University

Background/Purpose: Service-learning programs have become increasingly prominent in physical education teacher education programs. Service-learning can lead to a host of positive academic and interpersonal outcomes, including enhanced civic engagement. In this study, civic engagement was defined as community engagement, cultural competence, and ethical leadership. However, additional research is required to understand the elements of effective service-learning programs that foster civic engagement. Using self-determination theory, this study examined self-efficacy and self-regulated motivation as predictors of civic engagement in service-learning courses.

Method: Participants included 242 (122 female, 120 male) undergraduate students participating in one of 28 disciplinarily diverse service-learning courses at a large, research-intensive university. The average student was 22.50 years old (SD = 5.25). Most of the participants were Caucasian (N = 148; 61.20%) and 72.31% of the sample (N = 175) were upperclass students (juniors and seniors). Participants completed an online survey at the end of the semester to measure self-efficacy for community engagement (Community Service Self-Efficacy Scale; Reeb et al., 1998); self-regulated motivation (Situational Motivation Scale; Guay & Vallerand, 1997); and the community engagement, cultural competence, and ethical leadership dimensions of civic engagement (Public Affairs Scale – Short Survey; Levesque-Bristol & Richards, In Press).

Analysis/Results: Structural equation modeling was used to examine the relationships among the variables. Using self-determination theory, it was hypothesized that self-efficacy would predict community engagement, cultural competence, and ethical leadership directly, and indirectly through self-regulated motivation. Goodness of model fit was evaluated using χ², NNFI, IFI, SRMR, and RMSEA. For model fit to be good, the ratio of χ² to df should be ≤ 3, NNFI and IFI should be>.95, and SRMR and RMSEA should be < .08. The test of model fit indicated that the hypothesized model was a good fit to the data, χ²(220) = 539.62, p < .001; IFI = .98; NNFI = .97; SRMR = .05; RMSEA = .07. All factor loadings in the measurement model and pathways in the structural model were significant at p < .05.

Conclusions: Results support the hypothesis that self-efficacy and self-regulated motivation are predictors of civic engagement. Self-efficacy predicted community engagement, cultural competence, and ethical leadership directly, and indirectly through self-regulated motivation. Thus, it is not simply the use of service-learning that leads to positive outcomes, but also the way in which service-learning is integrated into the classroom. When service-learning fails to foster student-centered learning environments, civic engagement may be limited. Physical education teacher education faculty who utilize service-learning should foster positive course environments that support self-efficacy and self-regulated motivation.

A Systematic Review of Measures on Service Quality in Sport

Jennifer Y. Mak

Ka-Lam Sam, Roger K. LO, Bik C. Chow

Siu Yin Cheung

([email protected]).

Hong Kong Baptist University

Background/Purpose: According to Asubonteng, McCleary and Swan (1996), the SERVQUAL was regarded as the first and most popular service quality measurement in general. However, the SERVQUAL was considered to be inadequate in specific industries. Consequently, numerous researchers in the sport and recreation discipline attempted to develop instruments to measure the service quality in their own fields. Despite these increasing interests, there was no singularly accepted paradigm for organizing the literature in service quality measurement of sport. Thus, the purpose of this systematic review was to critically appraise and compare the most relevant and widely used instrument of assessing service quality of sport, leisure and recreation sectors (i.e., fitness centers, sport clubs, sport grounds, and etc.).

Method: Studies which were written in English and published in peer-reviewed journals were identified from a systematic search of the following computerized bibliographic databases: ABI/INFORM Global, Academic Search Premier, ERIC, ProQuest, PsycINFO and SPORTDiscus. The following keywords were adopted for all searches: “service quality” and (“sport” or “recreation” or “leisure”) and (“scale” or “measure”). For instance, studies which that reported on at least one or more measurement properties of service quality in sport were included. Data extraction was conducted by three independent reviewers with a standardized critical appraisal instrument (i.e. Service Quality for Sport Measures Rating Form). Any disagreements that arose between the reviewers were resolved through analytical discussions and consensus building.

Analysis/Results: From the 305 papers identified, several outcome measures met the inclusion criteria, such as OSQ, PESPERF, QIRS, QSEH, QSport, QUESC, SERVQUAL, SQAS, UPARQUAL, and etc. There was evidence on validity and reliability for the measures.

Conclusions: The results of this review provided researchers and practitioners with a compendium of information regarding the strengths, weaknesses and measurement properties of service quality for sport. This information was useful for identifying measurement instruments that need further validation and development.

Research Productivity in Kinesiology Across Institutions with Different Carnegie Classifications

David P. Schary

Bradley J. Cardinal

([email protected]).

Oregon State University

Background/Purpose: Research productivity is important currency for those in academia, with expectations for research productivity increasing –perhaps across a range of institutional types – in recent years. Concurrently, calls for more interdisciplinary research have been advanced in the academy. Kinesiology is not exempt from these trends. For five decades kinesiologists have been encouraged to engage in more research, especially interdisciplinary research. Yet, it is unclear how well this call has been answered. In an attempt to capture the growth of interdisciplinary research in kinesiology, the purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between interdisciplinary research (i.e., disciplinary to discipline-less) and kinesiology units on the basis of their Carnegie Classification of Institutions in Higher Education^™.

Method: For the years 2008–20012, a stratified-random sample of journal articles (n = 116) were selected from 10 different interdisciplinary-oriented (based on their mission statements) kinesiology-focused journals. The sample was limited to articles with a corresponding author located in the United States. Articles were coded on the basis of their degree of interdisciplinarity using Lattuca's (2001) interdisciplinary typology. Each corresponding authors' institution was then coded using the Basic Carnegie Classification system. Using a subset of the data, acceptable inter-rater reliability (κ = 0.79) and intra-rater reliability (κ = 0.85) were obtained for the coding procedures. Chi-square test of independence, with effect sizes (Cohen's ω) and Bonferroni correction, were used to assess the strength of the observed relationships.

Analysis/Results: The majority of research for all institution types was disciplinary-focused versus interdisciplinary (χ² = 82.98, p < 0.001, ω = 0.85). Research universities classified as “very high” in research production had the most research (χ² = 284.8103, p < 0.001, ω = 1.57). However, there was no difference between “large” master's universities and research universities with “high” research productivity in of overall research productivity (χ² = 0.7143) or interdisciplinary research (χ² = 0.2762).

Conclusions: Despite increased research expectations and resources across all levels of higher education, “very high” research universities are still the largest producers of research. In addition, the majority of research is disciplinary-based, despite the increased calls for more interdisciplinary research. The lack of a significant difference between “large” research universities and “large” master's universities could reflect increasing research expectations at different types of institutions. However, faculty at research universities may also be publishing in more specialized journals. These results provide faculty and administrators a contemporary glimpse into the dynamic environment of research productivity in kinesiology.

Perceived Self-Efficacy of Pre-Service PETE Students

Janice L. Wallace

Darla M. Castelli

([email protected]).

The University of Texas at Austin

Background/Purpose: Teacher efficacy has been identified as among the most important teacher characteristics ever studied, given the high correlation with effective teaching and student learning. The development of teacher efficacy beliefs among prospective teachers has been understudied among PETE pre-service teachers' (PST's), particularly as they progress through a teacher education program. The purpose of this study was to examine PST's self-efficacy toward teaching physical education and how that efficacy changed as a result of coursework in the planned sequence of pedagogy courses.

Method: Using the Physical Education Teaching Efficacy Scale (PETES) and semi-structured interviews, self-efficacy toward teaching physical education was examined among three different cohorts of PSTs at multiple time points within their PETE program. Data were collected from 34 participants enrolled in three different courses within one PETE program over one semester and were analyzed inductively by data source and deductively when comparing all data sources. Trustworthiness of the interview data was confirmed through peer audits, team debriefing, and member checking. Data from the PETES were analyzed as a summed score and was calculated by summing the values of each self-efficacy factor. Profiles were created for each class cohort in an attempt to identify PST's self-efficacy and how that efficacy changed over time.

Analysis/Results: Paired t-test results for overall summed self-efficacy scores showed a significant difference (p <  0.05) between pre and post test for cohorts one (M = 284.33; SD = 24.88) and two (M = 283; SD = 25.05) but not for cohort three (M = 282.20; SD = 23.98). Repeated measures ANOVA with Bonferroni post hoc analysis of the PETES scale revealed significant differences over time for all cohorts but not between cohorts. Qualitative results revealed all three cohorts gained efficacy in teaching over the course of the semester.

Conclusions: In this case-cohort study, teaching efficacy of pre-service PETE students as a whole significantly increased over one semester in all three classes. PST's in cohorts one and two showed the greatest advance in efficacy, with cohort three (PSTs who were enrolled in the student teaching practicum), the least. Field experiences were identified as key to gaining efficacy and PETE programs should think carefully about the amount and type of field experiences offered for PSTs at all levels of the PETE program.

Assessing the Influence of NASPE/NCATE Accreditation on PETE

Zhihua Yin, Xiaozan Wang

Liu Ji

Mingzhu Sun

([email protected]).

Central China Normal University

Background/Purpose: The National Association for Sports and Physical Education (NASPE) developed a new version of National Standards for Beginning Physical Education Teachers (NASPE, 2008), and these standards have provided the framework for NASPE/NCATE accreditation of programs (Senne & Lund, 2012; Bolton, 2008). It is necessary to know the influence of accreditation on Physical Education Teacher Education (PETE). The primary purpose of this research was to specifically examine: (a) faculties' perception to initial standards; (b) influence was perceived by faculties when prepare accreditation report; (c) influence was put on PETE students in the process of using standards from faculties' view; (d) efforts has been done by faculties when fully achieving standards' requirements.

Method: Data were collected via a qualitative investigation. Approximately 30 PETE program faculties were contacted via e-mail, and 7 faculties from 6 institutions responded with complete. These 6 institutions distributed at Research Universities (2), Doctorate-Granting Universities (2) and Comprehensive Institutions (2) respectively.

Analysis/Results: (a) Participants value the initial standards equally. Standards can bring positive impacts which provide a uniform framework for guiding program develop, course design and teaching methods choose; keep philosophy consistent with National K-12 and state standards. Negative impacts were also existed especially little room for innovation; (b) Preparing accreditation report is really time-consuming, but faculties have to do because of responsibility. They have experienced positive experience included opportunities conversation with peers, know more about the program's strength and weakness, more cooperation and supportive, form a community of practice; negative experience included lack of opportunities to interact with program reviewers, limited support from dean, limited resources and time. (c) From perspective of faculties, there were very few benefits for PETE students. No significant improvement can be found in students pre-post accreditation. Students from accredited program were not more marketable during job search process. (d) Faculties faced lots of constraints in the process of accreditation, such as hard to find correct key assessments. Aiming to overcome the difficulties, some efforts has been done in terms of modified the assignments, integrated more different experiences into courses, increased faculty meeting and communication, adjusted the instruction and course content, more knowledgeable about the standards.

Conclusions: NASPE/NCATE accreditation can bring positive and negative outcomes, time-consuming probably is biggest constraint in accreditation. PETE program students may not get benefits as expected. Suggestions were given that NASPE/NCATE should play more attention to students gain rather than a passed-examination game.

Change in Implicit Theories of Ability in Sports Over Time

Qi Zhao

Weidong Li

([email protected]).

The Ohio State University

Background/Purpose: Students' ability conceptions strongly predict their engagement in PE. According to theory (Dweck, 2002), there exist two dimensions: Entity/fixed and malleable through hard work. Individuals' implicit theories of ability are socially and individually constructed. At about 7–8 years old, children are beginning to understand ability as a potentially stable personal trait. When reaching 10–12 years old, more students begin to endorse entity-like theories of ability. A study in England by Warburton and Spray (2008) showed a linear decline in students' endorsement of incremental and entity beliefs in sports in transition from Year 6 to Year 7. However, there is a lack of thorough understandings of the developmental change of implicit theories of ability in sports. Our purpose was to address this gap by examining change in implicit theories of ability in sports through a cross-sectional study.

Method: Participants were 264 2^nd, 272 3^rd, 272 5^th, 190 8^th, 146 10^th, 80 11^th, and 251 12^th graders and 34 freshmen, 264 sophomore, 105 Junior, and 49 senior college students in China. They completed a demographic survey, a questionnaire “implicit theories of ability in sports”, and other questionnaires for research purposes in their classroom. All the surveys were translated into Chinese and back-translated into English by the second author who are bilingual and affluent in Chinese and English. Three experts in achievement motivation were invited to check the accuracy of the translations. These experts are bilingual and affluent in Chinese and English.

Analysis/Results: One-Way ANOVAs were conducted to examine how students' implicit theories of ability in sports would differ as a function of grade levels. Due to low Cronbach's alpha of .56, the entity subscale was dropped from analysis. The Cronbach's alpha for incremental subscale was .77. The results showed that there were significant grade differences in incremental views of ability in sports, F(10, 1916) = 17.84, p < .0001.

Conclusions: The 2^nd, 3^rd and 5^th graders held the same levels of incremental views. They displayed higher levels of incremental views than those in 8^th, 10^th, 11^th, and 12^th graders, and college students except that there was no difference between 3^rd graders and college freshmen. There was a linear decrease from 5^th to 8^th graders and from 8^th to 10^th graders, and then participants' incremental views remained constant between 3.36 and 3.57. This study can have a great contribution to the conceptions of developmental change of ability beliefs and provides age-related information for interventions.

Program Effects on Adolescents' Knowledge and Interest in Health-Related Fitness

Xihe Zhu

([email protected]).

Old Dominion University

Background/Purpose: Teaching health-related fitness and nurturing a sustaining interest in it represents an important mission for physical education. Using a quasi-experimental design, this study examined the effects of Physical Best (PB) on adolescents' knowledge and interest in health-related fitness.

Method: Seventh graders (N = 217) from eight classes were randomly assigned into either PB (n = 109) or comparison (n = 108) groups. Both groups completed 20 physical education lessons over a three-month period, with PB group using PB lessons and comparison using the county ones. Adolescents took two pre and posttests on health-related knowledge and pre-post measures of personal interest at the beginning and end of the study. The knowledge test results were converted to percentile scores. Descriptive and inferential statistical analyses were conducted to examine the program effects on adolescents' knowledge and interest in health-related fitness.

Analysis/Results: Adolescents on average scored 60 ± 14.74 on energy balance and body composition, and 60.93 ± 15.95 on exercise principles and other health-related fitness components in the pretests; 66.32 ± 15.53, and 67.58 ± 16.19 points in posttests, respectively. Overall, adolescents reported moderate levels of interest in health-related fitness, averaging 3.99 ± 1.77 in pre, and 3.98 ± 1.67 in posttest. MANCOVA results (Pillai's λ = .13, F_2,212 = 15.06, p < .01, η² = .13) showed significant differences in posttest scores while pretests were controlled, favoring the PB group. ANCOVA result showed no significant difference in personal interest controlling its pretest measure (p = .86).

Conclusions: Compared to the comparison program, PB had a significant moderate effect (η² = .13) on improving health-related knowledge, but showed no significant effect on enhancing personal interest in health-related fitness through the 20 lessons.

Physical Activity and Health Promotion

Physical Activity Differences Among Children Attending a Summer Day Camp

Birgitta L. Baker

Lisa G. Johnson

Andrew McGregor

([email protected]).

Caney Creek High School

Background/Purpose: Research indicates that body mass index (BMI) increases and fitness declines more rapidly during the summer months than during the school year for some groups of children and that discrepancies in weight status between black or Hispanic vs. white children are largely attributable to summer weight gain (D. T. Smith, Bartee, Dorozynski, & Carr, 2009; von Hippel, Powell, Downey, & Rowland, 2007). The reasons for this have not been elucidated but researchers speculate that the less structured environment may result in both increased caloric consumption and decreased physical activity (Downey, 2007; Mahoney, 2011; von Hippel et al., 2007) and recreational settings such as summer camps provide an opportunity for structured physical activity during non-school months that may address these concerns (Mowen & Baker, 2009). The purpose of this study was to determine if participants in a summer camp met physical activity guidelines and to examine whether physical activity levels differed by gender, race, socio-economic status, or weight status.

Method: Height, weight, demographic information, and accelerometer-measured physical activity were obtained from 132 participants aged 6–12 years (mean = 8.42 years, SD = 1.69) at six day camps in a mid-sized Southern city. The majority of participants were male (55.3%) and non- Hispanic Black (63.6%). Mean BMI percentile was 68.4 (SD = 26.26).

Analysis/Results: Participants engaged in an average of 57.7 minutes (SD = 26.54) of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity during the 8 hours of camp each day. Almost 40 percent (39.8%) of campers met the physical activity guidelines of at least 60 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity during the camp day, but there were gender differences. Over 50 percent of the boys (Mdn = 62.5 minutes) attained the recommended 60 minutes of MVPA while less than 25 percent of girls (75^thpercentile = 58.3 minutes) did. Results of an ANOVA analysis indicated that males accumulated an average of 15.8 minutes more of MVPA per day than females and obese children engaged in 15.06 fewer minutes of MVPA than normal-weight children.

Conclusions: Summer day camp affords opportunities for many children to attain the recommended levels of MVPA but that girls and obese children engage in lower levels of physical activity in this context than do boys and normal weight children. Camp administrators and staff should pay particular attention to creating environments that promote activity among less active participants.

Specific Physical Activities Participated During High School Increase Lifetime Activity

James W. Ball

Matthew Ryan Bice

([email protected]).

University of Nebraska Kearney

Background/Purpose: A challenge faced across the United States includes how to engage adults in regular physical activity (PA). Physical education is not the only avenue to accumulate PA in school. Some schools offer sport participation opportunities for students resulting in additional exposure to skill and fitness instruction. Additional opportunities, provided by sport and recreation participation, potentially provide a future health advantage resulting in health benefits. The primary purpose of this study was to examine specific sport and recreation activities participated in high school and adulthood BMI status.

Method: The current study consisted of 1363 adults who completed an online questionnaire. Participants were provided a list of sport and recreational activities and asked to provide their primary physical activity while in high school. Furthermore, individuals were asked to provide their weight (lbs.) and height (in.) Statistical analysis included t-tests for group comparisons and frequencies were used to compare specific sport(s) and recreational activity comparisons. Correlations were used to assess associations among specific sports and adult BMI status.

Analysis/Results: The study revealed participates who participated in sports or recreational activities while in high school reported to have more individuals in the normal (healthy) BMI category and met the American PA recommendations for the number of day and minutes engaged in moderate and vigorous physical activity. The sports with the highest percentage of participants who partook in moderate to vigorous exercise 5 or more times a week included cross country, wrestling, and baseball. The sports with the lowest percentage of people who partook in moderate to vigorous exercise 5 or more times a week included golf, softball, and competitive spirit squad. Cross Country had the high the highest percentage of participants in the normal category as well as the highest percentage of people who partook in moderate to vigorous exercise.

Conclusions: There may be specific sports or recreational activities that influence people to stay active throughout their lifetime and this data suggest that participation in sport and recreational activities while in high school positively influences healthier BMIs. Sport and recreational activities in elementary, middle, and high school are important to human development. PA opportunities, offered through various programs should be further utilized rather than limited or eliminated from school curriculums. Lastly, the current study suggests that recreation activities are equally important to sports and advocates that more recreational activities should be offered as sport alternatives to meet the needs of different students.

Effects of Music on Physical Activity in College Basketball Classes

David Barney

Keven Prusak

Lindsey Benham

([email protected])

Brigham Young University

Background/Purpose: Music has been found to be a positive tool in a physical activity setting. One context music can be beneficial in, is in a physical education setting. Barney and Prusak (in press) found that elementary aged students took more steps when music was playing during walking and frisbee activities. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine the effects of music on physical activity rates, via pedometers, of college-aged students in basketball classes.

Method: For this study 106 (males = 102 & females = 4) college-aged students participated in this study. University IRB approval was granted. The participants were enrolled in four intermediate basketball classes. Convenience sampling of four college activity basketball classes was employed in a quasi-experimental design. Two classes (one class from each instructor) played basketball with music playing and the other two classes (one from each instructor) played basketball with not music. The music selected for this study consisted of popular, upbeat fast tempo (120 to 160 BPM) songs suggested by one of the researchers. On the days data was collected, students would put on a pedometer and shoot around (warm-up) for 10 minutes. After the 10-minute warm-up, students would reset their pedometer to zero and play a 30-minute game of full-court basketball. At the end of the 30-minute game the students would write down the number of steps they took and the time they were in activity on a student record sheet. Two class periods were used to collect data.

Analysis/Results: A significant difference in both steps taken and time in activity was found between the classes that played music during game play and the classes that did not play music during game play (F(1,94) = 22.132, p < .001), (F(1, 94) = 23.007, p < .001) respectively. This analysis revealed that the students in the basketball classes with music playing took more steps (M = 3788, SD = 424.07) than the students with no music playing during game play (M = 3418, SD = 344.00). The same applied to time in activity, music played (M = 30, SD = 3.77), no music played (M = 27, SD = 2.41).

Conclusions: The findings from this study bare the fact that those students during game play with music playing had significantly more steps and more time in activity, then those student that played during game play with no music.

Threats to National Security: Physical Inactivity and Ineffective Physical Education

Tim S. Bott

Daniel B. Bornstein, Charlye Marger

Brittany Williams

([email protected]).

The Citadel – Military College of the South

Background/Purpose: The number of American adolescents meeting current physical activity guidelines is perilously low. The number of Americans able to meet basic physical requirements for military service is 25%. Policy change is recognized as among the most efficient means for increasing population-levels of physical activity (PA). Numerous organizations and individuals have spent substantial resources advocating for policies that would yield increased in PA, but those efforts are falling short. This may stem from advocates having primarily emphasized the individual and public health burdens associated with low PA when talking with policy makers. If low PA was also presented as a threat to national security, perhaps policy makers would be more likely to enact change. The main goal of this session is to make a compelling case for the association between low PA and national security through the opinions of active duty military officers.

Method: Purposive sampling was used to recruit commissioned and noncommissioned officers representing all military branches in South Carolina. Data were collected using a semi-structured interview guide which included open-ended and follow up probing questions. The interview guide was piloted and questions were revised to increase clarity. The interview included demographic items as well as five main questions with appropriate follow ups.

Analysis/Results: Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the demographic data for the representative sample of military officers. Emergent themes were identified following the transcription of each recorded interview. The themes were coded using a code list that was developed a-priori by multiple coders. Low physical activity and ineffective physical education was consistently noted as possible threats to national security. Additionally, differences in the value placed on physical activity and preparedness were discovered between different military branches and commissioned/noncommissioned officers.

Conclusions: Based on these results it appears like physical inactivity and ineffective physical education are a threat to national security and the development and implementation of physical activity based policy may be necessary for change.

Human Capitals: Perceptions of Adolescents

Lynne Bryant

Darla M. Castelli

([email protected]).

The University of Texas at Austin

Background/Purpose: In accordance with the Designed to Move and National Physical Activity Plan initiatives, human capital is a representation of assets that can be improved with regular engagement in physical activity. The purpose of this study was to measure human capital among adolescents and determine if gender and enrollment in physical education were contributors to the perceived human capitals of physical, emotional, individual, intellectual, financial, and social.

Method: A valid, reliable survey confirmed through face, content, and construct validity evidence (Bryant & Castelli, in press) was completed by 330 high school seniors (Mage = 18, SD ± 1.1, 50% female) from one high school in the southern United States, as a means of establishing baseline levels of perceived human capital among adolescents. Further, analysis would elucidate potential gender and physical education enrollment differences among the participants.

Analysis/Results: Summative survey responses ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree were calculated for each subscale and to identify a total perceived human capital. Using t-tests, financial (M = 16.82 ± SD = 2.5) and social (M = 17.91 ± SD = 3.44) capitals were significantly different from the physical (M = 22.63 ± SD = 4.48), emotional (M = 23.87 ± SD = 2.67), individual (M = 22.48 ± SD = 3.27), and intellectual (M = 22.51 ± SD = 2.52). ANOVA by gender concerning total capital found F(1,327) = 4.328, p < .05 with males possessing significantly greater human capital than females. Isolating physical capital found F(1,327) = 18.551, p < .001 with males physical capital greater than females. Using physical education enrollment as the factor, total capital was F(2,326) = 3.826, p < .05 significantly different from adolescents who were not enrolled in physical education classes at the time of the survey.

Conclusions: When viewing total capital, males were found to have significantly more human capital than females. Adolescents had the greatest perceived physical capital over the other capitals measured. Participants in physical education also showed significant perceptions in total capital in comparison with their non-physical education counterparts. These initial results are promising in that physical education students accumulated more human capital than non-PE participants, supporting the notion that physical education is an integral component in adolescent development of perceived abilities and capitals. Further research is warranted, but this study is believed to be the first known quantification of human capital among adolescents.

Exercise, Cognition and Physical Function in Individuals With Parkinson's Disease

Manuela Cristina Caciula

Michael Horvat

Joe Nocera

([email protected]).

Emory University

Background/Purpose: Individuals with PD experience walking deficits, balance and posture alterations, muscular weakness and deconditioning, as well as progressive cognitive decline. Exercise has been proposed as an adjunctive therapy in PD treatment. However, there is still a lack of information regarding the optimal frequency of exercise training for cognitive and physical benefits in this population. The purpose of the present study is first, to identify the effects of a high – frequency and a low – frequency exercise intervention program on the physical function in individuals with PD without dementia; and second, to determine the correlation between changes in walking speed and changes in executive function (EF) after 12 weeks of exercise intervention.

Method: Forty-three participants (M _age = 68.5 (SD = 11.3), 26 males), with PD stages 2 and 3 completed the Short Physical Performance Battery (SPPB), and an auditory switch task prior to exercise, and at the conclusion of 12 weeks of the exercise intervention. Summary performance scores for the SPPB used the summation of the test scores for standing balance, walking speed, and rising from a chair 5 times, while global switch costs and response accuracy were calculated for EF. The participants were classified into a high – frequency exercise group (N = 23, M_age = 68.6 (SD = 5.8) that exercised 4–5 times/ week, and a low – frequency exercise group (N = 20, M_age = 67.6 (SD = 4.5) who exercised 3 times or less/ week.

Analysis/Results: Mixed factorial ANOVA indicated significant interaction between time and group, F (1, 41) = 8.37, p ? .05, _peta² = 0.17 for SPPB summary performance scores, and a significant interaction between group and task F (2, 82) = 7.91, p = .001, _peta² = 0.16, and time and task, F (2, 82) = 5.55, p ? .05, _peta² = 0.11 for the SPPB scores calculated by task. Also, linear regression analysis revealed a significant correlation for differences in walking speed and differences in executive function following 12 weeks of high – frequency exercise, F(1, 21) = 25.921, p < .0005, and a weak correlation for low – frequency exercise, F (1, 18) = 3.404, p = 0. 082.

Conclusions: Based on the results it is apparent that changes in physical function are dependent on the frequency of weekly exercise, and also that differences in walking speed following a high – frequency exercise program could predict changes in executive function in individuals with PD.

Year One: The Presidential Youth Fitness Program Degree of Implementation

Hannah G. Calvert, Jeanne M. Barcelona

Jessica Duncan Cance

Seraphine Pitt-Barnes

Jane Wargo

Darla M. Castelli

([email protected]).

The University of Texas at Austin

Background/Purpose: The Presidential Youth Fitness Program (PYFP) aims to improve student health through the promotion of fitness. A cornerstone of the PYFP is the inclusion of ongoing professional development (PD) for teachers as a means for enhancing fitness education in a quality physical education (PE) program. PD opportunities for the sample were delivered online and encompassed five main content areas: fundamentals of the PYFP, fitness assessment, fitness education, active living, and communication. The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of professional development on teacher perceived levels of PYFP implementation.

Method: Two hundred and seventy two PYFP participants completed the PYFP Index prior to engaging in online professional development courses. The 20-item PYFP Index was developed based on items from the 2012 School Health Index developed by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention as well as targeted goals of the PYFP. The survey was administered at baseline and at year-end to assess teacher perceived changes in the degree of implementation of the program.

Analysis/Results: Response options ranged from 0 = not in place to 3 = fully in place. A confirmatory factor analysis conducted in MPlus with a subset of the baseline participants (N = 272) found that a six-factor solution was a good fit (CFI = .96, TLI = .95, RMSEA = .05, SRMR = .04). The six factors were interpreted as: 1) availability of adequate facilities and opportunities, 2) school and community engagement, 3) use of evidence-based teaching strategies, 4) nutrition tracking, 5) use of awards as incentives, and 6) professional development and curriculum strategies. T-tests in SAS 9.3 were used to determine changes in the overall PYFP Index score as well as in each of the six factors across year one of the PYFP. Preliminary results (from 105 teachers who have completed both assessments) show that teachers' perceptions of the degree to which the activities and strategies were being implemented currently at their school declined, both overall and across every component (all p < .05).

Conclusions: Surprisingly, teacher self-reported degree of implementation significantly declined after participation in PD that included online courses, the provision of teaching resources, and webinars. While it is unclear why there was a decline in degree of implementation, gaining a better understanding of how teacher knowledge of appropriate practices may have contributed is relevant. Continued data collection that includes teacher interviews and site visits, should provide an opportunity to elucidate these findings.

Efficacy of University Wellness Education on Behavior and Physical Activity

Martin Carmichael

Leland Nielsen, Kym Kirby, Jennifer LeMoine

Gina Barton

([email protected]).

Lander University

Background/Purpose: Physical inactivity is a risk factor for coronary heart disease. However most individuals in the US do not meet the minimum physical activity (PA) requirement to enhance health. Many studies have targeted children for intervention to reduce this phenomenon but few have focused on college students. One potentially effective strategy to improve PA in college students is mandatory health and wellness courses. To date however there is no consensus on the efficacy of these courses. It was the purpose of this study to determine whether participation in wellness education was effective at influencing knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors in college students in a manner that resulted in improved health.

Method: Forty-seven freshman (36 F, 11 M) enrolled in a spring general education wellness course volunteered to participate in the study. During the first and last week of the course, subjects completed a battery of questionnaires to assess physical activity habits, attitudes toward physical activity, profile of mood state (POMS), sleep quality and fatigue levels. Immediately following this height and weight were recorded and BMI was calculated.

Analysis/Results: Eight (17%) of the 47 participants elevated their Physical Activity at least one category from pre-to-post according to the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ). This observation was largely affected by the fact that 34 of the 47 participants were categorized as “Active” during the pre-testing session, limiting the potential effect of Wellness Education on physical activity behaviors. However, significant improvements in total POMS score along with several subscale scores were observed. Mean scores for Tension/Anxiety, Anger/Hostility, Depression/Dejection, and Total Mood (p < 0.05 for each) were all improved from pre-to-post. The mean Locus of Control score was significantly elevated from pre-to-post (p < 0.05), indicating a shift to an increased sense of self-empowerment. While the overall sleep quality score was not significantly improved (p = 0.08), 59.1% of participants experienced an improvement in overall sleep quality from pre-to-post.

Conclusions: Students that complete a Wellness Education course at the university level experience improvements in Mood, locus of control, and, potentially, sleep quality. These findings highlight the positive impact that such a course can have on the behaviors and mental health of students, especially freshman students that are typically enrolled in this type of class. This may have a lasting impact on the future educational success of students.

Manipulative Skill Competency and Physical Activity in Elementary School Students

Weiyun Chen

([email protected]).

University of Michigan

Background/Purpose: Fundamental motor skills are building blocks for children to successfully participate in a variety of organized and non-organized sports and physical activitie. To better understand how motor skill competency contributes to participation in physical activity for boys and girls, this study examined relationships between levels of manipulative skill competency assessed with and participation in physical activity in school-aged children.

Method: 265 fifth-grade students voluntarily participated in this study. The students' skill performance in four manipulative skills was assessed using reliable and valid PE Metrics Assessment Rubrics with process- and product-oriented criteria and a 0–4 rating scale by trained evaluators. The students' daily physical activity was assessed using a 7-day daily physical activity (PA) log. Data were analyzed with descriptive statistics and univariate analyses, and multiple R-squared liner regression methods.

Analysis/Results: The results of regression models indicated that overall skill competency in four manipulative skills significantly contributed to weekly PA minutes for the total sample (R² = .076, F = 5.379, p < .01) and girls (R² = .16, F = 5.94 p < .01), but not for boys (R² = .05, F = 1.62, P>.05). Subsequently, the standardized regression coefficients (β) for the total sample and for boys indicated that none of the manipulative skills was a significant contributor to the weekly PA minutes. In contrast, girls' competency in soccer skills was a significant predictor of weekly PA minutes (β = .23, t = 2.26, p < .05), but not other skills. Furthermore, An independent sample t-test revealed that boys in the Skill Competent group spent significant more minutes in weekly PA than their counterparts in the SI group (SC _mean = 539.87, SI _mean = 432.06, t = 2.08, df = 58.51, p < .05). Similarly, the results of t-test yielded a difference of the mean weekly PA minutes between the two groups (SC _mean = 538.36, SI _mean = 450.04, t = − 1.91, df = 121.97, p = .06) for girls. The results indicated that children who demonstrated manipulative skill competency tended to be more physically active.

Conclusions: Boys and girls who demonstrated manipulative skill competency were more physically active than their counterparts with physically incompetent in the manipulative skills. The overall manipulative skill competency was more significant predictor of girls' physical activity, compared to boys. Improving manipulative skill competency is instrumental to increasing girls' physical activity participation.

Manipulative Skill Competency and Physical Fitness in Elementary School Children

Weiyun Chen

([email protected]).

University of Michigan

Background/Purpose: Empirical studies have shown that motor skill competency and healthy physical fitness played a critical role in establishing a physically active lifestyle throughout childhood and adolescence. This study investigated relationships between levels of manipulative skill competency and physical fitness in elementary school boys and girls.

Method: 565 fourth-grade students' skill performance in four manipulative skills was assessed using four PE Metrics assessment rubrics with a 0–4 rating scale by trained evaluators. Their physical fitness was assessed using four FitnessGram test items by trained evaluators during regular physical education lessons.

Analysis/Results: Independent sample t-tests indicated that boys scored significantly higher than girls on soccer skills (t = 3.53, df = 519), throwing skill (t = 4.57, df = 521), basketball skills (t = 5.25, df = 539), and striking skill (t = 4.03, df = 542) at a significant level of p < .01. In contrast, chi-square tests indicated that girls had significant higher percentage for meeting the Healthy Fitness Zone of PACER test (X² = 113.89, df = 63, p < .01), curl-up test (X² = 84.6, df = 60, p < .05), and trunk lift test (X² = 22.59, df = 12, p < .05), except for push-up test. The results of liner regression models indicated that the four manipulative skills significantly predicted PACER test for boys (F_4,313 = 10.98, R² = .12, p < .01) and girls (F_4,242 = 2.93, R² = .05, p < .05), push-up for boys (F_4,313 = 6.54, R² = .8, p < .01) and girls (F_4,242 = 6.49, R² = .10, p < .01), and trunk lift for boys (F_4,313 = 9.21, R² = .11, p < .01) and girls (F_4,242 = 10. 69, R² = .15, p < .01), except for curl-up test for both genders. Results of t-test indicated that the students in the Skill Competent group significantly outperformed their counterparts in the Skill Incompetent group on PACER (p < .01), push-up (p < .01), and trunk lift test (boys: p < .05; girls: p < .01), except for curl-up test.

Conclusions: Demonstration of manipulative skill competency was instrumental to promoting healthy levels of physical fitness for boys and girls. The magnitude of the manipulative skills contributing to physical fitness was gender-specific. Designing gender-tailored and gender-balance physical education and recess intervention programs is recommend for future studies.

Participation Styles in One Adult Fitness Program

YuChun Chen

C. Smiley Reeves

Rhonda Grafton Boyd

([email protected]).

Louisiana Tech University

Background/Purpose: Previous research has described the participation styles of children, youth and young adults in the settings of school physical education, free-gym sessions, university exercise classes, summer camps and out-of-school organized sports. This study described the participation styles of women and men enrolled in an adult fitness program.

Method: Primary participants were 90 female and 37 male senior adults (aged 50 to 94 years) who regularly attended the 10-week adult fitness program. Secondary participants were three course instructors and eight practicum undergraduate students who served as co-instructors. Data were collected through nonparticipant observation, informal discussions before/after classes, unstructured questionnaires, focus group interviews, and document analysis.

Analysis/Results: Six participation styles were identified using standard interpretive methods. Sticklers came to class on time, followed instructions exactly as demonstrated, and left the class. “If you scratch your nose, they'll scratch their nose with you.” (interview) Adapters did the minimal due to health issues or physical limitations. “Instead of standard sit-ups, Alice lay on her back and lifted her leg up one at a time.” (observation) Enthusiasts arrived at the facility early, challenged themselves by adding more weights or doing extra reps, and stayed after class to do additional exercises. “Not enough. I need more. I usually walk before class, but I didn't come in early this morning.” (discussion) Busybodies spent more time talking than doing the exercises, and they were easily distracted by the environment. “Somebody drove up in a Maserati and they went ‘What is that? A Maserati?’” (observation) Chatterboxes enjoyed talking so much that moving mouth was the only exercise they did in class. “A group of chatterboxes stood in the middle of the pool talking and the rest of the class traveled around them.” (observation) Freestylers came in and left the facility anytime they wished and did whatever they wanted in class. “David came in and swam laps at 7:15 … David left the pool at 7:38.” (observation)

Conclusions: Unlike previous studies that focused heavily on the skill development of the participants, this adult fitness program was designed to help senior adults improve and maintain their ability to perform functional activities of daily living. Those were the sticklers, adapters, enthusiasts, and freestylers. Just as important as the physical benefits, the social aspect was another selling point of the program. Busybodies and chatterboxes used this program as a social outlet due to retirement or loss of family members.

Physical Activity Opportunities Across Georgia Elementary Schools

Patricia C. Cheung

Paul S. Weiss

Adria Meyer, Christi Kay

Diane Allensworth

Andrea C. Fadel

Julie A. Gazmararian

([email protected]).

Emory University

Background/Purpose: School environments affect child behaviors and the amount of physical activity performed by students. However, few studies have documented the opportunities for physical activity that may occur throughout the elementary school day. This study aimed to survey public elementary schools in the state of Georgia to determine physical activity opportunities before, during, and after school.

Method: A cross-sectional online survey was administered to principals and physical education teachers of all public elementary schools across Georgia. This survey was part of a baseline assessment of the Power Up for 30, a statewide initiative to empower physical education teachers and other schools leaders with strategies to integrate an additional 30 minutes of physical activity into every school day. Survey items assessed school-level data such as the amount of time spent on physical activity and resources used to promote activity during physical education, recess, classroom time, as well as before- and after-school programs.

Analysis/Results: Over 68% of the school administrators and 64% of the physical education teachers contacted in Georgia completed the survey. Preliminary results show that most schools (>50%) reported having two or fewer days of physical education classes per week. Fewer than 3% of administrators reported their schools to be without scheduled physical education classes. Most school administrators (>75%) reported that their school provided recess on all days of the school week. However, greater than 50% indicated that physical activity was not incorporated by teachers throughout the school day (before school, during lessons, as a break between lessons, or at the end of the school day). Most schools (>50%) reported that school facilities were open for student recreational use during after-school hours on four or more days of the week.

Conclusions: Many schools integrate physical activity into the school day through recess and some physical education classes. However, findings from this survey provide insight into other potential opportunities to incorporate physical activity in elementary schools, including more physical education time, classroom integration, as well as before- and after school. This survey will help to prioritize strategies for adding and integrating physical activity into the school day across elementary schools and serve as a foundation for future studies on physical activity within the school system.

Effects of an After-School Program on Students With Intellectual Disability

Peggy H N Choi

Siu Yin Cheung

([email protected]).

Hong Kong Baptist University

Background/Purpose: Physical activity (PA) study involving children with Intellectual disability (ID) is limited in Asia therefore warrants further work. Hence, the purpose of this study was to identify the contributions of a structured after-school program on selected motor performances of primary school students with intellectual disability.

Method: This study took on a quasi-experimental pre-post test design with a training group (TG) and control group (CG) comparison. Thirty students with mild ID (18 in the TG and 12 in the CG) from a special school in Hong Kong took part in the study. The age of the students were from 7 to 8 years old (M = 7.39, SD = .50). Twenty two participants were boys (73.3%) and 8 were girls (26.7%). The Movement Assessment Batteries for Children-2 (Age band 2) (Hederson, Sugden, & Barnett, 2007) was used to assess the gross motor skills of aiming and catching, and balance of the participants.

Analysis/Results: Descriptive statistics showed that there were improvements in post-test mean scores in both aiming and catching (8.5%), and balance (24.7%) in the training group. A one-way between-groups ANCOVA was conducted to examine the effectiveness of the structured after-school PA program on aiming and catching, and balance of the training group as compared to the control group. The results suggested that there was a significant mean difference between training group and control group on the post-test mean score in balance (F (1, 25) = 9.63, p = .005). However, there was no significant mean difference on the aiming and catching (F (1, 25) = .002, p = .966) between the training group and the control group

Conclusions: The findings of this study suggested that a structured PA program would have positive effects on motor performance for children with ID. Teachers should include physical activities focusing on the development of fundamental and perceptual motor abilities in the school programs.

Impact of Heart Rate Feedback on Estimation of V02 Max

Trey Cone

Brady Redus

Jamie Aweau

([email protected]).

University of Central Oklahoma

Background/Purpose: Pedometers, accelerometers, and heart rate monitors are commonly used as technological tools to motivate during exercise. The primary purpose of heart rate monitors is to assess and monitor exercise intensity. These devices are especially useful for monitoring exercise intensity of individuals in cardiac rehabilitation programs, highly-trained competitive athletes, and participants in physical education programs. These technologies have been shown to promote physical activity and change exercise behavior.

The purpose of this study was to determine if subjects given Polar® heart rate watches (heart rate feedback) during a Cooper 12-minute run/walk test will have an increase in V02 max estimation (greater performance) than did subjects without polar watches (no heart rate feedback).

Method: Physical education students at a Midwestern university (n = 26) were randomly assigned to two groups: Polar heart rate watches (HR) and no Polar Heart rate watches (NHR). Both groups were instructed to complete the 12-minute run/walk test at maximal effort on an eight lap per mile indoor running track. Subjects repeated the protocol in 14 days and were assigned the treatments in reverse order or counterbalanced design.

Analysis/Results: On average, the (HR) group had significantly higher V02 max estimates (M = 39.90 ± 10.43 ml• or ·O2• or ·kg• or ·min) during the 12-minute run test than did the (NHR) group (M = 37.30 ± 12.08 ml• or ·O2• or ·kg• or ·min), t(25)2.173, p = .019, r = .864.

Conclusions: Subjects that use heart rate monitors (received heart rate feedback) during a maximal effort cardiovascular assessment may exhibit greater exercise effort and therefore have higher estimations of V02 max.

Impact of Age and Gender on Older Adults' Fitness Levels

Jun Dai

Han Chen

([email protected]).

Valdosta State University

Background/Purpose: The aging population is increasing worldwide. Inadequate physical activity (PA) and low functional fitness (FF) levels are factors related to various diseases. However, few study examined the status of PA and FF in Chinese older adults. Thus, the purposes of the current study were to a) explore and compare the level of PA and FF between different age groups of older adults, and b) examine how PA impacts FF.

Method: The participants were 7542 older adults from Shanghai, China. Daily PA levels, walking, and working styles were collected using questionnaires. Anthropometric (e.g., height, weight, skin folder), physiological (e.g., blood pressure, vital capacity), and FF (e.g., flexibility, balance, agility tests) data were also collected. The participants were categorized into 60–64 and 65–69 years age groups.

Analysis/Results: Independent t tests were conducted to examine the differences in age groups on physiological and FF factors separately for male and female older adults. A 2 (gender) X 2 (age groups) MANOVA was conducted to explore interactions among gender, age groups and all the dependent factors. The Pearson correlation coefficient was used to analyze the relationship among daily PA, walking, types of working and overall FF scores. The results showed that older age group's systolic blood pressure and choice reaction time were significantly higher, while their vital capacity, the performance in grip strength, sit and reach, and one-legged standing with eyes closed were significantly lower than the younger age group (p < .001). Significant interactions were found among gender X age groups and systolic blood pressure (p < .01), grip strength (p < .05), and choice reaction time (p < .05). Specifically, female older age group (65–69 y)'s systolic blood pressure and the time in finishing the choice reaction time test were rising faster. The grip strength in male older age group (65–69 y) was decreasing faster. The frequency of daily walking, low, moderate, vigorous PA, and riding bicycle were positively related to the overall score of FF (p < .01).

Conclusions: Even among older adults, their systolic blood pressure, vital capacity, and FF performance were still changing. Female older adults had slower reaction time and were more likely to have systolic high blood pressure as they became older. Male older adults lost muscle power faster as they age then their female counterparts.

Step Up For Health: After-School Program to Increase Aerobic Capacity

Shannon Titus Dieringer

Elizabeth Wanless

Lawrence W. Judge

([email protected]).

Ball State University

Background/Purpose: With youth obesity rates in the United States (U.S.) on the rise (CDC, 2011), increasing the levels of physical activity (PA) in youth has become a key strategy to combat the epidemic. Engagement in regular PA reduces the risks of obesity and other health related diseases (Fernandes & Sturm, 2011; Janssen, & LeBlanc, 2010; Matvienko & Ahrabi-Fard, 2010). However, the majority of youth living in the U.S. do not meet the CDC's (2011) recommendation for PA engagement (60 minutes+ daily of moderate to vigorous PA). Historically, physical education programs were largely responsible for keeping America's youth active. However, with program cuts, both the quality and quantity of physical education has dramatically decreased (CDC, 2004). Therefore, it is essential that organizations that interact with youth promote continuing PA. One such program is after-school PA programs. These programs have been linked to increased PA levels (Matvienko & Ahrabi-Fard, 2010), aerobic capacity and positive goal setting (Wanless, Judge, & Dieringer, 2014). The purpose of this research study was to investigate the effects of a 10-week after-school PA program on aerobic capacity (Fitnessgram PACER), and pedometer step-counts for elementary children in grades 2–6.

Method: Participants included 50 students grades 2–6 (m = 33) and (f = 17), (range = 7–11, mean = 9). Sessions took place over 10-weeks, 2 days per week for 1 hour. Each session began with the participants receiving a pedometer. After a brief warm-up, the participants were presented with a brief fitness topic lesson, and a running/walking workout was presented by the instructor and completed by the participants. The instructor then presented fitness related games (related to the topic of the week) and the participants were able to “play”. At the completion of the games all students recorded their daily step counts, feelings, and goals for the next session.

Analysis/Results: Descriptive statistics and paired sample t-tests were conducted. A significant difference was found between pre-program (M = 23.86, SD = 10.36) and post-program (M = 30.97, SD = 12.280) PACER scores t(34) = − 5.09, p < .005 Additionally, average step count from the first week (M = 3159.05, SD = 1584.0) to the last week (M = 4506.18, SD = 1154.948) increased significantly throughout the program signifying significant behavior change t(38) = − 4.738, p < .005.

Conclusions: In conclusion, because the participants were responsible for establishing their own step-count goals, it is apparent that participants were able to meet their step goals and demonstrate behavior change in amount of PA during the sessions. Further research needs to be conducted to investigate the sustainability of the changes of behaviors.

Effects of Physical Activity on Physical ?Fitness, Cognition and Self-Concept

Abdelwahab M ElNaggar

([email protected]).

King Saud University

Background/Purpose: The purpose of the study was to examine the effects of instructed physical activity using the reciprocal and the command teaching styles on three developmental domains namely: psychomotor, cognitive and emotional domains in middle schools ?students.

Method: The subjects were 240 students that were randomly selected from junior high schools. ?They were randomly assigned to an experimental group consisted of 121 ?students and a control group consisted of 119 students. A physical education program consisted of two teaching units?: soccer and long jump was conducted on both groups. The program lasted ten weeks. The experimental group was taught using the reciprocal teaching style and the control group was taught using the command teaching style. The variables consisted of nine measures; six for the psychomotor domain ?included: Body Mass Index, strength, muscular ?endurance, cardiovascular fitness measured by 1600 meter run, ?soccer skills test and long jump test. The cognitive domain was measured by soccer and athletic knowledge tests. The emotional domain was measured by a self-concept scale. Data were collected before and after conducting the teaching program. The grouped t-test was used to examine the equivalence of the experimental and control groups in the pre-program measures, and to examine the differences between the two groups in the post-program measures. ANCOVA was conducted on the variables that were showed significance difference between the two groups at the pre-program measures. The percent of changes from pre to post program were calculated.

Analysis/Results: The results revealed statistically significant differences between the two groups in the favor of the experimental group in all measures except for: the BMI, strength, and cognitive soccer measure. This indicates that the reciprocal teaching physical education style was more effective than the command style in improving endurance, cardiovascular fitness, soccer?? skills, athletic skills, cognitive athletic, and emotion measures. While the improving in the BMI, strength, and cognitive soccer measures were convergent in using either the reciprocal or the command teaching physical education styles. The mean percentage changes of the experimental group ranged between 1.19 % for the emotion measure and 34.98 % for the cognition measure, while the mean percentage changes of the control group ranged between 0.21 % for the emotion measure and 15.53 % for the cognition measure.

Conclusions: The results indicated that the pattern of changes for both groups was the same; however the changes for the experimental group were obviously more than the control group.

Healthy Zone School Recognition Program: An Evidence-Based Community Health Intervention

Shelby Epperson

Norma Candelaria

James Morrow, Scott Martin

([email protected]).

University of North Texas

Background/Purpose: The Cooper Institute partnered with the United Way of Metropolitan Dallas to develop the Healthy Zone School Recognition Program (HSZRP), a school-based intervention that assists schools in fostering and maintaining healthier students and environments. The program is an incentive-based reward program honoring and supporting schools that reach out to their community to increase children's healthy nutrition behaviors, health knowledge, physical fitness and activity levels.

Method: In the second year of the program there were 32 Healthy Zone Schools selected (Year 1 Cohort n = 12, Year 2 Cohort n = 20). Schools in the program receive signs, banners, promotional materials, and recognition as well as financial resources to be used to enhance and influence healthy behaviors and outcomes. The Healthy Zone team works with physical education teachers to provide guidance and leadership, as well as connect schools with community resources to ensure that their program remains sustainable after the 3-year period is over. Fitnessgram® scores, psychosocial student surveys, and self-reported activities are collected in the fall and spring of the first year in the program, and again in the spring of each consecutive year. Changes in physical fitness and school-based health-oriented activities are tracked over the 3-year period.

Analysis/Results: At the end of year 2, outcomes included increases in physical activities, nutrition activities, activities that promote health, and community engagement. There was a 73% increase in school partnerships with health-related organizations. Of the 32 schools in the program, 26 made changes to their health policies to encourage healthy behavior. Based on Fitnessgram® scores for aerobic capacity, 32% of students who were in the Needs Improvement Zone (NIZ) at baseline displayed improvement in their first year in the program and 47% displayed improvement by the second year. In the Year 2 Cohort, 20% displayed improvement by the end of their first year. For body composition, 21% of students who were in the NIZ at baseline displayed improvement in their first year in the program and 27% displayed improvement by the second year. In the Year 2 Cohort, 19% displayed improvement by the end of their first year.

Conclusions: Schools participating in the first and second year of the HZSRP showed increases in community health-related promotional activities, policy changes and positive changes in Fitnessgram® results. Supportive resources are related to positive changes in school environment and student healthy behaviors and fitness levels.

Bone Health in Special Olympics Athletes

Karina Nieto, Anthony Anzalone, Ariana Sheridan, Ty Desilets

Phil Esposito

([email protected]).

Texas Christian University

Background/Purpose: Osteopenia and osteoporosis are frequently seen in individuals with intellectual disabilities. Poor diet, physical inactivity, and certain prescription medications have all been identified as potential risk factors for low bone mineral density. The purpose of this study was to examine the bone health of Special Olympics athletes.

Method: Consenting Special Olympics athletes participating in a statewide competition were offered bone scans which followed the standardized Special Olympics Healthy Athletes protocol. All athletes voluntarily underwent calcaneal ultrasound scans to measure bone mineral density using the Sahara Clinical Sonometer (Hologic). In addition to the bone scans, participants were measured for height, weight, waist circumference, and blood pressure.

Analysis/Results: 201 Special Olympics athletes (130 male, 71 female) were used for this analysis. Participants mean age was 23.4+9.6 years. Overall, the majority of athletes (85.9%) were classified as having “normal” bone mineral density based on World Health Organization t-score criteria. An additional 9.8% were identified as having bone density lower than peak density (osteopenia). Only 1.8% of the sample had t-scores low enough for an osteoporosis classification. The remaining 2.5% either had high bone mineral density or were unable to be scanned (irregular heel shape, non-compliance, etc.). There were no significant gender differences when comparing bone mineral density. In addition, there was no relationship between age and bone mineral density.

Conclusions: Results from this sample demonstrate most athletes did not have osteopenia or osteoporosis. A variety of potential explanations could explain the results. One explanation could include larger body masses. Within this sample, 66% of participants were either overweight or obese. Increased body mass has been shown to produce increased mechanical stress on the bone and encourage increased bone mineral density. A second explanation could be the geographic location the sample was collected from. All participants were from the southwest and endogenously produce vitamin D as a result of more intense sun exposure. Vitamin D promotes calcium absorption and enables bone mineralization. Lastly, very few participants were of advanced age to experience age related bone loss. Lower bone mineral density in those with intellectual disability may substantially increase their risk of developing osteoporosis. Special Olympics has utilized bone screenings as a strategy to identify individuals with intellectual disability who are at risk for bone loss. Overall, results from this study suggest Special Olympics athletes have good bone health.

Wellness Course Influence on Behaviors and Attitudes of University Students

Katherine Farrell, Eric Bruce

Linda Stonecipher

Boe Burrus

([email protected]).

Gonzaga University

Background/Purpose: The number of 4-year colleges and universities requiring a physical education course for graduation dropped from 97% in the 1920s to 40% in 2010 (Cardinal, Sorensen, & Cardinal, 2012). The purpose of this project was to assess the influence of participation in a required wellness course on the physical activity behaviors and attitudes of college students. The National Physical Activity Plan envisions that “all Americans will be physically active and they will live, work, and play in environments that facilitate regular physical activity” (2010).

Method: Approximately 5000 students enrolled in the wellness course between 2008 and 2014 completed pre and post assessments using the Wellness Lifestyle Questionnaire (Hoeger & Hoeger, 2005) in electronic form.

Analysis/Results: Descriptive statistics indicate that 83.6% of students were freshmen and sophomores and 16.4 % were juniors and seniors. Seventy-five percent of students indicated that participation in the wellness course influenced their commitment to regular aerobic activity; 91.7% indicated that they anticipate continuing an active lifestyle following the completion of this course. Seventy-five percent of all students were very satisfied/satisfied with the amount of over-all knowledge obtained during the course.

Conclusions: These results suggest that participation in a wellness course had a positive impact on physical activity behaviors and attitudes of college students. Facilitating positive behavior change in physical activity behaviors and attitudes of college students may enhance the prospects of achieving the physical activity goals identified by Healthy People 2020 with the anticipated concomitant attenuation of morbidity and premature mortality that is currently associated with sedentary behaviors.

Children's On-Task Behavior Following a Classroom-Based Physical Activity Intervention

Tan Leng Goh

Darcy Marvin

You Fu

Andrew T. Harveson, Mandy K. King, James C. Hannon, Timothy A. Brusseau, Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

The University of Utah

Background/Purpose: Children who go through prolonged periods of academic instruction often become more off-task. Systematic observation in the classroom is the best strategy to measure students' on-task behavior, but such behavior is typically more difficult to measure because of the burden placed on the observers, and time required for recording the observation. Previous research indicates that classroom-based physical activity (PA) in the classroom can increase children's on-task behavior. To build on this research, the purpose of this study was to examine the effect of a classroom-based PA intervention on children's on-task behavior.

Method: Classroom teachers from four elementary schools were trained to implement 10-minute bouts of a classroom-based PA intervention. Children from 11 classes (one 1^st, three 2^nd, two 3^rd, one 4^th, two 5^th, and two 6^thgrades) participated in the intervention. On-task behavior was measured using systematic observations (5-second interval momentary time sampling procedure). The classes were observed four times during baseline and four times during intervention. During intervention, the observers observed the class 15 minutes before and 15 minutes after teachers implemented the classroom-based PA. During baseline, the teachers carried out their lessons as usual with no intervention. The observers observed the class 15 minutes, then waited for 15 minutes, and observed the class for another 15 minutes. A two-way repeated-measures ANOVA was used to compare mean percentage on-task behavior between: (a) pre-no intervention versus post-no intervention during baseline, and (b) pre-intervention versus post-intervention during intervention. Significance levels were adjusted for multiple comparisons with the Bonferroni procedure.

Analysis/Results: There was a significant decrease (P = 0.002) in mean percentage on-task behavior from pre-no intervention (91.5 ± 2.5) to post-no intervention (82.8 ± 7.2) during baseline. Mean percentage on-task behavior increased from pre-intervention (91.3 ± 5.4) to post-intervention (92.4 ± 3.4) during intervention. Overall, there was a mean percentage decrease of on-task behavior by 8.7% during baseline, whereas there was a mean percentage increase of on-task behavior by 1.1% during intervention.

Conclusions: Children became less on-task after they engaged in classroom instruction for a prolong period of time. Conversely, participating in a 10-minute classroom-based PA helped to prevent the children from becoming off-task. Considering that classroom-based PA is relatively easy for teachers to implement in the classroom, it is recommended that children participate in short bouts of classroom-based PA throughout the school day to sustain their on-task behavior.

Motor Skill, Waist Circumference and Children's Health-Related Quality of Life

Xiangli Gu

University of North Texas

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Increasing physical activity is often proposed as a critical way to prevent childhood obesity and is an effective effort in enhancing individual's health-related quality of life (HRQOL; USDHHS, 2010). Obesity in childhood is associated with greater impairments in HRQOL, and HRQOL is frequently worse for girls than boys (Swallen et al., 2005). It is generally recognized that motor skills are the basis for healthy weight and life-time physical activities, and should be promoted in the early childhood (Bonvin et al., 2012; Stodden et al., 2009). Despite growing concerns regarding increasing overweight and its likely effect on individual's HRQOL (UI-Haq et al., 2013), little is known about the influences of motor skills on young children's HRQOL. This study attempted to fill this research gap.

Method: This cross-sectional study included 262 healthy children (M age = 5.4; 125 girl, 137 boy; 32.1% non-Hispanic white, 18.1% non-Hispanic black, 47.2% Hispanic). Motor skill assessments, including dribbling, throwing, hopping and sliding, were scored by two well-trained research assistants using PE Metrics ^TM (NASPE, 2010). After motor skills assessment, waist circumference was also conducted by two research assistants. The children's self-report pediatric QOL inventory short form (PedsQL ^TM 4.0; Varni et al., 2001) was used to assess children's HRQOL, including physical, emotional, social, and school functioning.

Analysis/Results: There were statistically significant correlations between motor skill and emotional functioning and school functioning. Four functioning of HRQOL were related to one another (r range from .39 to .55). In this age group, boys reported somewhat higher HRQOL scores in four functioning than girls, but the differences between boys and girls did not reach statistical significance. Gender specific analyses indicated that motor skill was a significant predictor of physical, emotional, and school functioning among girls (β = .19, β = .21, β = .26, respectively; all p < .05). Among boys, waist circumference emerged as a negative predictor of social functioning of HRQOL (R² = 6.5%; β = − .23, p < .01).

Conclusions: The results suggested that developing motor skill competence may be fundamental in developing and maintaining better physical and psychosocial health into childhood. The findings add to the growing body of literature that motor skill should be considered as an important influence element of children's HRQOL. From an applied perspective, intervention programs targeted developing motor skill competence within or after school are highly recommended in order to prevent children's health at risk and/or childhood obesity.

Physical Activity, Sedentary Behavior and Social Support Environment

Qiang Guo

Xiaozan Wang, Yan Jin

Xingying Li

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

East China Normal University

Background/Purpose: Physical inactivity and sedentary behavior have gradually become common way of life which poses a health risk for Chinese adolescents. Physical activity (PA), sedentary behavior (SB), and social support environment (SSE) are closely related. It is necessary to explore the inner link between them. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to reexamine the relation among PA, SB and SSE based on the view of physical epidemiological.

Method: A total of 11641^stand 2^ed undergraduate from ECNU (474 boys and 690 girls, Mean = 19.67 ± 1.094 age) who voluntarily completed two measures during regular PE lessons. Items of the questionnaires including Social Support for Exercise Behaviors Survey (SSEB, Sallis, J.F, 1987) and Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior for Adolescent (PASB) modified from three respective validated questionnaires designed by Yingmei Liu (2006), Hardy (2007), and Topolski (2006). The modified questionnaire was judged, revised and finalized by five middle school physical education teachers and three professors in the field of PA. The frequency, time, intensity of PA and SB were measured by PASB. Family and friends' encouragement, support and criticism on PA were assessed using SSEB. The participants were categorized into underweight, normal weight, and overweight/obese groups based on Chinese CDC criteria.

Analysis/Results: Chi-square test was used to identify differences among three groups in PA, SB and SSE at the 0.05 significance level. a) During the past 7 days, 63.8% and 80.2% of boys and girls performed PA for two days or less with each day lasting more than 30 minutes, respectively. There were 71.1% and 83.7% of underweight boys and girls respectively, performed PA for less than three days a week which is significantly higher than normal weight and overweight/obese groups (χ² = 24.411, P < 0.05).SB mainly concentrated in screen time, homework, reading for adolescent. b) There were 40.9% of boys and 35.3% of girls chosen “never” or “little” do PA with friends, respectively(χ² = 19.92, P < 0.001).It is a remarkable fact that 38.3% and 55.5% of overweight/obese boys and girls' parents “often” and “always” encouraged them to persist in exercise. Nevertheless, the ratio of “criticizeor ridicule my PA” from friends in overweight/obese group were also significantly higher than other groups(boys = 16.4%, girls = 22.2%, χ² = 28.22, P < 0.005).

Conclusions: a) Chinese adolescents lack social support environment and have a relatively low level of daily PA, b) Gender and body weight were factors influencing adolescent's PA and SB. c) Parents and friends' encouragement and ridiculing reflect a nonlinear relationship with adolescent' PA levels.

Audio Pedometer Validation for Adolescents With Visual Impairments

Justin A. Haegele

David L. Porretta

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

The Ohio State University

Background/Purpose: Obtaining an objective physical activity measurement can be a challenge for those involved in research and practice (Schneider et al., 2004). One device that provides an objective, low-cost measure is the pedometer. For individuals with visual impairments, audio pedometers (AP) provide auditory as well as visual feedback (i.e., visual displays). While previous AP validation research has been conducted, those studies either used APs that are no longer commercially available (Albright & Jerome, 2011) or have not used free-living conditions (Holbrook et al., 2010). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine the validity of an AP for adolescents with visual impairments in free-living conditions.

Method: Seven adolescents with visual impairments (1 female, 6 male; ages 14-17) were recruited from a Midwestern school for the blind. Visual impairment was categorized as B1 (n = 1), B2, (n = 5), or B3 (n = 1) as per the USABA (2004) sport classifications. The AP selected for this study was the Centrios talking pedometer (Orbyx Electronics, model 6310620, Concord, Canada), which has been previously validated in clinical settings. The criterion pedometer (CP) chosen was the Digi-Walker SW-200 (Yamax, Tokyo, Japan) because of its reputation as a “gold standard” for measuring physical activity in field settings (Brusseau et al., 2011). Both pedometers were attached to an elastic belt. Participants wore the belt along the waistband and devices were placed on the anterior midline of the thigh across from their mobility aids (e.g., long cane). Data were collected over two, 210 minute sessions. Five participants wore the pedometers during both sessions, whereas two participants wore the pedometers for one session. Therefore, 12 data points were obtained.

Analysis/Results: AP step counts ranged from 710-9,414 per session (M = 3,714). CP step counts ranged from 645-9,234 (M = 3,495). Data were analyzed using percent difference (PD = [(criterion pedometer-audio pedometer)/ audio pedometer] × 100). Mean percent difference across 12 data points was 6.1% (range, 9.7% - 1.0%). A Pearson product moment bivariate correlation determined that both pedometers were highly correlated, r(10) = .998, p < .01.

Conclusions: Schneider and colleagues (2004) report that difference scores within 10% of criterion, are appropriate for free-living conditions. Results are below the 10% threshold, and are more accurate than APs results reported in previous free-living condition research (Albright & Jerome, 2011). Therefore, this study provides validity evidence supporting the use of the Centrios AP for free-living conditions for individuals with visual impairments.

Youth Physical Activity Participation: The Importance of the Social Environment

Jeanette Garcia

Sean Healy

John Sirard

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

University of Massachusetts

Background/Purpose: Two thirds of youth participate in insufficient physical activity to meet current WHO guidelines. The social factors associated with this public health problem have only begun to be explored. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to use a social-ecological framework to identify selected individual, social, and environmental factors associated with physical activity (PA) in a sample of 9-year old Irish children.

Method: Data was obtained from the first wave of the “Growing Up in Ireland” study of 9-year old children. The sample consisted of 1509 children (55% female). The child's primary caregiver was asked, “How many days in the past 2 weeks did the child participate in hard activity”. Independent variables hypothesized to be related to youth PA were reported by either the child's teacher or caregiver. Variables included individual factors (child's height and weight, screen time, emotional well-being, parental education), social factors (number of close friends, time spent with friends, victim of bullying, peer popularity, level of sociability), and environmental factors (availability of fitness clubs, neighborhood safety, parks and playgrounds nearby, importance of sports and physical education at school). A hierarchical multiple regression analysis was conducted stratified by gender to determine associations between these independent variables and youth PA.

Analysis/Results: Boys had a significantly higher level of PA than girls (p < 0.0001). For both genders, the presence of fitness clubs (p < 0.0001), spending time with friends (p < 0.0001), the number of close friends (p = 0.02), and higher levels of sociability (p = .04) were positively correlated with PA, while screen time was negatively correlated with PA (p < 0.0001). For boys, having a playground nearby (p = 0.005), and being rated as popular (p = 0.001) were also associated with PA. For girls, the importance of physical education and sports in school (p = 0.04) and involvement in community organizations (p = 0.01) were also positively associated with PA. The final models accounted for 17% and 14% of the variance in PA among boys and girls, respectively, with the social-level variables accounting for the majority of the variance in PA.

Conclusions: Social factors were particularly influential for both boys' and girls' PA, with additional variance in PA explained by environmental factors. These data emphasize further the complexity of youth PA behavior and the importance of considering variables from all levels of the social-ecological model when attempting to understand and intervene on youth PA.

Measuring Physical Activity With Activity Tracker and Social Media Component

Dr. Helm Jean Ann

Lauri McCoy

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

Kilby Laboratory School at the University of North Alabama

Background/Purpose: Current research identifies lack of physical activity as a leading contributor to obesity. One growing effort to increase physical activity in people's lives in order to improve health is through an increased level of motivation to be physically active. Therefore, The purpose of this research study was to understand the effectiveness and impact on a students' activity level by using an activity tracker with a social media component.

Method: The participants for this study were 21 fifth graders from a laboratory associated with a university located in the southeastern United States. Data was collected through observations, student and parent pre and post surveys as well as through the use of the SQORD website. ‘SQORD’ is a ‘one part game platform, one part social media device and one part fitness tracker that encourages students to lead healthy lives through active playtime.’ The participants of this study wore the SQORD powerpod, which is a state-of-the-art accelerometer that uses sophisticated algorithm to measure the intensity and duration of a participant's activity. The social network component of the study came from each participating designing and their own, fully customized, “PowerMe.” An online character the students can make look like themselves. Through the SQORD website the students could send a message to their classmates by selecting one of the preprogrammed “Squawks.” If a player had won a medal or hit a milestone in their personal achievement, players could also give them a “high five” online. Both were used as motivation to exercise.

Analysis/Results: The data was analyzed for common patterns, social media interactions, and activity levels of students by viewing the students sync activity. We looked at the students tracking results, participation and any motivational changes that took place in the students' pre and post surveys. The researchers discovered that all 21 students found the activity tracker motivated them to exercise more. 18 out of 21 parent surveys reflected positive attitudes about the activity tracker benefitting their child's activity level. All participants enjoyed the social media component, but were disappointed in the SQORD tracker because it appeared to only track arm movements versus all activity movement.

Conclusions: The syncing of students bands and finding an appropriate computer to do this in a consistent manner was very challenging for the researchers. However, we believe finding a way to include a social media component into physical activity will increase students' motivation for participating in activities.

Wellness Curriculum Outcomes at a Hispanic Serving Institution

Timothy Wheeler Henrich

Gregory J. Soukup, Heather Barton-Weston

William Carleton

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

University of the Incarnate Word

Background/Purpose: Hispanic populations in the United States are more susceptible to a variety of risk factors for cardiovascular disease including diabetes, obesity, heredity, high fat diets and sedentary lifestyle. A Hispanic serving institution in the southwest United States used Hetler's dimensions of wellness as a curricular model to help reduce health risk factors in its student population. These dimensions included physical wellness, spiritual wellness, occupational wellness, social wellness, intellectual wellness and emotional wellness.

Method: After 7 years of student exposure to this curriculum we surveyed 121 students taking a senior capstone class to determine general satisfaction and perceptions of the class. Then over the years we analyzed the pre and post class 1.5 mile walk/run, exercise identity, and motivation to exercise. Some of these data were presented at local conferences or at institutional forums. This comprehensive analysis was done in conjunction with a SACS accreditation review and updating curriculum.

Analysis/Results: Henrich and Carleton (1999) surveyed 5 senior university capstone courses (n = 121). There was an 86% retrospective satisfaction rating for the class. However, only 36% of the students continued to exercise after completion of the class. Since 2000, 1 ½ mile run times were collected from students to assess the impact of the class on aerobic fitness levels. Soukup (2012) reported aerobic improvements of 8.14% (p < .0001) amongst sedentary students and 9.14% (p < .0001) improvement in Hispanic females. This group also had significantly improved identities and motivations towards exercise as measured by the BREQ-2. Soukup (2012) reported an increase of 12.8% (p < .0001) in exercise identity in Hispanic females and Soukup, Fike, and Liu noted an increase of 9.2% in female students at the end of the semester. Barton-Weston, Henrich, Soukup and Carleton (2012) used the BREQ-2 to assess attitudes towards exercise and scale found significant improvement in 3 different internal factors related to exercise motivation.

Conclusions: The researchers conclude the Dimensions of Wellness class has significantly improved the aerobic fitness levels and motivation to exercise of students over the past 25 years.

Adolescent Males' Conceptions of Body Image on Physical Activity

Deockki Hong

Catherine Ennis

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

The University of North Carolina at Greensboro

Background/Purpose: It is well established that young individuals are highly concerned about their physical appearance. The ideal thin and muscular body is commonly portrayed in movies, magazines, and television. Although physical education researchers have examined adolescent females' body image, there has been little research focused on adolescent males' conceptions of body image. Using Foucault's Panopticon as a theoretical framework, the purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between eighth grade male students' conceptions of body image and physical activity.

Method: This study was grounded in a visual methodology and employed a multiple case study design. Major data sources included eighth grade male students' semi-structured interviews, the Drive for Muscularity Scale, and visual diaries in southeastern region in the United States. The data were analyzed using the constant comparative method using NVivo 10 software. To enhance the trustworthiness of the study, triangulation of data sources was conducted.

Analysis/Results: Two categories emerged from the data, conceptions of body image and the influence of body image on physical activity. The conceptions of body image category consisted of three subcategories, “I want to be strong,” “I don't want to be too big, but big enough,” and “I'm comfortable the way I am.” For the category, the influence of body image on physical activity, there were three subcategories: athletic pursuit, muscularity pursuit, and recreational pursuit. Data supporting the Panopticon were interpreted using the themes of Adonis Complex body dissatisfaction and Dionysian body satisfaction.

Conclusions: Social surveillance may play an important role in adolescent males' conceptions of body image. It can create an ideal body image that is unrealistic and unattainable to the majority of adolescent males. Consequently, individuals who do not meet the ideal body image are more likely to be dissatisfied with their bodies. Further, body dissatisfaction may be associated with bullying behavior.

The Daily Physical Activity Patterns of Navajo Youth

Rachelle Jones

Timothy A. Brusseau, Pamela H. Kulinna

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

Arizona State University

Background/Purpose: Understanding the habitual physical activity patterns of youth is an essential first step to designing and implementing effective physical activity programming. This is especially important in American Indian Youth who may be at the greatest risk for hypokinetic diseases. To date very little research has explored the physical activity patterns of American Indian youth. The existing research has exclusively explored the physical activity patterns of elementary aged American Indian children. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore the daily physical activity patterns and physical education step counts of Native American high school age youth.

Method: Participants included 50 Navajo youth 15.1 ± 1.45 years of age (27 males) who wore the Yamax Digiwalker SW-200 pedometer for 7 consecutive days (5 weekdays and 2 weekend days). Children were prompted to record their step counts each day as well as before and after physical education by the research team and were given reminder letters so that their parents could prompt them on the weekend.

Analysis/Results: Means and standard deviations were calculated and t tests and ANOVAs were utilized to examine difference by sex and day of the week. Boys accumulated 11078 step per weekday and 6493 steps on weekend day. Girls accumulated 7567 steps per weekday and 7589 steps on weekend days. During PE classes boys accumulated 2203 steps compared to 1939 for girls. Boys were significantly more active during weekdays (p < .05). There were not significant differences on weekend days or during physical education by sex. Boys were significantly more active on weekdays (p < .05).

Conclusions: This study is significant since it is one of the only studies available that has measured the physical activity patterns of Secondary Native American youth. Youth in the current sample were failing to meet the daily recommendation of 12000 steps per day with girls falling nearly 4500 steps short of this recommendation (both weekdays & weekend). This sample of youth would benefit from additional physical activity programming both during and after school and on the weekends. Weekend physical activity patterns were similar to other studies of youth; however; weekday physical activity patterns were generally lower than previous daily activity patterns of youth. Physical education appears to be a strong contributor to daily activity patterns of youth as is contributed approximately 26% and 20% of daily activity for girls and boys, respectively. Overall this group of youth needs additional physical activity programming on weekdays and weekends.

Physical Education's Potential Impact on Overweight Based on Energy Expenditure

David Kahan

Thomas L. McKenzie

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

San Diego State University

Background/Purpose: The prevalence of overweight/obesity among school-age youth in the United States remains high. Engaging in physical activity (PA) is a widely accepted approach toward preventing and treating childhood obesity. Schools have long been identified as important venues for the provision of PA, especially during physical education (PE). The purpose of this study was to quantify the potential caloric impact of quality PE (i.e., at 50% MVPA) on the estimated energy expenditure (EE) of individual students and intact classes under conditions (i.e., PE frequency, duration, intensity) recommended by NASPE and by current state education policies.

Method: Using nationally representative values of mean student body mass and PE class size, individual student (kcal/student/yr) and class (kcal/class/yr) EE calculations were estimated based on NASPE guidelines (150/225 PE min per week) and data from individual state PE policies extracted from the 2012 Shape of the Nation Report. Available data from states were averaged to generate USA values, represented by mean scores for 16 states (elementary school), 14 states (middle school), and 9 states (high school), respectively.

Analysis/Results: Compared to those in schools following USA state recommendations, children in elementary, middle, and high schools following NASPE guidelines would expend 1.56, 1.64, and 1.38 times more energy, respectively. This would result in a 10-year cumulative difference of 55,103 kcal for boys and 53,854 kcal for girls. There was large variability in EE estimates for classes among states and at the three school levels: elementary (743,264 kcal, Alabama – Missouri), middle (1,284,822 kcal, Alabama – North Dakota), and high school (1,352,483 kcal, Utah – Iowa). Estimated EE for classroom time was 44% of that spent in equivalent PE time. Over 10 years, for example, boys in schools following NASPE standards would expend 90,117 calories more than those in schools who had no PE at all (162,318 vs. 72,141 kcal/student).

Conclusions: PE has great potential for helping to control child and adolescent overweight, especially when conducted using dosages recommended by NASPE and by the 19 states that have PE minute requirements. Many barriers interfere with this potential; the most prominent being the lack of strong PE policies at state and district levels and the lack of accountability for schools to follow them. States and districts should implement ongoing surveillance systems to ensure PE is being conducted as recommended.

Community Health Screening: Developing a Diabetes Intervention and Education Program

Rosanne S. Keathley

Judy R. Sandlin

Michael E. Sandlin

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

Texas A&M University

Background/Purpose: Currently, 25.8 million (8.3%) of people in the US are living with diabetes. This study assessed the need for a diabetes intervention program through community health screening.

Method: Participants (n = 323) responded to the Diabetes Intervention and Community Education (DICE) Program Brief Questionnaire. Participants were between the ages of 17 and 69 (M = 46.36, S = 15.29). The majority were Non-Hispanic White (64.1%) followed by African-Americans (22.1%), Hispanic/Latino (7.4%), and Other (3.7%). Eighty percent were female, 93.8% stated English was their primary language, and 11.1% were diabetic.

Analysis/Results: Differences based on gender and family history were observed. A significantly higher number of males indicated they were diabetic, χ2(1, N = 306) = 8.83, p = .003. A greater than the expected number of participants had a diabetic parent, χ2(1, N = 301) = 6.18, p = .013, a grandparent with diabetes, χ2(1, N = 294) = 7.16, p = .007, or a sibling with diabetes, χ2(1, N = 296) = 14.56, p = .000.

Diabetics indicated they received medical tests during the past year compared to non-diabetics. A significant number of diabetics had seen a doctor for a medical check-up, χ2(1, N = 307) = 8.48, p = .004. Diabetics had higher numbers of blood sugar tests, χ2(1, N = 303) = 45.71, p = .000. A significant number of diabetics had blood cholesterol tests during the past year χ2(1, N = 302) = 27.53, p = .000.

The overall health of diabetics was poor. A greater than expected number of diabetics considered themselves to be overweight, χ2(1, N = 299) = 5.06, p = .024. Higher numbers of diabetes had been told they had high blood pressure (71.9% and most were receiving treatment), high cholesterol levels (55.9% and most were receiving treatment), and high blood sugar levels (over 50% checked blood sugar levels daily, but 31.3% did not check blood sugar levels daily, χ2(1, N = 298) = 33.60, p = .000, χ2(1, N = 297) = 15.56, p = .000, and χ2(1, N 299) = 160.65, p = .000, respectively.

During the last year, 56.7% of diabetics had not participated in diabetes education classes, with33.3% participating in one diabetes education class. Most (74.2%) had not received nutrition or meal planning education from a dietician during the last year and few (9.1%) stated they used tobacco products with cigarettes and cigars being the most frequently used. Many (71.9%) received a dilated eye exam and 67.7% received a flu shot during the last year.

Conclusions: Results indicate the need for a comprehensive community diabetes education and intervention program that includes nutrition, exercise, testing, and prevention. Additionally, comprehensive Health and Physical Education classes are necessary to assist in the prevention of diabetic related conditions.

Drunkorexia and Alcoholemia among College Students: Current Trends Revisited

Rosanne S. Keathley

Judy R. Sandlin

Michael E. Sandlin

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

Texas A&M University

Background/Purpose: Drunkorexia is classified as restricting daily caloric intake in order to consume more alcohol. Alcoholemia is characterized as purposefully purging after consuming food or alcohol in order to consume more alcoholic beverages. These behaviors often stem from the fear of weight gain from alcohol and are more prevalent in college-aged women, although men also experience them. In extreme cases, the behaviors may be related to eating disorders. The purpose of this study was to revisit the knowledge of and participation in drunkorexia and alcoholemia of college students.

Method: Subjects were 891 college students attending a community college or large four-year state university. Subjects responded to a 12-item survey associated with the purpose of the study. The sample was almost equally divided between males (46%) and females (54%) and the average age of the participants was 20.80 years (SD = 2.13).

Analysis/Results: Just under half of the subjects (43.4%) had ever heard of drunkorexia while 13.2% (n = 118) admitted to drunkorexia themselves. Of those, the average number of times of drunkorexia was 11.94 (SD = 2.29). Thirty-two participants disclosed that they had participated in drunkorexia 10 or more times in their lifetime. Interestingly, a number of participants who are under the legal age limit had participated in drunkorexia – age 18 = 4 participates, age 19 = 13 participants, and age 20 = 27 participants.

Again, just under half of the participants (40.5%) had ever heard of alcoholemia and 6.1% (n = 54) admitted to alcoholemia. The average rate of participation in alcoholemia was 7.61 (SD = 3.60). Ten subjects admitted that they had vomited 10 or more times in order to consume more alcohol. A number of participants who are under the legal age limit had also participated in alcoholemia – age 18 = 0 participates, age 19 = 6 participants, and age 20 = 15 participants.

A significant difference in drunkorexia based on membership in a sorority/fraternity was observed, χ2(1, N = 891) = 42.10, p = .000. Not surprisingly, members of a sorority/fraternity were more likely to participate in drunkorexia. A significant difference in alcoholemia based on membership in a sorority/fraternity was observed, χ2(1, N = 891) = 19.47, p = .000. Members of a sorority/fraternity were also more likely to participate in alcoholemia.

Conclusions: While participation in drunkorexia or alcoholemia may be low, those who do participate do so at a high rate. Programs should be initiated to educate college students, particularly sorority/fraternity members, about the dangers of these behaviors.

Examining Growth Trajectory of Children's Physical Activity and Its Correlates

Sangmin Kim

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

University of Maryland

Background/Purpose: Many children and adolescents spend the majority of their time sitting in classroom and doing sedentary leisure time activity outside schools (NASPE & AHA, 2012). These sedentary behaviors and physical inactivities are closely related to major causes and high rate of disease including obesity. Accordingly, health and physical educators have emphasized the importance of moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) for health promotion and physically active lifestyle. Despite numerous studies on factors associated with children's physical activities (Sallis, Prochaska, & Taylor, 2000), little research investigated the trajectory of MVPA level and relevant/influential factors during childhood. This study aimed to examine MVPA trajectory from kindergarten through fifth-grade students and its relationship to gender, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic status (SES).

Method: This research used data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study–Kindergarten Class of 1998. Sample data (N = 19,209) were drawn from the base year (spring Kindergarten), third follow-up (spring third grade), and fourth follow-up (spring fifth grade). Latent construct of students' MVPA level at each time point was created using four variables.

Analysis/Results: Second-order latent growth model was used to estimate growth trajectory of MVPA level and then trajectory was regressed on students' gender, race/ethnicity, and SES. Results showed that students' MVPA level significantly decreased from kindergarten through fifth grade. White students had higher initial MVPA level than Hispanic (t = − 3.54, p < .001) and Asian students (t = − 4.11, p < .001) with similar initial MVPA level to Black students. High-SES students displayed higher initial MVPA level than their counterparts (t = 2.043, p = 0.041). No gender differences were found in initial MVPA level at kindergarten. For MVPA trajectory, Black (t = − 4.683, p < .001) and Asian (t = − 2.891, p = 0.004) students experienced a greater decrease in MVPA level than White students with no difference in decreasing rate between Hispanic and White students. Low-SES students experienced a greater decline in MVPA level than high-SES students (t = 4.703, p < 0.001). No gender differences were found in decreasing rate of MVPA level.

Conclusions: MVPA level decreased from kindergarten through fifth-grade students and decreasing rate was greater among minority students than among White students. Also, decreasing rate was greater among low-SES students than among high-SES students. This apparent disparity in MVPA level across race/ethnicity and SES is significant in enhancing physical activity programs, particularly physical education for all, to increase children's MVPA level.

Physical Activity Programs for Their Children with Disabilities: Parental Perceptions

So-Yeun Kim

Mihye Jeong

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

East Stroudsburg University of Pennsylvania

Background/Purpose: This study examined types and amounts of after school physical activity (PA) programs that Korean children with disabilities (CWD) have participated in. Also, factors related to parental support for after school PA participation of their CWD were investigated.

Method: A convenience sample of 228 parents of CWD in South Korea completed a questionnaire; 90% of the participants were mothers of their child. The questionnaire includes parental perceptions on amount of screen time (watching TV, playing video games and/or using the computer) by their child, the quality of after school program that their child was participating in and other background questions regarding after school program. The question items were open ended and 7 Likert-type scale was used.

Analysis/Results: A total of 91.2% of parents reported that their child was participating in at least one after school PA program. The programs were common adapted PA programs (64%), swimming (13.8%), exercise therapy (12%), sensory motor activities (9%), and fitness programs (5%). A majority of the parents answered that the quality of the programs were very good (24%), good (51%), and somewhat good (11%). About 52% of the parents reported that the quality of the PA programs were either very good or good. The time spent participating in PA programs (min/week) was 1 to 60 min (34%), 61 to 120 (29%), 121 to 180 (12%), 181 to 240 (8%), and more than 240 (9%). The screen time per week was 0 min (18%), 1 to 60 (6%), 61 to 120 (5%), 121 to 180 (3%), 181 to 240 (9%), 241 to 300 (5%), and 301 to 2400 (54%). When the parents were asked to describe the greatest challenges they faced in supporting their child's participation in PA programs, they answered that program accessibility, no various programs in community, cost (financial support), child's preference, and instructors' knowledge were their challenges in supporting their CWD.

Conclusions: The results of this study indicate that many Korean CWD were participating in at least one after school PA program, and a majority of the parents were satisfied the quality of the programs. Only about 9% of parents reported that their child engaged in regular PA programs at least 300 min/wk (60 min/day, at least 5 days of week). Some CWD also spent too much screen time. Educating Korean parents in regards to the promotion of regular PA levels of their CWD is needed.

Older Adults' Physical Activity Beliefs by Race and Activity Status

Maria Kosma

Bradley J. Cardinal

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

Oregon State University

Background/Purpose: Despite the importance of physical activity (PA) participation, rural older adults, and especially ethnic minorities, are significantly less active than White urban older adults. Identifying PA motivational strategies among historically underserved populations is imperative (USDHHS, 2020). Eliciting older adults' salient PA beliefs derived from the theory of planned behavior (TPB) may facilitate the development of PA promotion programs (Conn, 1998). Given the paucity of research in this area, the purpose of this elicitation study was to identify and compare perceived PA behavioral, normative, and control beliefs by race (Whites vs. Blacks) and PA levels (inactive/underactive vs. highly active individuals) among diverse older adults.

Method: Data collection took place in 2010 in rural community-based settings. Participants (n = 140; M_age = 75; Blacks = 73; Whites = 65) were interviewed using six open-ended questions to elicit their salient TPB-based PA beliefs.

Analysis/Results: Two experts independently evaluated the developed themes of the content analysis, and the most salient PA beliefs were tallied and rank ordered from the most to the least important. Highly active people reported more PA advantages than inactive/underactive individuals, including improved physical functioning, muscle strength, and cardiovascular health. Emotional health was more important among highly active participants than inactive/underactive people. The same advantages were reported for Whites and Blacks, including overall health, physical and emotional functioning, and muscle strength. Emotional functioning was more salient among Blacks than Whites, and physical functioning was ranked about the same in both groups. For all four groups falls/injuries and pain were the most common disadvantages, which were reported more frequently among inactive/underactive people than highly active people. Highly active participants and Blacks reported a wider supportive environment, including family, friends/peers, and doctor than inactive/underactive people and Whites. Access to facilities and programs was the top facilitator among inactive/underactive people, highly active participants, and Blacks. Time was an important facilitator among Whites and highly active people. Overall health was salient to all participants. All four groups stated similar barriers, including injury/illness, pain, and health issues. However, Blacks perceived more barriers than Whites.

Conclusions: The health benefits of PA, including emotional and physical functioning, need to be emphasized among especially inactive/underactive people. Additional support resources and time management skills are beneficial among mainly inactive/underactive participants. Enhancing PA access is fundamental among rural older adults. Together with physician assistance, the promotion of safe activities is critical, especially among Blacks.

Stages of Physical Activity Change, Self-Determination and Adults With Disabilities

Maria Kosma

Louisiana State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Although the benefits of physical activity are well-documented, about 47% of adults with disabilities do not participate in any leisure-time physical activity compared with 27.7% of adults without disabilities (NHIS, 2011). Therefore, there is a call for action to understand physical activity motivational strategies among adults with disabilities (USDHHS, 2020). Integrating such theoretical frameworks as the self-determination theory and the stages of change may facilitate our understanding on physical activity promotion (Grodesky et al., 2006). Given the dearth of research in this area, and especially for people with disabilities, the purpose of this survey study was to explore differences in physical activity motivational orientations (from extrinsic to intrinsic) and psychological needs (autonomy, competence, relatedness) across the stages of change for adults with physical disabilities.

Method: Participants with mainly multiple sclerosis (46%) and spinal cord injury (39%) (n = 126; M age = 54.36 ± 10.27 years, females = 70%, Caucasian = 93%) completed online standardized self-report scales about their stages of change and self-determination constructs in physical activity. Specifically, the measures consisted of a new, validated, and conceptually improved stages-of-change scale (precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, and action [action = combination of action and maintenance]), psychological needs (autonomy, competence, relatedness), and motivational orientations (external regulation, introjected regulation, identified regulation, and intrinsic motivation).

Analysis/Results: Based on the first MANOVA, introjected regulation, identified regulation, and intrinsic motivation increased across the stages of change (F [12, 363] = 4.6; p < .01). The most important contributors to the stages of change were intrinsic motivation (r² = 29%), identified regulation (r² = 28%), and introjected regulation (r² = 10%). There were no differences in external regulation. Based on the second MANOVA, competence and autonomy significantly increased across the stages of change (F [9, 366] = 4.5; p < .01). Competence explained most of the variance in the stages of change (25%) followed by autonomy (14%).

Conclusions: Emphasizing such physical activity motivational strategies as enjoyable activities (intrinsic motivation) of increased value (identified regulation) may assist with physical activity promotion among adults with physical disabilities. Additionally, providing successful activity experiences (competence) and choices in activity programs (autonomy) can facilitate movement to the active stages of physical activity. Although social pressure to be active (introjected regulation) seems to be important to people in the action stage compared with those in precontemplation, it should be downplayed in physical activity promotion for increased physical activity adherence.

Type and Source of Support for Children's In-School Physical Activity

Noel L. Kulik, Cheryl Somers, Erica M. Thomas

Erin E. Centeio

Alex C. Garn

Jeffrey Martin, Bo Shen

Nathan McCaughtry

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

Wayne State University

Background/Purpose: Social support has been associated with regular physical activity (PA); however, little is known about the specific types and sources of support important for in-school PA among children. To explore the comparative contribution to children's in-school PA we use both ecological and social learning theories to understand how contextual supports at the microsystem level interact with children's personal characteristics. The study explored how types of support (talking, encouragement, doing with, watching) from six sources (parents, PE teacher, classroom teacher, principal, friends, classmates) varied by sex, weight status and race/ethnicity.

Method: A total of 347 children (Mage = 9.39, SD = .44; 52% African-American, 20% Caucasian) completed an expanded version of a reliable and valid instrument measuring source and type of support received for PA (alphas: .72–.79). Waist circumference-to-height ratio (WCHt) was used to measure weight status. Objective PA was measured using accelerometry; data were converted to average minutes of MVPA over a 3-day period.

Analysis/Results: Correlation analyses showed positive associations between sources (classmates, classroom teachers, principals) talking about PA and children's in-school PA (r = .12–.17). When data were analyzed across source, principals' support was key (r = .12). For boys, both type (r = .24) and source (r = .17) of support were significant, but not for girls. Talking about PA with any source was associated with PA for African-American students (r = .19) but only the school principal was a significant source for Caucasians (r = .27). Among overweight children, encouragement (r = .21), watching (r = .20), and talking about PA (r = .27) were correlated with PA, and support from principals (r = .20) and parents (r = .20) were significant. Regression models showed that type of support contributed a significant proportion of variance in PA when controlling for sex and weight status (adj. R² = .24), with talking about PA the significant type contributor (β = .14).

Conclusions: Results support the hypothesis that one's personal characteristics can play an important interactive role with types and sources of support for in-school PA. Intervention efforts to build a supportive school climate for PA can be targeted to benefit all students, especially those that involve talking about PA, and use of the principal as a powerful influence.

Effects of Peer-Modeling and Goal Setting on Children's Physical Activity

Jessyka Larson, James C. Hannon, Timothy A. Brusseau, Stuart Fairclough

Maria Newton

Heidi Wengreen

Amber Hall

Mandy K. King

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

The University of Utah

Background/Purpose: Obesity has increased in the US dramatically over the past ten years. Decreasing the risk of overweight and obesity from an early age is imperative and efforts should focus on children's physical activity (PA). Promoting PA among girls is particularly important because PA begins to decline swiftly around nine years old and they are significantly less active than boys. There is insufficient evidence on the effectiveness of the use of peer-modeling, goal setting and accelerometers to determine changes in step counts and MVPA. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the impact of a school based intervention on PA intensity and step counts in 3–5 grade elementary school age children at an urban elementary school in the Mountainwest US.

Method: The study participants were 74 students ranging from age 8–10 with a mean BMI of 18.6+3.87. Accelerometers were used to assess number of steps taken and the number of minutes in MVPA by the participants at school. Students were introduced to the Fit ‘n’ Cool Kids (peer-models) on day one of the intervention. Each student received a letter from the Fit ‘n’ Cool Kids with his or her accelerometer target goal and was instructed to reach their goal as many days as possible during the intervention. Verbal praise was awarded to the students who reached their goal. Daily steps and MVPA were recorded and means and SDs were calculated at baseline, week four, and during a 7 week follow-up.

Analysis/Results: Step counts and MVPA increased among girls in the intervention school. Girls averaged 5225 steps at baseline and increased to 5723 steps during week four and increased 6260 during the follow-up phase. Girls MVPA increased throughout the intervention from 26.50 min at baseline to 30.36 minutes at week 4 and 33.67 during the follow-up phase. Boys step counts 6770; 6376; 6016) and MVPA (36.79; 32.87; 34.09) did not increase during the intervention or follow-up phase.

Conclusions: Studies have found that girls are less active than boys at all ages and this study showed the potential of self-monitoring goal setting and Fit and Cool Kids (peer-modeling) for increasing the PA of girls at school. It is essential to consider implementing similar interventions in schools that can positively influence the PA patterns of young girls.

Comparison of Adapted Physical Activity and Special Education Research Trends

Jihyun Lee

Justin A. Haegele

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

The Ohio State University

Background/Purpose: Several documentary analyses have been conducted which discuss and disseminate trends in research in adapted physical activity (e.g., Lee & Porretta, 2013; Porretta & Sherrill, 2005). The focus of these documentary analyses is the international journal, Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly (APAQ). However, few documentary analyses have compared adapted physical activity (APA) research with research in related fields such as physical education or special education (SE). Therefore, the purpose of this documentary analysis was to examine and compare research trends in both APA and SE. Exceptional Children (EC), a highly ranked special education journal, was selected because of its comparable characteristics to APAQ.

Method: A total of 453 articles (APAQn = 203; ECn = 250) from 2004 to 2013 were coded and analyzed. Interrater and intrarater reliabilities were calculated and met established thresholds (APAQ = 91%, 96%; EC = 96%, 96%). The variables used for the analysis were: (a) country of affiliation of the first author; (b) theoretical framework; (c) intervention; (d) research methods; (e) disability of participants; (f) data-based; and (g) topic of study.

Analysis/Results: Few empirical studies across journals were intervention-based (14% for APAQ; 38% for EC), with only a small percentage of those explicitly identifying a theoretical framework (36%, APAQ; 20%, EC). In consideration to research design, more single-subject studies were present in EC (n = 17) than in APAQ (n = 4), and APAQ included more mixed method studies (n = 8) compared to EC (n = 1). Overall, the majority of studies used a statistical aggregation of data (e.g., means, standard deviations), which was operationally defined as group design research. Target populations in both journals were well-distributed across categories; however, APAQ tended to have more articles (n = 51) about physical disabilities than EC(n = 1). Other differences were found in regard to topic of studies and country of affiliation of authors.

Conclusions: Similarities and differences were found between APA and SE research conducted over the past ten years. Across research areas, scholars have relied heavily on descriptive/correlational research paradigms. Few studies in either area have used intervention approaches and have explicitly identified theoretical frameworks. Further, group designs have dominated studies that have been published. These findings suggest that previous suggestions regarding the use of a theoretical framework (Porretta & Sherrill, 2005) and the use of non-group designs such as single-subject designs (Zhang, deLisle & Chen, 2006) in APA research may also be applicable to other research pertaining to individuals with disabilities in the SE context.

Effect of Exergaming on Children's Classroom Behavior and Effort

Jung Eun Lee

Dachao Zhang, Abdimahad Nour, Jonathan Miller, Zhoumin Liu, Chandler Ignaszewski, Nick Gmiterko

Zan Gao

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

University of Minnesota

Background/Purpose: Underserved minority children have been represented with being more obese and demonstrating lower academic performance compared to their White counterparts (Burton & VanHeest, 2007). As investigation on the role of exergaming in promoting children's physical activity has been popular in the past decade, few has been conducted to examine its effect on children's academic behavior, particularly among children from non-White economically disadvantaged families. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the effect of exergaming on underserved minority children's on-task classroom behavior and academic effort.

Method: A total of 85 fourth grade children (48 boys, 47 girls; 93% of minority) from three classes at an urban underserved elementary school participated in the exergaming activities. They participated in the 50 minute weekly exergaming program at school for 6 weeks. Children's academic effort was assessed via a teacher-reported 5-point Likert-scale survey in the first and the last week of the intervention period. Sixty eight children's on-task classroom behavior was observed by trained research assistants immediately before and after the exergame program. Each observation was conducted for 40 minutes in the academic classrooms using the whole interval recording method (Mahar et al., 2011). The outcome variable was children's average scores (in percentage) of their on-task behavior.

Analysis/Results: Paired t-test was used to assess teacher-rated student effort, while one-way (gender) ANOVA with repeated measures was performed to analyze children's on-task classroom behavior. There was a significant effect on children's effort between the first week (Mean = 3.24, SD = .75) and last week (Mean = 3.41, SD = .73) assessments, t = 2.42, p = .02. In addition, there was a significant effect on classroom behavior, F = 33.103, p < .01. Specifically, children scored significantly higher on on-task behavior during post-exergaming observation (Mean = 81.4, SD = 12.3) than they did during pre-exergaming observation (Mean = 69.8, SD = 14.9). However, there was no main effect for gender, F = .39, p = .54.

Conclusions: Offering exergaming program at school could improve underserved minority children's classroom on-task behavior and academic effort. Future study may include a control group to further confirm the effectiveness of exergaming activities. Practical implications for educators and other stakeholders will be provided.

Muscle Strength and Time Engaged in Physical Activities of Children

Megan MacDonald

Chun W Leung

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

Oregon State University

Background/Purpose: Muscular strength plays an important role in the overall health of people across the life span. Research has shown that muscular strength positively influences muscular strength in older adults. The purpose of this study was to identify patterns of physical activity and muscular strength in school-aged children with and without disabilities

Method: Children were recruited with (n = 13) and without disabilities (n = 7) between the ages of 9 to 18 years. Strength was measured using the handgrip dynamometer using the participants' dominant hand. Time spent in physical activity was measure with acceleromtry over the course of 7 days.

Analysis/Results: In both groups, muscle strength and time spent in physical activities were positively correlated, where children with stronger muscle strength spent more time in moderate to vigorous physical activity. Participants with poorer muscle strength spent less time engage in moderate to vigorous physical activity. Overall, school aged children with developmental disabilities spent less time engaging in physical activities when compare to typically developed school aged children. Disability was associated with physical inactivity, which was also associated with lower muscle strength.

Conclusions: The findings suggest that people with greater muscle strength tend to engage longer in moderate to vigorous physical activity. It also suggested that muscle strength is associated with spending more time in physical activities. Other factors need to be consider when engaging in physical activity in both typically developed children and children with disabilities.

Influence of a Fitness Class on College Students' Health-Related Fitness

Jingwen Liu

Rulan Shangguan

Langston Clark

Dolly Lambdin

Xiaofen Keating

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

The University of Texas at Austin

Background/Purpose: Research reported a decline in fitness level among college students in the past decade (Pribis, Burtnack, McKenzie, & Thayer, 2010). Previous interventions usually focused on solving this issue from a single perspective (Keating, Guan, Piñero, & Bridges, 2005). Physical Education (PE) or fitness classes address this problem using a comprehensive approach that consists of knowledge, strategy, social support and behavioral interventions essential for enhancing fitness. Limited studies concerning the effects of a fitness course on college students' fitness level have been reported. The purpose of this study, therefore, was to assess the influence of a college fitness class on college students' health-related fitness.

Method: Fifty college freshmen (M_age = 19. 20, N_male = 13, N_female = 37) from a 4-year southern state university participated in this study. All participants were enrolled in an undergraduate fitness class with two 60-minute classroom meetings and one 45-minute PA session every week. The course covered knowledge in nutrition, fitness, and goal setting strategies for improving fitness. Researchers monitored and provided feedback for participants' PA schedule and exercise goal achievement throughout the semester. Jump rope, aerobic dance, basketball, aquatic and other activities were organized in weekly PA sessions. Researchers followed Fitnessgram testing protocol to assess participants' fitness level during the first and the last week of the Fall semester of 2013.

Analysis/Results: Repeated ANOVA was performed to test the change of fitness level between pre- and post-test. There was a significant increase in PACER test score, F(1, 43) = 59.81, p < .001; estimated VO₂max F(1, 43) = 59.81, p < .001; curl-up score, F(1, 43) = 13.78, p = .001; push-up score, F(1, 43) = 22.70, p < .001; and a significant decrease in estimated body fat percentage, F(1, 43) = 31.94, p < .001. There was none significant result found in sit-and-reach test score, F_left(1, 43) = 3.68, p = .06; F_right(1, 43) = 2.32, p = .14.

Conclusions: The 12-week fitness class increased freshmen's fitness level in aerobic capacity, muscle endurance and strength, and body composition. Although flexibility improvement need specifically designed training and longer time, it still showed near significant improvement on left side. This study showed an alternative to effectively enhance college students' fitness.

Competency in Motor Skills and Physical Activity Participation Among Adolescents

Wenhao Liu

Slippery Rock University of Pennsylvania

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Demonstrating competency in motor skills and movement patterns is one of PE national standards, and it is assumed that competency in motor skills will contribute to physical activity (PA) participation on the part of school students. The purpose of this study was to examine this assumption.

Method: Self-Administered Physical Activity Checklist (Sallis et al., 1996) was administered to 211 middle school students (girls = 122) in the United States, and participants' motor skill level was rated with a five-point scale by the PE teachers. Participants then were grouped into either high (41 girls and 38 boys) or medium/low (81 girls and 51 boys) motor skill group. Compendium of physical activities (Ainsworth et al., 2000) was used to calculate PA-related energy expenditure. In addition, the data of participants' current involvement in organized sports was collected with a survey sheet.

Analysis/Results: The results of 2 × 2 (gender × motor skill) multivariate analysis of variance revealed that adolescents in the high motor skill group reported significantly higher PA levels of the previous day than those in the medium/low motor skill group in each of the following four PA variables: (a) minutes of PA (M ± SD: 130.77 ± 118.77 vs. 79.29 ± 81.23, F(1, 208) = 12.65, p = .000), (b) minutes of moderate and vigorous (MV) PA (108.03 ± 96.02 vs. 46.01 ± 48.65, F(1, 208) = 21.56, p = .000), (c) MET score (13.82 ± 11.86 vs. 6.53 ± 6.98, F(1, 208) = 18.62, p = .000), (d) MVPA MET score (10.29 ± 8.27 vs. 5.56 ± 5.23, F(1, 208) = 23.27, p = .000), Further, the results of Chi Square tests indicated that significantly larger portion of participants in high motor skill group was involved in organized sports (64.7% vs. 13.8%, x² = 37.93, p = .000) and achieved 60-min cumulative MVPA (72.5% vs. 31.8.7%, x² = 17.71, p = .000) than those in medium/low motor skill group.

Conclusions: The results of the study support the assumption that competency in motor skills contributes to PA participation. Specifically, competency in motor skill on the part of adolescents is conducive to their involvement in organized sports and, as a result, enhance their PA participation considerably.

Econometric Analysis of Fiscal Policy on Sport and Recreation

Roger K. Lo

Jennifer Y. Mak

Siu Yin Cheung

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

Hong Kong Baptist University

Background/Purpose: In almost every country, the proportion of people aged over 60 years was growing faster than any other age group (WHO, 2014). Consequently, it challenges society to adapt and fulfill the needs of senior citizens. There was no doubt that physical activity could enhance healthy ageing. Public provision of sport and recreation, therefore, became a collective needs and public interests in the society. To develop a quality lifestyle for active ageing, the government has the obligation to allocate sufficient resources on physical activity and health promotion. Thus, the purpose of this study was to identify the relationship between public expenditure on sport and recreation and tax revenue by using econometric modeling.

Method: Data from government agencies of Hong Kong between the periods of 2001 to 2013 were used for this study. Time Series Analysis was used to identify the determinants of public expenditure on sport and recreation. Unit Root Test was used to evaluate the stationarity of the data collected. Econometric modeling was used to identify the relationship among government revenue and public expenditure on sport and recreation.

Analysis/Results: Results indicated that tax revenue was the driving force of the public expenditure on sport and recreation and had a direct relationship. However, it was noticed that the proportion of spending on sport and recreation toward the total government expenditure has continued to drop from 1.1% to 0.9% since 2001. The government expenditure mainly financed by tax levy. During 2001–2013, the compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of the tax revenue and public spending on sport and recreation were 7.04% and 2.71% respectively.

Conclusions: Many countries have already begun experiencing an ageing population as people were living longer than previous generations. However, adding years to lives did not mean people were stronger and healthier. Public provision of physical activity and leisure opportunities was not just entertainment goods, but a means to enhance quality of life and health status of citizens (especially for older adults). Public and community recreation could be viewed as public goods and should be financed by public funding. Unfortunately, results from this study indicated that recent resources allocation regime did not favor the sport and leisure field. In order to promote physical and psychological well-being of older adults as well as preserving their independent and cognitive functioning, government should provide adequate resources in sport and recreation along with a well-developed policy to better serve the ageing population.

Assessment and Evaluation of Student Health Behaviors

Julie Ann Lombardi

Mandi Dupain

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

Millersville University

Background/Purpose: College students are a diverse yet distinct population with specific health risks and needs. Having current, relevant data about your students' health can only help you to enhance campus-wide health promotion and prevention services. The primary purpose of this study was to analyze the percent of targets achieved for thirty -one objectives from 8 of the 11 topic areas of Healthy Campus 2020. The objectives chosen for critical review were based on Healthy Campus 2020 topics that were relevant to course objectives for a Wellness required general education undergraduate course. The assessment of these behaviors will be used to develop future interventions and curriculum additions aimed at increasing the health behaviors among undergraduate students and reducing the risky behaviors that might hinder their educational success.

Method: Thirty-one objectives from 8 of the 11 topic areas of Healthy Campus 2020 were measured by the American College Health Association's National College Health Assessment-II at a state supported regional university. The participants were limited to 1,019 students (255 = male, 764 = female) undergraduate students, ages 18–23, enrolled at a state supported regional university.

Analysis/Results: Descriptive statistics and percentages were used to determine the percent of targets achieved for thirty -one objectives from 8 of the 11 topic areas of Healthy Campus 2020 regarding health impediments to academic performance, health communication, mental health and mental disorders, nutrition and weight, sexually transmitted diseases and HIV, family planning, substance abuse, and tobacco use.

Conclusions: The results of the American College Health Association's National College Health Assessment-II provided the University with baseline data for health behaviors within the student population. Next, we compared our primary data to target standards set forth by Healthy Campus 2020. Healthy Campus 2020 will be a tool for the University to define future health priorities of our students. The data provided justification for broader educational programs to address nutrition, sleep quality, physical activity, anxiety and family planning.

Changes in Healthy Behavior Knowledge of Rural Students

Kent A. Lorenz, Michalis Stylianou

Pamela H. Kulinna

Brian McCray

Dejuan Sanders

Ashley Phelps

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

Williams Field High

Background/Purpose: A health ecology framework (Lohrmann, 2010) and conceptual physical education model (Corbin et al., 2010) guided this study. There is evidence that rural youth are at greater risk for unhealthy behaviors than their urban peers (e.g., Hartley, 2004). This project was initiated by a group of physicians that expressed concerns about the physical activity and health status of youth in their rural community. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of teaching conceptual physical education in additional to regular physical education lessons on healthy behavior knowledge for rural students.

Method: Participants in this two-year study were 3^rd to 8^th grade students from one of three rural schools (School 1, n = 325, K-8; School 2, n = 324, 7–8; School 3, n = 473, K-8) in the Southern US with 90%, 73%, and 54% of students eligible for free or reduced lunch, respectively. We used multiple components from the Elementary or Middle School Fitness for Life Curriculum (Corbin et al., 2010), including one conceptual physical education class per week, the integration of physical activity and nutrition knowledge in the curriculum, and the implementation of wellness weeks throughout the year. Data collection included a 37-item multiple-choice knowledge test that has been shown to produce valid and reliable data from youth (Teatro et al., 2013), that was administered two times during the second year of the project.

Analysis/Results: Descriptive statistics for the tests were computed for the average percent of items correctly answered by grade and gender. General linear models were used to estimate changes in the mean percent of items correctly answered between pre- and post-tests across schools. For example, on average students across all schools in Grade 3 (n = 180) scored 28.3% (SD = 15.9%) correct, in Grade 6 (n = 175) scored 40.1% (SD = 16.8%) correct, and in Grade 8 (n = 305) scored 19.2% (SD = 24.9%) correct. There were no differences between girls (n = 687) and boys (n = 694) in the average percent of correct answers. Each school had significant improvements in the average number of correctly answered items on the year-end assessment compared to the start of the year (14.6%, 5.7%, and 10.6%, all p < 0.01, respectively).

Conclusions: This study is significant because it provides evidence that students can acquire healthy behavior knowledge using conceptual physical education lessons as part of a whole-school physical activity and health program in schools, particularly in rural areas. This study also highlights the critical need for students to learn more healthy behavior content knowledge.

Parental Influences on Children's Physical Activity Behaviors

JaNae McLaughlin

Kevin Patton

Craig Buschner

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

California State University, Chico

Background/Purpose: Many factors impact children's opportunities to be physically active, including their home environment, parents’ role modeling, and support of physical activity (PA) opportunities (Moore et al., 1991). Additional factors, such as religious participation, access to recreational facilities, and social support may also contribute to improved health (Jarvis & Northcott, 1987). Limited research has been conducted to examine parental influences on children's PA among families where religion plays a prominent role. The purpose of this study was to examine parental influence on children's PA participation.

Method: Participants were purposefully sampled and included 14 parents and 10 children dedicated to living the doctrine and principles of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (LDS). Children (ages 8–12) were biological offspring of their parents (ages 20–50). Data sources included: a) demographic questionnaire, b) participants’ digital photographs, c) photo-elicitation interviews, and d) semi-structured interviews. Participant photographs were used to elicit comments and evoke additional family conversations of their physical activity behaviors (Harper, 2002). Data were analyzed using a constant comparative method (Glaser & Strauss, 1967).

Analysis/Results: Results indicated two categories of parental influences: role modeling and support. Direct parental role modeling was described and depicted in photographs as participation with their children and included coaching, scouting, and exercising. Indirect parental involvement most often took the form of being a spectator at children's sporting events. Parental support included encouragement and facilitation of PA by limiting screen time and supporting participation in youth sport, outdoor activity time, or church events. Facilitating influences consisted of signing up and transporting children to sporting events and additional physical activity opportunities (i.e., park, school playground, and swimming pool). Religion influenced parents’ and children's PA via church sponsored PA opportunities (i.e., scouts), and the Word of Wisdom (doctrine encouraging eating healthy foods and taking care of the body). Overall, encouraging behaviors, by parents, were discussed as ways to overcome factors restricting children's PA including homework, screen time, and safety concerns.

Conclusions: Positive parental PA behaviors influenced children's PA through role modeling and encouragement, reinforcing parental support as a well-accepted determinate of children's PA. Parents were heavily involved in children's PA choices, taking an active role serving as the gatekeepers of physically active opportunities for their children. Among the families examined, the church organizational structure (i.e., church sponsored activities) played a more prominent role in the promotion of PA than did religion itself.

A Rural University Taking Steps to Improve Wellness

Wesley R. Meeteer

Jill Nolan, William M. Miller

Hugh D. Campbell

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

Concord University

Background/Purpose: Universities continually look for ways to improve the wellness of students, faculty, and staff. Wellness programs can face unique challenges in a university environment (Reger, 2002). These challenges can be compounded at a small, rural state university with limited funding. Rural areas experience disproportionate health disparities including higher rates of obesity and chronic disease (Pleis, J & Lethbridge-Cejku, M, 2006). These disparities are exacerbated by poor access to healthcare and fewer opportunities for physical activity (Yousefian, et al. 2009). In response to these challenges, this project sought to design an activity challenge that could potentially engage an entire university population by increasing activity knowledge and participation at a small, rural university.

Method: The participants were faculty, staff, and students at a rural Division II University. Student groups of four participated against faculty and staff groups of four in a six week steps challenge. Steps were tracked with pedometers provided to each participant and were self-reported each week for a six week time period. Awards were given for the most steps at the group level weekly and at the end of the challenge. The challenge was evaluated using steps reported, a summative survey, and personal interviews with selected participants.

Analysis/Results: The wellness initiative started with 240 participants. Fifty percent of the participants dropped out for various reasons including time and broken pedometers. Over 41 million steps were taken during the initiative. The average steps taken per day per participant were 8,500. Student participants averaged taking 2500 more steps per day the faculty and staff groups. Of those who completed post-surveys, over 80% reported increased activity levels and knowledge of activity levels

Conclusions: Based on the results, the challenge met the goals of the initiative. A significant amount of activity took place over the course of the study. Participants reported becoming more active and being more aware of their activity levels during the challenge. The limitations of the project included technological and communication complications. This project could be used as a guide for other small colleges and worksites seeking to implement a physical activity intervention. Future studies should explore avenues to increase and maintain participation levels over the course of similar initiatives.

Mediators of Adult Support and Adolescent Physical Activity

Shannon L. Michael

Seraphine Pitt-Barnes

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

Background/Purpose: Adults exercising with adolescents, encouraging them to engage in activity, and watching them be physically active have been positively associated with increased adolescent physical activity. Studies have also shown that an adolescent's attitude toward activity and specific behaviors (e.g., walking/biking to school) can increase their activity. Although studies have demonstrated these associations, they have not been examined with a nationally representative sample of students. In addition, little research has explained ways in which an adolescent's attitude toward activity and specific behaviors affect the association between adult support and adolescent activity. The purpose of the current study was to examine whether adult support directly affects an adolescent's attitude toward activity, walking/biking to school, and sedentary behavior, which in turn, affect their level of activity.

Method: Data for this study came from 2010 National Youth Physical Activity and Nutrition Survey (NYPANS). A three-stage cluster sample design was used to obtain a nationally representative sample of high school students. The outcome variable was number of days an adolescent was physically active for at least 60 minutes per day in the past week. The independent variable was adolescent perception of adult support for activity (4 items, α = 0.79). The mediating variables included attitude toward physical activity (5 items, α = 0.89), sedentary behavior (3 items, α = 0.58), and bike/walk to school (2 items combined).

Analysis/Results: Path analysis was used to examine the direct association of adult support on three mediating variables (sedentary behavior, walking/biking to school, and attitude toward activity) and overall adolescent activity. The analysis also examined the extent to which adult support indirectly affected adolescent activity through the mediating variables. The findings showed that adult support, attitude toward physical activity, and walking/biking to school were positively associated with adolescent activity, while sedentary behavior was negatively associated. Adult support was also indirectly associated with adolescent activity by way of attitude toward activity, sedentary behavior, and walking/biking to school. The total effects (direct plus indirect) of adult support on adolescent activity through attitude toward activity was β = 0.34, p < .001, sedentary behavior was β = 0.31, p < .001, and walking/biking to school was β = 0.29 p < .001.

Conclusions: Adult support for activity can affect adolescent physical activity. If adolescents perceive adults in their home support physical activity, their attitudes toward physical activity will be more positive, they will bike/walk to school more, and engage in less sedentary behaviors, which will in turn promote higher levels of physical activity.

In-School Physical Activity in a Sample of Low Income Children

Charles F. Morgan

Michelle L. Thornton

Nathan M. Murata

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

University of Hawaii, Manoa

Background/Purpose: One of the primary purposes of Let's Move Active Schools is to increase physical activity (PA) during school. Limited baseline data on in-school PA exist in low-income, multi-ethnic, and academically underperforming schools; limiting in-school PA comparisons to US expected values.

Method: The selected elementary school did not meet the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) academic yearly progress and 83% of the students were eligible for free or reduced lunch. The sample was comprised of 11 different ethnic groups and included a total of 110 (67 female) 1^st thru 6^thgrade children. Students wore Walk4Life pedometers over four consecutive days during school to determine in-school steps/day. Height and weight was measured to determine body mass index (BMI).

Analysis/Results: Boys (M 4,257; SD 1,626) accumulated approximately 1,000 more in-school steps/day than girls (M 3,383; SD 1,274). Over half (53%) the sample was considered obese (31.8%) or overweight (21.8%). No significant differences were found among ethnic groups for both in-school steps/day and BMI. Students accumulated (M 6,139; SD 2,655) approximately 2,000 more steps on school days with PE compared to school days without PE (M 4,148; SD1,927). However, PE was only required once a week and few classroom teachers reported teaching the required class.

Conclusions: We found that the boys and girls in this sample averaged 19% and 15% less in-school steps/day compared to US expected step values. Let's Move Active Schools and other programs designed to increase in-school PA should consider prioritizing low-income, multi-ethnic, and underperforming elementary schools for intervention.

Senior Games Mutually Benefit Older Adults and College Students

Chen Ni

Carina King

Jinmoo Heo

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

Texas A&M University

Background/Purpose: The NSGA (National Senior Games Association) governs the biennial summer National Senior Games, the largest multi-sport event in the world for individuals 50 and older.. Every state in the United States run annual competitions and those who qualify at the state level are eligible to compete in the national games. Previous study on Senior Games participants showed that being actively involved in the games was essential to promoting the health and independence of the older adults (Henderson & Wilson, 2009). This study employed mixed-methods design and unfolded in two phases. In the present study, the purpose of Phase One was to qualitatively explore the behavior of Indiana Senior Games participants associated with personal and social benefits. Phase Two involved the analysis of perspectives from college students who participated in structured service learning opportunities at the Indiana Senior Games.

Method: Phase One: Ten in-depth interviews were conducted using both purposeful and snowball sampling. The average age of study participants was 63 years of age, ranging from 52 to 71. With the use of an interview guide, a series of open-ended questions sought to explore participants' involvement with the Senior Games and issues of well-being. Data were coded and later analyzed using the constant comparative method (Merriam, 1998).

Phase Two: Students from a Midwestern state university participated in a service learning project to assist with running the Indiana Senior Games, and they were asked to write reflection papers at the end of the event. Content analysis was used to analyze 41 reflection papers.

Analysis/Results: Interviews from the Senior Games participants identified a number of personal and social benefits such as goal setting, physical fitness, enhanced self-image, enjoyment, and social belonging and interaction. Analysis of reflective essays revealed that college students were able to enhance self-esteem and social responsibility through participating in the Senior Games service learning project.

Conclusions: Consistent with the results from previous studies which suggested that competition in athletic events provides both personal and social benefits among older adults (Siegenthaler & O'Dell, 2003). This study also highlighted that service learning opportunities with older adults in the sport setting is a promising practice for undergraduate students. Students were able to collaborate with a local professional agency, and played an important role in facilitating the Senior Games.

Physical Activity Participation of Chinese Female Students in Singapore

Gary Ortega

Raffles Institution

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Chinese female international students are known to be physically inactive in the United States and in the United Kingdom. To understand if the same is true as compared to their counterparts in Singapore, this study's purpose is to examine the physical activity patterns, and the factors that hinder and facilitate participation in physical activities of Chinese adolescents.

Method: A mixed study comprising of a quantitative analysis of the school physical activity data of 35 Chinese students over 3 years, followed by interviews with 9 Chinese students was conducted.

Analysis/Results: Non parametric analysis indicated that there is a significant difference in physical activity levels at both secondary and junior college levels (p = 0.037) comparing Chinese students to Singapore students. There is a significant difference when comparing the reduced percentage of students with physical activities as their co-curricular activities across nationalities (p < 0.05). The main facilitators include social influences, improved health and the availability of resources. Factors that hinder physical activity school or education structure, low self-efficacy, and the lack of time.

Conclusions: Schools have the responsibility to prepare students not only academic success, but also success in personal health and well-being. It is thus important to understand the physical activity experiences of the Chinese students. Policy makers should make provisions for Chinese students to encourage participation in physical activity. It is also critical for curriculum design in Physical Education to be able to engage the Chinese students, and enable them to enjoy physical activity.

Effectiveness of Smartphone Based Physical Activity on Individuals' Health Outcomes

Zachary C. Pope

Nick Gmiterko, Abdimahad Nour

Zan Gao

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

University of Minnesota

Background/Purpose: Regular participation in physical activity (PA) leads to a number of health benefits. Thus, deducing methods by which to increase physically active behaviors is paramount to attenuate the poor health outcomes resulting from physical inactivity. Given the pervasive nature of technology, smartphones have been implicated as a manner by which PA behaviors can be stimulated. However, few reviews are available regarding the effectiveness of smartphone-based PA programs on improving individuals' health outcomes. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to review literature regarding the effectiveness of smartphone-based PA programs on individuals' health outcomes.

Method: Thirty studies were queried regarding smartphone-based PA programs from 2005 to 2013 using the search descriptors “smartphone”, “physical activity”, and “health” from multiple databases including Google Scholar, Academic Search Premier, PubMed, and ERIC. Thirteen studies met the inclusion criteria which stated the study needed to include the use of a smartphone/smartphone application for the enhancement of PA participation, mental health, or medical conditions. Studies incorporating within-subject design were also included. Descriptive analysis of the variables of interest (e.g., health outcomes, PA participation) was conducted.

Analysis/Results: Eleven studies reported the use of a PA intervention which was prefaced around the use of a smartphone/smartphone application produced improved PA participation/health outcomes. Three studies indicated smartphone PA interventions increased PA levels, while three additional studies found the use of SMS texts was beneficial to exercise adherence in hospital/cardiac rehabilitation patients as well as clients at a health promotion center. Regarding the use of smartphone-based PA to aid weight loss, two studies observed greater weight loss in PA interventions delivered via smartphone than by traditional methods. Furthermore, smartphone-based PA programs improved blood glucose levels of diabetics over that of standard care in one study while patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease experienced enhanced quality of life in another study. As for psychological effects, one study found positive results for a smartphone-based program for relaxation. Finally, of the studies not achieving positive results, one study showed no improvement in quality of life or health of diabetics whereas another study found no change in depression among individuals with multiple sclerosis when the intervention was delivered via smartphone.

Conclusions: The majority of current literature suggests smartphone-based PA can aid in enhancing PA participation, mental health, and medical conditions. Practical implications and directions for future studies will be provided.

Influence of Yoga Versus Moderate-Intensity Exercise on Mood in Females

Victoria Renner

Bridget A. Duoos

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

University of St. Thomas

Background/Purpose: An emerging body of evidence has indicated an improvement in mood after participating in aerobic exercise. However, only few researchers have compared mindful modes of exercise with aerobic exercise. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of yoga versus moderate-intensity exercise on mood in active collegiate females. It was hypothesized that an acute bout of yoga would be more effective at improving mood and reducing state anxiety when compared with acute bouts of moderate-intensity exercise among college females.

Method: Thirty physically active (participated in physical activity four or more times per week) collegiate females (ht. = 168.04 ± 8.21 cm; wt. = 63.74 ± 7.87 kg; age = 21.17 ± 0.648 yrs), volunteered as participants in this study. Subjects signed an IRB approved (#494901-1) consent form prior to testing. Mood was assessed pre- and post-exercise using the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) (Speilberger, et al., 1969) and the Exercise-Induced Feeling Inventory (EIFI) (Gauvin & Rejeski, 1993). Ten subjects each were assigned to one of the two exercise conditions: a hatha yoga class and a moderate-intensity exercise. A control group of 10 subjects did not partake in any exercise conditions but completed the STAI.

Analysis/Results: Two paired t-tests resulted in statistical significance for the pre-moderate exercise (42.2 ± 11.84) vs. post-moderate exercise (31.5 ± 3.98) STAI (p = 0.01); pre-yoga (54.3 ± 9.53) vs. post yoga (28.9 ± 2.73) STAI (p = 0.00). Three two-tailed t-tests resulted in statistical significance for the post-moderate exercise (31.5 ± 3.98) vs. post-yoga (54.3 ± 9.53) STAI (p = 0.109); control (42.40 ± 13.18) vs. post-yoga (28.9 ± 2.73) STAI (p = 0.01); control (42.40 ± 13.18) vs. post-moderate exercise (31.5 ± 3.98) STAI (p = 0.03). Post-moderate exercise percent improvements were reported as follows on the EIFI: positive engagement: 40%; revitalization: 55%; tranquility: 31%. Physical exhaustion decreased by 21%. Post-yoga exercise percent improvements were reported as follows on the EIFI: positive engagement: 17%; revitalization: 68%; tranquility: 112%. Physical exhaustion decreased by 39%.

Conclusions: Results from the STAI and EIFI indicate that yoga practice and moderate intensity exercise can improve one's mood and lower one's anxiety after exercise. The control group displayed higher scores of anxiety when compared to the post-moderate intensity exercise group and post-yoga group. These results suggest that yoga and moderate exercise can be associated with an elevation of mood state and reduced anxiety.

Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of School-Based Multi-Component Physical Activity Interventions

Laura Russ

Collin A. Webster^F, Michael W. Beets, David S. Phillips

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

University of South Carolina

Background/Purpose: A “whole-of-school” approach is nationally endorsed to increase youth physical activity (PA). In accordance with this approach, comprehensive school physical activity programs (CSPAP) are recommended. Distinct components of a CSPAP include quality physical education [QPE], PA during the school day [PADSD], PA before/after school [PABAS], staff wellness [SW], and family/community engagement [FCE]. The effectiveness of interventions incorporating multiple CSPAP components is unclear. A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted examining the effectiveness of multi-component interventions on youth total daily PA.

Method: Electronic databases were searched from August-October 2013 to identify published studies that (1) occurred in the US; (2) targeted K-12; (3) were interventions; (4) reflected ≥ 2 CSPAP components, with at least one targeting school-based PA during school hours; and (5) reported outcomes as improvements in daily PA. Data analyses occurred in January 2014. Standardized mean effects (Hedge's g) from pooled random effects inverse-variance models were estimated.

Analysis/Results: Across 14 studies, 12 included QPE, 5 PADSD, 1 PABAS, 2 SW, and 14 FCE. No studies included all 5 CSPAP components. The overall impact of interventions was small (0.11, 95CI 0.03 to 0.19). More CSPAP components was related to increased effectiveness with an effect size of 0.06, 0.19, and 0.29 corresponding with 2, 3, and 4 components, respectively. Studies employing objective measures of PA (n = 3) resulted in smaller effects (0.02 vs. 0.12) than those using self-report (n = 14). Studies including PADSD (0.19 vs. 0.07) and SW (0.21 vs. 0.09) were associated with a larger effect size than interventions not including these components.

Conclusions: As designed, there is limited evidence of the effectiveness of multi-component interventions to increase youth total daily PA. Results suggest that taking a multi-component approach to increasing youth PA is an appropriate path, but strategies within and across components may need to be reconsidered for maximal impact. Future interventions that reflect all five components of the CSPAP model, align with current recommendations, provide detailed descriptions of intervention component design and implementation, and demonstrate dynamic collaboration across all five components are needed.

Keys to Increasing Physical Activity and Healthy Nutrition in Children

Carol Ryan

Northern Kentucky University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Childhood obesity has more than doubled in children and tripled in teenagers in the past 30 years. In 2010, more than one-third of children and teenagers were overweight or obese. The weight gains coincided with a lifestyle change in our society. Years ago more children walked to school, played outside, and ate home-cooked meals. Today, children are more likely to participate in sedentary activities and eat more processed or fast-food. Some studies have shown a link between obesity and decreased academic achievement. Being overweight can lead to health issues, low self-esteem and bullying that can increase the student's absence rate and decrease their academic achievement.

Method: Data was collected for children in kindergarten through twelfth grades in seventeen schools participating in three separate Carol M White PEP grants. Data was collected for three separate health and physical activity assessments: healthy fitness zone, intake of fruits and vegetables, and amount of daily physical activity. Data was collected three times on each student during the school year and was aggregated and analyzed to determine the differences among genders, grade level, and schools, as well as the percentage of students increasing their healthy behaviors in each assessment. The data was then compared to the activities of each grant to determine the activities within each school that most contributed to increasing children's healthy behaviors.

Analysis/Results: Results indicated there were many variables associated with increasing the healthy behaviors of children. In general, a higher percentage of elementary children were able to increase their healthy behaviors than middle and high school students. Female students had a higher percentage of improvement in each assessment and schools located in a higher socio-economic area had more students that participated in healthy behaviors

Conclusions: Across all schools, grade levels, and children, the most important indicators of increasing children's participation in healthy activities were: consistency, collaboration, and communication. These components were exhibited by the teachers, administrators and staff and helped children focus on the goal of increasing their engagement in healthier activities. In addition, many activities were implemented and the following had the most positive impact on most children: Family Fun Nights, professional development for food service staff, newsletters, and working closely with the classroom teachers and administrators. The results of the data analysis indicate that a collaborative effort by the entire school community (children, teachers, and community) can increase the healthy behaviors of children.

Effects of a Fitness Course on Changing Freshmen's Daily PA

Rulan Shangguan

Jingwen Liu, Hui Chen, Jessica Leitner, Xiaofen Keating

Louis Harrison

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

The University of Texas at Austin

Background/Purpose: The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth and the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health have confirmed significant and rapid weight gain during the early years of adulthood. The college years are highly influential in shaping adult physical activity (PA) behavior. Researchers have reported PA decreases and weight increases during the first two years in college. Although physical education credits are not required, many colleges offer curriculum-based interventions that demonstrated effectiveness upon completing the courses. However, limited studies are available concerning first year students' PA changes by conceptual physcial education (CPE) courses. The purpose of the study is to investigate the effectiveness of a CPE class as an intervention on promoting daily PA among freshmen.

Method: Participants were students enrolled in the 3-credit first year CPE class consisting of 25 male students and 69 female students from a large southern state university. The class structured two lecture sections and one activity section per week. Accelerometers were distributed to students to measure their weekly moderate and vigorous PA (MVPA). Each student wore the accelerometer for seven days during the first week, a week in the middle and the last week throughout the semester. Repeated measure MANOVA was used to examine daily MVPA minutes in gender and days with and without the CPE class.

Analysis/Results: The result of repeated measure of MANOVA revealed a significant time effect on the overall MVPA [Pillai's Trace = .188, F(4,89) = 5.136, p = .001, partial η² = .188.] Furthermore, the average daily MVPA on class-days increased significantly among the three time points while daily MVPA of non-class-days decreased [F(1,92) = 9.153, p = .003, partial η² = .09]. No gender differences were observed across the time points, however.

Conclusions: The students enrolled in the CPE class tended to exercise more on class days. Their PA decreased on the days without the CPE class. Colleges should offer more CPE classes that promote MVPA to keep students away from being sedentary and maintain a physically active lifestyle.

Effects of Exercise on PASE Scores with Older Adults

Jane M. Shimon

Terry-Ann S. Gibson

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

Boise State University

Background/Purpose: The purpose of the study was to examine the effects of a 12-week exercise program (two days per week) for older adults on physical activity levels.

Method: Forty-nine community dwelling older adult volunteers, aged 64–95 (M = 77.29 ± 7.60), participated in the study. Baseline and ending PASE (Physical Activity Scale for the Elderly) scores were used to determine physical activity levels for the exercise (n = 34) and control (n = 15) groups.

Analysis/Results: One way ANOVA results reported no significant PASE score differences at baseline between the exercise (103.65 ± 57.89) and control (113.74 ± 58.30) groups. At the completion of the 12-week exercise program, no significant differences were found with the PASE scores between the exercise group (97.82 ± 58.03) and control (91.20 ± 51.76). Paired T-test analyses within each group demonstrated that the exercise group significantly increased activities involving muscular strength and endurance (3.13 ± 6.16; 10.52 ± 12.82) and decreased those involving outdoor gardening (7.06 ± 9.70; 2.94 ± 7.19) by the end of the intervention. The control group reported a significantly lower final PASE score compared to baseline results. No significant correlations were reported between PASE scores and height, weight, BMI, modified Berg Balance Scale, timed 8-foot up-and-go, 30 second chair stand, and arm curl (p>0.05).

Conclusions: While the 12-week exercise program did not result in higher levels of physical activity with the older adult exercise group, the program helped maintain a level of physical activity that was not found with participants in the control group.

Knowledge and Awareness of Diabetes Among African American College Students

Latyra Stinson

Robert Lindsey

Dwedor W. Ford

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

North Carolina A&T State University

Background/Purpose: Diabetes mellitus is one of the most commonly encountered diseases by the healthcare professionals worldwide. (Wee. HO., & Li, 2002). The risk of type 2 diabetes is approximately 2-fold higher in African Americans than in European Americans even after adjusting for known environmental risk factors, including socioeconomic status (SES), suggesting that genetic factors may explain some of this population difference in disease. Few studies have examined knowledge and awareness of Diabetes Mellitus among African American college students. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine knowledge and awareness of Diabetes Mellitus among African American college students.

Method: A convenient sample of college students from classes in the Department of Health and Human Performance at a small southeastern private historically black college and university was utilized in the study. Knowledge and awareness of Diabetes Mellitus was measured using a Modified version of the Knowledge and Awareness of Diabetes Mellitus Survey (Saraya & Khalidi, 2012). The responses on the questionnaire ranged from Yes, No, and I don't know.

Analysis/Results: Chi Square analysis was utilized to determine the differences between the demographic categories and the Diabetes questions, alpha = .05. Twenty eight students (70%) responded Yes to Question 9 “Risk factors for DM is family history”. Thirty one students (77.5%) responded Yes to Question 10 “Risk factors for DM is excessive sugar intake”. Twenty eight students (70%) responded Yes to Question 16 “One symptom of DM is excessive thirst”. Chi square analysis revealed that Females had more knowledge than males in regards to knowing that risk factors for Diabetes can include family history. Chi square analysis also revealed that females had more knowledge than males in regards to knowing that risk factors for Diabetes is excessive sugar intake.

Conclusions: Results from this study are similar to others in that females had more knowledge and awareness of Diabetes than males. However, more studies are needed among historically black colleges and universities. Recommendations are made to further educate African American college students in improving their knowledge towards Diabetes Mellitus.

Before-School Running/Walking Club: Effects on Elementary Students' Physical Activity

Michalis Stylianou, Pamela H. Kulinna, Hans van der Mars

Marc Adams

Matthew Mahar, Eric Amazeen

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

Arizona State University

Background/Purpose: Most American youth do not meet the national PA recommendations (Troiano et al., 2008). Multifaceted, school-based approaches are a promising strategy to promote youth PA participation. One such approach, which served as this study's conceptual framework, is the Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program (CSPAP; CDC, 2013). This study focused on a before-school program, one of the least studied student-related CSPAP aspects, and examined: (a) how much PA (i.e., steps and moderate-to-vigorous PA [MVPA] time) elementary school children received during a before-school running/walking club and the school day, and (b) whether children compensated for the PA received in the before-school running/walking club by being less active during the school day (excluding before-school program PA).

Method: This study employed a two-phase experimental design with a baseline phase (two weeks) and an alternating treatments phase (five weeks). The study was first conducted at a private school and then replicated at a public school. Participants (N = 88) were third and fourth grade children from two schools in the Southwestern US (School A: private; N = 39; female = 25; M_BMI = 16.97 kg/m²) (School B = public; N = 49; female = 20; M_BMI = 18.72 kg/m²). The before-school program involved a running/walking club that took place twice each week (School A: 20 minutes; School B: 15 minutes). PA was monitored using the New Lifestyles NL-1000 pedometer that uses a mechanism similar to accelerometers and has been shown to provide good estimates of PA in children (Hart et al., 2011; McMinn et al., 2010).

Analysis/Results: Data analysis included descriptive statistics and multilevel modeling (Level 1: day-to-day observations, Level 2: individual students). Descriptive statistics showed that children accumulated substantial amounts of PA within the before-school programs (School A: M_steps = 1731, M_MVPAtime = 10:02 minutes; School B: M_steps = 1502, M_MVPAtime = 8:30 minutes) and the PA accumulated within both programs met/exceeded the standard of 50% of before-school program time spent in MVPA (NASPE, 2012). Multilevel analysis results showed that, on average, School A children did not compensate by decreasing their school-day PA on days they attended the before-school program. School B children, on average, accumulated significantly more school-day PA on days they attended the before-school program (331.46 steps, SE = 72, p < .001; 01:16 MVPA minutes, SE = 00:24, p < .001), although significant individual differences were also identified.

Conclusions: This study is significant because it shows that before-school programs, as part of CSPAPs, can be effective in increasing children's PA and helping them meet the daily PA recommendations without resulting in decreased school-day PA and without taking time away from academics.

Physical Activity Levels of Children with Disabilities

Amanda Tepfer, Megan MacDonald

Kiley Tyler

Nicole Cook

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

University of Saint Francis

Background/Purpose: The positive health benefits of physical activity (PA) are well documented and much effort has been directed towards promoting active lifestyles in children and adolescents.

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to examine the physical activity patterns of children with developmental disabilities compared to typical peers.

Method: Physical activity data was collected from 43 children between the ages of 4-18 years. The average age for children with a developmental disability (n = 29) was 10.68 years. The average age for typical peers (n-14) was 8.62 years. ActiGraph GTX3+accelerometers were used to measure PA. Time spent in sedentary, light and moderate-to-vigorous (MVPA) physical activity was measured over 7-days. Accelerometers have been shown to be a valid and reliable tool for quantifying physical activity (Pate et al., 2010; Trost, 2001).

Analysis/Results: Children with developmental disabilities spent an average of 136 minutes per day in MVPA, ranging from 14 to 351 minutes. The average time spent in sedentary activities was 409 minutes (ranging from 180 to 634 minutes), while time spent in light activities averaged 169 minutes (ranging from 54 to 429 minutes). Typical peers spent an average of 157 minutes per day in MVPA (ranging from 12 to 358 minutes). The average time spent in sedentary activities was 377 minutes, ranging from 144 to 625 minutes, and time spent in light activities averaged 174 minutes, ranging from 116 to 397 minutes. Independent sample t-tests indicated no significant difference of PA between children with developmental disabilities compared to typical peers.

Conclusions: Although these findings indicate children are meeting the recommended PA guidelines a substantial amount of time is spent in sedentary activities. Children with developmental disabilities are engaging in less MVPA and more sedentary activities compared to typical peers.

A Yoga-Based Intervention in an Urban Classroom

Erica M. Thomas

Erin E. Centeio, Noel L. Kulik

Nathan McCaughtry

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

Wayne State University

Background/Purpose: Obesity and stress continue to disproportionally affect the health of children in urban areas. Mindfulness activities (i.e. yoga, relaxation, breathing techniques) can decrease stress levels while helping youth to meet the minimum required 60 minutes of daily physical activity (PA). Using Social Cognitive theory to examine personal and environmental factors, the purpose of this pilot study was to examine the multi-level influences of a yoga-based classroom intervention on yoga practice, and level of stress and aggression (fighting) among urban youth.

Method: Using a mixed methodological quasi-experimental design with treatment and comparison groups this study included 3^rd grade students (n = 40) at one urban elementary school. Students in the intervention classroom participated daily in a ten-week yoga program. Valid and reliable pre/post instruments were used to measure outcomes. Qualitative data sources included: classroom teacher observation for each student (n = 160), researcher classroom observations (n = 8), and student interviews (n = 25). Quantitative data were cleaned and analyzed using t-tests; qualitative data were analyzed using constant comparison methods including trustworthiness strategies.

Analysis/Results: There were no significant differences between groups at baseline (p>.05). Paired and independent sample t-tests showed pre/post differences in yoga participation both in and out of school for the intervention participants (p < .01). Significant differences between groups were not found for stress (p = .36) or aggression (fighting p = .55); however, this may be due to sample size or program dose. Qualitative analysis revealed three main themes that included both teacher and student perceptions: 1) Increased use and enjoyment of yoga techniques (i.e. using breathing techniques to calm down when nervous or angry), 2) Behavioral changes both in/out of school (i.e. students and teachers felt students were able to concentrate better in the classroom), and 3) Impact on personal factors (increase knowledge about yoga, better able to handle perceived stress, and sense of calmness).

Conclusions: This study showed an increase in yoga participation outside of school and an increase in techniques used to regulate stress and aggression among youth. Findings suggest that urban classrooms can include mindfulness training as it contributes to daily student PA, but also, according to students, can be stress relieving, fun, calming, and easy to perform outside of school.

Gender Inequalities in Elementary Recess Physical Activity

Michelle L. Thornton

Megan Babkes Stellino

Eric Moore, Christine Johnson

Heather Erwin

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

University of Kentucky

Background/Purpose: Recommendations from CDC (2010) state that children should be engaged in at least 60 minutes of moderate physical activity most days of the week, yet fewer than half of children ages 6 to 11 meet that recommendation. The National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE) recommends that all elementary school students have at least 20 minutes of recess each day (NASPE, 2008). The percent of recess time during which children engage in physical activity ranges from 16–68% among boys, and 15–52% among girls (Ridgers, Stratton, Fairclough, et al., 2007). Furthermore the contribution of recess to total daily physical activity ranges from 5–40% for boys and 5–31% for girls. The purpose of this study was to explore possible gender inequalities in recess physical activity (RPA) among elementary aged students.

Method: Recess physical activity levels were calculated via pedometry on 314 (n = 159 female), 3^rd–5^th grade students, at three (1 public, 2 private) schools in the Southeastern US. RPA steps and time were collected during 10 consecutive school days during recess and averaged for analyses.

Analysis/Results: Results indicated that with similar recess times, females accumulated, on average, nearly 1 minute more of RPA time (female 22:02 min; male 21:08 min). Although females average more RPA time, male elementary students take an average of 200 more steps during recess. Two-tailed t-tests were run to analyze the significance of gender on RPA steps and time. Findings indicated statistically significant (p < 0.005) differences between RPA steps and time between elementary males and females.

Conclusions: Despite that pedometers indicate females receive more RPA time, this study suggests that boys are more active during recess based on the significant difference in the results of steps taken during recess. Strategies and other activities such as utilizing recess supervisors, providing playground space that interests both genders, and providing inexpensive playground equipment, all can aide in providing more physical activity opportunities for both genders, which can help to increase overall RPA steps (Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, 2012).

Conscious Gender Equitable Teaching Behaviors: Inclusivity for All Students

Julia A. Valley

Kim C. Graber

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

University of Illinois

Background/Purpose: Physical education is critical to the physical, psychological, and social wellness of children (Graber & Woods, 2013; NASPE, 2012). Extant research has shown unequal treatment on the basis of gender in physical education (Azzarito & Solomon, 2009; Barr-Anderson et al., 2008; McKenzie et al., 2006; Oliver, Hamzeh, & McCaughtry, 2009; Sabo, 2009; Vu, Murrie, Gonzalez, & Jobe, 2006). The instructional methods employed by physical education professionals can directly impact the development of students in positive and, unfortunately, negative ways (Griffin, 1985; Koca, 2009; McCaughtry, 2004). This investigation focused on communication and behaviors teachers demonstrated specifically related to gender in physical education within the framework of critical feminist theory. Specifically, this investigation targeted one female teacher who was an outlier during a larger investigation that examined four teachers through observations and interviews. Research questions focused on teachers' understandings of gender equitable practices and the intentional inclusion of language and behaviors aimed at creating a positive learning experience.

Method: A multiple-case study was conducted in four school districts with elementary and middle school physical education teachers. Each teacher participated in two formal interviews as well as daily informal interviews over a period of two weeks. They were audio-recorded as well as observed throughout the school day.

Analysis/Results: The investigator utilized triangulation in the analysis of interview transcriptions, observation logs, and course documents (Patton, 2002). From a critical feminist perspective, data were analyzed deductively to determine the ways in which the results supported the theoretical construct and inductively to establish new themes falling outside of the construct. Of the four case studies one participant emerged as an outlier. While three participants demonstrated consistent language and behaviors that positioned female students as less than their male counterparts, one participant made a conscious effort to avoid gender-biased language and employed deliberate and unique strategies to create an inclusive learning environment. In order to fairly select students for leadership positions she used an Ipad application. She indicated a conscious effort to address the students as “girls and boys”, “you all”, or “everyone”, rather than “you guys.” Her physical education curriculum placed greater emphasis on cooperation rather than competition.

Conclusions: This research demonstrates the possibility of a higher standard of teaching in physical education and the importance of creating a positive experience for students. As the expectations of physical education practices become elevated further research is needed to aid practitioners in their efforts.

First Flight of the Fledgling: Advancing Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program Research

Hans van der Mars, Brian Dauenhauer

Megan Babkes Stellino

Russell L. Carson

Paul Rukavina

Sarah Dolittle

Pamela H. Kulinna, Kent A. Lorenz

Michalis Stylianou

Michael W. Metzler, Kari Hunt, Jenee Marquis

Margaret Trent

Seraphine Pitt-Barnes

Jaimie M. McMullen

Sean M. Bulger, Eloise Elliott

Emily Jones

Timothy A. Brusseau, Erin E. Centeio

Nathan McCaughtry

Collin A. Webster^F, Robert G. Weaver, Laura Russ

Michael W. Beets, Spyridoula Vazou

Thomas L. McKenzie

Shannon Barett-Williams

Monica A.F. Lounsbery

University of Nevada, Las Vegas

Conclusions: While comprehensive school health models have existed for decades, comprehensive school physical activity programs (CSPAP) are a more recent focus, which delineates a multicomponent, coordinated approach to increasing the daily physical activity of school communities. The National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE) published the first conceptualization of a CSPAP in 2008. Since then, major health organizations including the Institute of Medicine (IOM, 2013) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2013) have adopted NASPE's model to outline recommendations for program implementation. Yet, the evidence base for CSPAPs is still fledgling, especially in terms of research that examines program effectiveness, scalability, and sustainability. The purpose of this session is to illuminate the myriad efforts underway to nurture and grow CSPAP research beyond its infancy and into a full-fledged evidence base to guide best practice. The session will open with an overview of the current landscape of the knowledge base on CSPAPs. Then, researchers and research teams from across the United States and from Ireland will share their most recent innovations for designing, implementing, and evaluating CSPAPs. A proposal for future research directions and methodologies will conclude the session. The format of the session will include formal presentations interspersed with round table discussions.

After School Physical Activity Interventions: Locating and Increasing Participation

Elizabeth Wanless

Shannon Titus Dieringer, Lawrence W. Judge

James Johnson

Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

Ball State University

Background/Purpose: In an effort to increase physical activity (PA) for youth populations and as a response to dwindling PA in the school day, schools may choose to organize after school PA programming. Upon plans for implementation, it is important to keep strategies for locating and attracting participants a priority in order to increase impact. With input from parents and children, after school PA programs will be better equipped to attract children to the PA program, resulting in greater participation, enjoyment, and increased PA. Thus, the purpose of this study was to gain insight into parents' and children's decision-making processes as to why they participated and what might attract others.

Method: A qualitative survey and group interview constructivist grounded theory design (Charmaz, 2006) was used to gain insight from 38 youth and 38 parents involved in Step up for Health, an afterschool PA program geared toward families in East Central Indiana. In the first week of the program, parents received a survey along with the consent form for their child to participate and youth participants were interviewed in two large groups, 19 participants in each. Responses to the surveys and group interviews were coded into categories to form a resulting theory for participation.

Analysis/Results: The results of the study reflected the theory of reasoned action: youth and parents chose to participate based on their own attitudes towards the program and in consideration of others' attitudes. One hundred percent of participating parents referenced the utility of the program as a PA outlet and identified their own child as an influential figure in allowing their child to participate in the program. A majority of youth participants identified their physical education teacher as being influential in their decision to participate as well as perceiving the program to be fun and a great way to stay healthy.

Conclusion

When initiating afterschool programming with the desire to gain or increase participation, program leaders must be in tune with the current attitudes towards fitness programming; a strong element of why youth asked parents to participate and why parents chose to let their child participate was the idea of after school programming as a health benefit. Program leaders must also identify influential figures that may affect the attitudes of youth and parents in order to promote the program.

Increasing Afterschool Program Staff Healthy Eating and Physical Activity Promotion

Robert G. Weaver

Jennifer Huberty

Darcy Freedman

Brie Turner-McGrievy

Aaron Beighle

Diane Ward

Russell Pate, Brent Hutto, Ruth Saunders

Michael W. Beets, Corresponding should be addressed to ([email protected]).

University of South Carolina

Background/Purpose: Healthy Eating and Physical Activity (HEPA) Standards call for Afterschool program (ASP) staff to create “HEPA friendly” environments. Professional development training has shown promise for creating HEPA friendly ASPs. The purpose of this study was to evaluate a comprehensive training program targeting staff behaviors related to HEPA friendly ASPs.

Method: This study is part of a 3-year group randomized controlled trial to improve snacks served and increase MVPA of children attending ASPs. Twenty ASPs serving 1800 children, and employing 121 staff participated. This study reports first year (spring 2013 & spring 2014) changes in staff behaviors. Programs were matched and randomized into immediate-intervention or 1-year-delayed-group. Immediate-intervention programs received professional development training targeting 18 HEPA promotion behaviors, and ongoing technical support/assistance in fall 2013 and spring 2014. The 1-year-delayed-group continued routine practice. Staff promotion behaviors were measured using the System for Observing Staff Promotion of Activity and Nutrition (SOSPAN).

Analysis/Results: Mixed effects regression models estimated the interaction of measurement period and treatment condition on staff behaviors. Staff PA promotion behaviors were expressed as the percentage of scans a behavior was observed during a PA opportunity. Standards call for staff to display HE behaviors daily or weekly. These behaviors are expressed as the percentage of days observed. A total of 4147 SOSPAN scans were completed during PA opportunities and 143 snack periods were observed. Changes in staff PA promotion behaviors in the immediate-intervention group ranged from a 13.4% reduction in staff leading elimination games to a 17.7% increase in staff engaging in activity with children. Staff HE promotion behaviors ranged from a 42.7% reduction in the percent of days staff drank beverages other than water to a 32.7% increase in staff promoting HE. After the intervention staff in the immediate-intervention group promoted HE, ate snack with children, and provided healthy eating education on 37.9%, 28.4%, and 29.9% more days than the 1-year-delayed-group, respectively. During PA opportunities staff in the immediate-intervention group verbally promoted PA and were physically active with children 11.8% and 14.6% more often, than the 1-year-delayed-group, respectively. Staff in the immediate-intervention group also led elimination games and gave instructions 15.5%, 5.0% less often than the 1-year-delayed-group, respectively. Ten staff behaviors targeted in the training program showed no difference between immediate-intervention and 1-year-delayed-group.

Conclusions: Professional development training can impact HEPA promotion behaviors that are linked to increasing children's HEPA. However, additional work is required to refine trainings targeting staff behaviors.

Contribution of Physical Education to Physical Activity of Children

Wesley J. Wilson

Laynie K. Case, Joonkoo Yun, Kyle P. Robles

Ryan T. Willoughby

Oregon State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The benefits of physical activity (PA) are well established, but youth are still not obtaining the recommended amounts of PA. Physical education (PE) has been recognized as an important source in increasing PA for youth. However, research has struggled to establish clear understanding about PE's contribution to the overall activity pattern of its students as there has been a number of methodological problems with prior research. The purpose of this study was to examine PE's contribution to overall PA behavior of third and fourth grade elementary students while addressing the limitations of prior studies through employing an accelerometer-based, multi-site research design. In accomplishing this purpose, Aim 1 examined PE's overall percent contribution to overall PA while Aim 2 investigated whether students compensate for missed PA opportunities on days in which they do not have PE.

Method: PA levels of 41 third and fourth graders from four schools in three school districts were measured by accelerometers. Data were collected on three separate occasions, lasting five days each. Accelerometers captured moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and total counts on PE days, non-PE days and weekend days.

Analysis/Results: The results revealed that the average time spent daily in MVPA was 46.95 minutes (SD = 16.70), while PE accounted for 23.25% (SD = 9.26) of overall MVPA. PE also accounted for 15.48% (SD = 4.86) of total PA. In answering Aim 2, a one-way repeated measures MANCOVA revealed significant differences between types of day on PA levels (Wilks' λ = .68, p < .05; partial η² = .32), with gender and class set as covariates. Follow-up univariate tests only indicated significant differences between MVPA and types of days, F(2, 76) = 4.49, p < .05, partial η² = .11. On average, the participants received 12.15 and 21.68 more minutes of MVPA on PE days than on non-PE days and weekend days, respectively (p < .01).

Conclusions: The present study suggests that PE was a major contributor of overall MVPA and PA. In addition, children did not make up MVPA on non-PE days or weekends, further bolstering PE's importance in contributing to overall MVPA behavior. Cumulatively, these findings suggest that more PE classes should be added in order to increase overall PA levels instead of being systematically reduced. However, even with PE, students still did not obtain the recommended amounts of MVPA, indicating that PE teachers need to do more to promote out-of-class PA.

Exploring Perspectives of Students With Intellectual Disabilities on Physical Activity

Elizabeth A. Woodruff

Zachary Wahl-Alexander

The University of Alabama

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Students with disabilities are often excluded from physical activity experiences, at worst, or are disadvantaged, at least. There are many unanswered questions about the personal experiences of students with disabilities, specifically concerning those with intellectual disabilities. Furthermore, there is a dearth of research that has utilized individuals with disabilities as active research participants. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the perspectives of students with intellectual disabilities regarding their participation in a fitness program established as a service learning model within an Adapted Physical Education (APE) course.

Method: Sixteen (16) students (4 females; 12 male), ranging in age from 18–21 years, participated in a 12-week fitness program that consisted of 384 sessions that lasted 75 minutes each. Each participant worked with two university students from an APE course. Sessions included an initial period of cardiovascular endurance training followed by muscular strength training and flexibility, and concluded with a period of motor skill development.

Data were collected through individual interviews (16), informal interviews (96), fitness assessments (32), direct observations (205), and document analysis. In addition, each participant produced a series of drawings which were accompanied by their narrations (48).

Analysis/Results: Thematic analysis was used to analyze all data. The following themes relating to the perspectives of the students with intellectual disabilities were identified: (a) developing health related fitness knowledge; (b) developing relationships; and (c) developing intrinsic motivation.

Conclusions: The results of this study seemed to support postulates by some researchers about the benefits of engaging students with intellectual disabilities as active participants in the research process, suggesting that students' voices provided valuable insights about their physical activity experiences, revealed novel aspects and opinions, and contributed to the theoretical and intellectual understandings of the lives of students with intellectual disabilities. Most importantly, the students were involved in an inclusive pedagogy that facilitated student-centered learning.

Do Peer Mentors Benefit from a Peer Health Promotion Program?

Zi Yan

Kevin Finn

Bradley J. Cardinal

Lauren Bent

Merrimack College

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Peer health promotion programs have been found to be effective for the peer mentees. However, it is unclear whether peer mentors also benefit from the relationship. Given the reciprocal nature of the peer mentor/mentee relationship, it seems possible that the peer mentors would have an opportunity to refresh their own health behaviors, gain needed self-efficacy, and further practice their behavior skills and capacities. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of a peer physical activity and nutrition program on the peer mentors themselves.

Method: College students (n = 33) from a health promotion class served as one-on-one mentors for their college peers to promote their knowledge, attitude, and practice of physical activity and nutrition related behaviors. The peer mentors/mentees met twice a week for 6 weeks. The meetings followed the curriculum orchestrated, pilot-tested and developed by the research team. The meetings included tutoring, discussion, counseling, and other activities (e.g., gym practice and grocery store tour). Data were collected pre and post intervention from the peer mentors.

Analysis/Results: A repeated measure MANOVA showed that there was a significant intervention effect for peer mentors, F(6, 32) = 3.7, p < .01, η² = .40. Univariate tests indicated that the intervention effects were significant on knowledge of physical activity, F(1, 32) = 5.37, p < .05, η² = .14, nutrition knowledge, F(1, 32) = 8.84, p < .01, η² = .22, and nutrition practice, F(1, 32) = 7.74, p < .01, η² = .20; The time effects were not significant on attitudes toward physical activity, F(1, 32) = 1.89, p>.05, η² = .06, attitudes toward nutrition, F(1, 32) = .99, p>.05, η² = .03, or physical activity behavior, F(1, 32) = .75, p>.05, η² = .02.

Conclusions: Peer mentors benefited from their participation in a peer physical activity and nutrition education program, though not uniformly. In some instances this may have been due to a ceiling effect for the measures used. Regardless, significant and substantial improvements were observed for the intervention as a whole (i.e., omnibus MANOVA test, η² = .40). Qualitative information may be useful to collect in future studies to further examine the mechanism about the effect of peer education on peer mentors, as well as further enriching the data collected (e.g., discovering benefits that were not directly assessed, elucidating the extent of the ceiling effect for some variables).

Physical Activity as a Mediator Between Depressions and Sleep Disorders

Yan Yang

Brynn Clairisse Adamson

Weimo Zhu

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The purpose of this paper was to investigate whether time spent by adults in moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) mediates the relationship between depression and sleep disorders.

Method: Data from the 2005–2006 US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey for 3,174 adults (49% male) over the age of 18 was analyzed. Depression-related and sleep disorder-related parameters were extracted from corresponding questionnaires. Each participant's MVPA time per day were calculated based on ActiGraph accelerometers’ intensity counts. Multiple regression analyses were conducted to assess each component of the proposed mediation model.

Analysis/Results: Depression was positively associated with sleep disorders (B = .484, t(3172) = 31.14, R² = .234, p = 0.000). There was also a negative-relationship trend between MVPA time and depressions (B = − .092, t(3172) = − 5.18, R² = .008, p = 0.000), as well as sleep disorders (B = − .122, t(3172) = − 6.92, R² = .015, p = 0.000). In this study, a 95% confidence interval of the indirect effects was obtained with 5000 bootstrap resamples. Results of the mediation analysis confirmed the partial mediator role of MVPA time in the relation between depression and sleep disorders (CI = .01 to .03) even the direct effect of depression on sleep disorders is still statistically significant (B = .477, t(3172) = 30.670, R² = .240, p = 0.000).

Conclusions: MVPA time in daily life was found to be a partial mediator between depressions and sleep disorders. For people who have depression, they might want to increase their MVPA time to decrease possible sleep disorder problems caused by their depression.

Examining Hispanic Children's Body Composition and Health-Related Quality of Life

Tao Zhang

Xiangli Gu

University of North Texas

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Health-related quality of life (HRQOL) is a comprehensive and multidimensional construct that assesses individual's physical, emotional, social, and school functioning (Ul-Haq et al., 2013; Varni & Limbers, 2007). Although numerous factors may influence individual's HRQOL, litter research have been examined the relationship between body composition and HRQOL in Hispanic children (Ul-Haq et al., 2013). Further, many low-income Hispanic children do not meet recommended physical activity guidelines to promote their HRQOL (USDHHS, 2010). The major purpose of this study, therefore, was to explore the relationships between body composition (waist circumference) and physical, emotional, social and school functioning of HRQOL in low-income Hispanic children.

Method: A cross-sectional research design was used in this study. Instruments were translated into Spanish based on strict back-translation procedures. Participants were 210 (M_age = 4.7 ± 0.5; 112 boys; 98 girls) low-income Hispanic children and their parents enrolled in ten preschool centers. The parents of low-income Hispanic children completed 23-item pediatric HRQOL inventory generic core scales with sufficient reliability and validity (PedsQL 4.0; Varni et al., 2001), including physical functioning, emotional functioning, social functioning, and school functioning. Children's waist circumference (a measurement of the abdomen at a specific anatomical landmark) was assessed by a trained tester using Accufitness MyoTape body measuring tape.

Analysis/Results: The correlation analyses indicated that waist circumference was negative associated with physical, social, and school functioning of HRQOL in low-income Hispanic children (r = − .30, − .23, − .24, respectively; all p < 0.01). The physical, emotional, social, and school functioning were positively related to one another in this study. Further, the multiple regressions revealed that waist circumference was a significant negative predictor of children's physical functioning (R² = 9.0 %; β = − .30, p < 0.01), social functioning (R² = 5.5 %; β = − .23, p < 0.01), and school functioning (R² = 5.6 %; β = − .24, p < 0.01).

Conclusions: The results demonstrated that low-income Hispanic children with higher waist circumference have worse physical health, social interactions, and school achievements than children with lower waist circumference. These findings indicated health professionals need to consider low-income Hispanic children's body composition when they plan to promote their HRQOL. Given the fact that regular physical activity reduce childhood obesity and is linked to improved HRQOL in children, this study may provide valuable insight for practitioners regarding how to promote Hispanic children's HRQOL and develop effective interventions aimed at the prevention of childhood obesity.

The Reliability and Validity of the PACES in Chinese Sample

Ke Zhou

Xiaofen Keating

Yanli Zhou

Rulan Shangguan

Jingwen Liu

The University of Texas at Austin

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Enjoyment was considered one of the most important reasons for college students to be involved in physical activities. To provide a better instrument to measure enjoyment of PA, Kendziersky and De carlo (1991) designed the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES) with satisfying internal consistency and reliability and found the unidimensional structure of the PACES. The purpose of this work is to examine reliability and validity in a sample of Chinese college students.

Method: Participants (N = 655;321 girls and 334 boys) were enrolled from different departments in a university located in a central region of China. The purpose of the study was explained to students to obtain permission to conduct the investigation. The PACES was distributed to freshmen and sophomores in the P.E. class. The PACES was translated and adapted to the Chinese population by using the back translation technique. The Chinese version PACES consisted of 18 items using bipolar statements (e.g., I feel bored-I feel interested) with a 5-point Likert scale. Both positive and negative items were used in the scale and negative items were reversely coded so that a higher score represented more enjoyment.

Analysis/Results: The Cronbach's alpha for the Chinese version of PACES was .91, indicating good internal consistency. As described earlier, Motl et al (2000) assumed a two-factor solution results from positive and negatively worded items. Crocker (1995) and Ke (2014) thought the scale measure both antecedents of enjoyment and the perception of enjoyment. To test these hypotheses, three models were analysed by AMOS. The CFA indicated that Model 1, which represents unidimensional structure, provided a best fit to the date (i.e., CFI = .89, GFI = .91, AGFI = .93, and RSMEA = .053).

Conclusions: The Chinese version of the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale is sufficiently reliable and valid to be used for Chinese college students. The finding supported the unidimensional structure of PACES.

Sociocultural and Social Justice

Attitudes Toward Exercise: Body Ideal Versus Health

Sarah M. Buck

Yan Searcy

Chicago State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Obesity-related diseases, such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, hypertension, certain types of cancer, and premature death, impact Blacks and Latinos at greater rates than other ethnic groups. Although exercise has been documented for decades as a leading approach to decrease risk for obesity-related diseases, Black and Latino populations report lower rates of exercise than Whites. Interestingly, despite the level of overweight/obesity in the Black female population, Black females report lower levels of body dissatisfaction compared to their White counterparts, and a wider range of body shapes (including those with BMI's classified as overweight and obese) are acceptable in Black females compared to White females.

Method: Using grounded theory, this qualitative study (N = 25) explored factors related to attitudes toward exercise among Black, Latina, and White females who self-reported exercising fewer than two days weekly. The study was conducted at a Midwestern urban university categorized as a Predominantly Black Institution (PBI) with approximately 25 percent Latino students. The qualitative design included an individual survey with open-ended questions as well as a focus group composed of those who responded to the survey. The survey was framed around the individual with twenty questions grouped under three major categories – individual health, perceptions about themselves, and others' perceptions about themselves. The focus group questions were framed around culturally- based perceptions of body ideal.

Analysis/Results: Results suggest that attitudes about body ideal are culturally influenced and directly impact the likelihood of choosing exercise as a preventative or risk-reduction strategy to combat obesity. As a correlate, the study also suggests that the desire to exercise is related primarily to appearance (to approach body ideal) rather than health. Additionally, the study reveals that in those cultural groups where a larger body size is ideal, women may reduce the importance of exercise because they fear that losing weight will reduce their appeal to current and potential mates.

Conclusions: These findings indicate a need to promote the preventative health benefits of exercise in those cultural communities that view exercise only as a means to achieve body ideal.

Body Demographics of Instructors and Demonstrators in Commercial Exercise DVDs

Bradley J. Cardinal, Katelyn E. Comfort, Brian Kuo, Rosalee L. Locklear

Kim A. Rogers

Marita Cardinal

Western Oregon University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Exercise DVDs generate $264.4 million revenue annually; however, beyond people's receptivity to and interest in exercising at home, and evidence demonstrating the efficacy of non-commercial exercise DVDs, little is known about these products. In this study we describe commercially available exercise DVDs in terms of instructors' and demonstrators' body demographic characteristics.

Method: Ten commercially available, contemporary (2011–2014) exercise DVDs promoting moderate to vigorous physical activity were obtained from multiple sources (i.e., internet, personal property, public library). They ranged in duration from 13–86 minutes (M = 42.80, SD = 22.73). Instructors (N = 10) and demonstrators (N = 20) were characterized by their sex, language, race, attire, and body shape and size (i.e., Figure Rating Scale; smallest = 1, largest = 9).

Analysis/Results: There were six female and four male instructors, each accompanied by 0–4 demonstrators (M = 2.00, SD = 1.05). Thirteen demonstrators were female, whereas seven were male. Two instructors had non-English accents, but all instruction was in English. All female instructors were Caucasian. Two male instructors were Caucasian and the others were African American and Latino. Of the female demonstrators, eight were Caucasian, four were African American, and one was Asian American. Of the male demonstrators, six were Caucasian and one was Asian American. The most commonly worn attire by the female instructors was a sports bra (n = 5) and capris tights (n = 3), whereas for males it was a tank top (n = 2) and knee-length baggy shorts (n = 2). The most commonly worn attire by female demonstrators was a sports bra (n = 7) and bootie (low-cut brief spandex) shorts (n = 5), whereas the male demonstrators all wore knee-length baggy shorts and a t-shirt, tank top, or zip-up hoodie (all n = 2). Female instructors (M = 2.75, SD = 0.76) were smaller than males (M = 4.25, SD = 0.96), p = .018, d = 1.79. Likewise, female demonstrators (M = 2.96, SD = 0.82) were smaller than males (M = 3.75, SD = 0.76), p = .037, d = .99. Borderline significant, but large relationships were observed between instructors' and demonstrators' sex, χ² (1, N = 20) = 3.81, p = .051, C = .40, and instructors' sex and demonstrators' race, χ2 (2, N = 20) = 5.14, p = .076, C = .45.

Conclusions: Commercial exercise DVDs may be perpetuating and reinforcing hyper-sexualized and unrealistic body images to a potentially unsuspecting audience.

Ethical Decision-Making Standards of Collegiate Athletes

YuChun Chen

Louisiana Tech University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Previous research on sport ethics has covered a various types of cheating, gambling, bribes, and unsportsmanlike conduct of coaches, administrators, parents and fans. The purpose of this study was to examine (a) ethical decision-making standards of current collegiate athletes and (b) who most influenced their decision-making in sports.

Method: Two hundred and twenty-four student-athletes at a NCAA D-I university completed the Sports Decision Making Survey (Sandlin, Keathley & Sandlin, 2013). The survey includes demographic information, 15 sport-related scenarios, 10 true/false statements on personal characteristics, and one question on identifying which individual(s) influenced their decision-making in sports. Athletes responded the scenarios as clearly ethical (1), somewhat ethical (2), somewhat unethical (3), and clearly unethical (4) with 15 minimal (questionable ethical standard) and 60 maximum (exceptional ethical standard) scores.

Analysis/Results: Regarding the sport-related scenarios, statistical analyses revealed significant differences by gender, t(220) = 5.730, p = .000, by category, t(222) = 3.074, p = .002, and by team, F(10, 213) = 3.907, p = .000. Female athletes had a significantly higher ethical decision-making score (M = 42.48, SD = 7.831) than males (M = 36.61, SD = 7.388). Athletes participating in individual sports scored significantly higher (M = 42.05, SD = 8.850) than those in team sports (M = 38.36, SD = 7.668). Post-hoc analyses revealed that the volleyball team had a significantly higher score (M = 45.83, SD = 6.351) than the football team (M = 36.54, SD = 7.882), the baseball team (M = 36.45, SD = 7.268), and the men's basketball team (M = 33.67, SD = 7.127). In addition, the track team scored significantly higher (M = 42.10, SD = 9.888) than the football and men's basketball team. Significant differences were not found by age, ethnicity and classification. As for statements on personal characteristics, none of the independent variables were significant. Family members (53.7%) appeared to be the most influential individuals, followed by professional athletes (19.6%), coaches (17.8%), and others (8.9%).

Conclusions: Moral education and ethical training should be addressed to all athletes, and extra effort could be made to the particular groups of athletes who displayed somewhat questionable ethical standards in the present study. Family members, professional athletes and coaches should be aware of their great influence on those young athletes and act as positive role models for them.

Krump: Case-Study on Inner-City Origins, Applications and Diverse Demographics Transference

Christa Ann Davis

Lewis-Clark State College

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Numerous rural at-risk youth share similar family and drug related challenges as contemporaries in urban settings (Osgood, & Chambers, 2000). Research indicates positive peer/mentor relationships and physical activity can dramatically decrease at-risk behaviors (Fahs, et al, 1999; Hellison, & Walsh, 2002). The dance form KRUMP demonstrates positive effects on urban at-risk youth but has not been observed in rural environments. The purpose of this study was to investigate South Central Los Angeles (L.A.) origins of KRUMP; identify impact and applications assisting area youth – avoiding gang affiliation/violence. It also aims to discover/create practical tools; allowing for transference of key principles into diverse regions of the United States.

Method: An ethnographical/case study blended design, included semi-structured interviews and informal debriefings that described the lived experience of five dancers, immersed for nine days in the environment of the KRUMP culture. A convenience sample (n = 4) was derived of college-age dancers (age 19–30), willing to travel to L.A. The ethnography involved the researcher/dance professor, age 48. All subjects participated in a variety of KRUMP activities; birthday parties, at-risk youth outreach, studio classes, liturgical settings and a “Battlezone” KRUMP event. Data collection involved pre-test/post-test questionnaires, individual journals, researcher journal notes, audio/video recording, focus group debriefing and informal conservations concluding each day. Follow-up interviews occurred three months and six months post-trip. Grounded theory methods were used for data collection and analysis. Open, axial and selective coding was utilized to identify themes. A cross check within and across persons offered triangulation, ensured substantiation of specifics – interpreted, confirmed or discounted.

Analysis/Results: Three themes emerged: family background, dance experience, cultural nuances. Participants experienced clearly defined stages: surprise, enlightenment, acceptance, and transference. Each dancer struggled to embody the new movement, for different reasons based on background, self-confidence, and perceived-competence. Age and familial experiences also influenced the rate in which involvement became comfortable and perceived achievable. Follow-up interviews revealed insightful ideas on future implementation – ways to reach marginalized youth in the Northwest.

Conclusions: Findings demonstrate strong support for the use of KRUMP as an effective cultural awareness tool and adds to the body of research exploring the multi-dimensional use of dance in emotional healing, healthy exercise, and attainment of life-skills for healthy active living. Further development is merited to discover practical means to transfer knowledge into programming for rural at-risk youth – promote important pedagogic advances, nurture Common Core, and battle against obesity in today's youth.

Continuing Professional Development Needs of HBCU Graduates in PETE

Kacey DiGiacinto

Brian Culp

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Siedentop and Locke (1997) argue that the educational mission of university and state level educational personnel is to provide continuing professional development (CPD) as a service to the profession in order to promote appropriate and effective educational practice. High quality CPD should not only be the right of an educator it should be an obligation to the profession. Armour, Makopoulou, and Chambers (2008) boldly propose, “unless physical education teachers undertake challenging and effective professional learning throughout their long careers, they are unfit to be trusted with responsibility for children and young people in education, physical education, wellness, health, or anything else” (p.213). An extensive journal search found zero articles related specifically to the CPD needs of graduates from Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCU). At a time when there is, “considerable debate about the quality of graduates that HBCUs produce” it is necessary to find out in which areas beginning teachers from HBCUs perceive that they need more education to prepare them for teaching K-12 PE (DiGiacinto, 2014, p. 183). The purpose of this study is to identify areas in which recent PETE graduates feel they need more training in undergraduate program to properly teach concepts in the field of physical education.

Method: A survey was distributed to physical education teaching graduates of HBCUs, who were in their first 5 years of licensure in the field of physical education. Participants were licensed teachers, licensed substitute teachers, and licensed students pursuing graduate education.

Analysis/Results: This study found that inclusion strategies, practical daily technology use, sport specific training, and coping with multi-cultural or cross-cultural communication and perceptions were areas where graduates needed additional training. Coping with combating preconceived assumptions about them, as professionals, was an issue for many of the participants.

Conclusions: This study has identified areas that should be addressed when providing CPD opportunities through HBCUs to licensed educators. This study also identifies areas where undergraduate HBCU programs can strengthen their courses of study, so that their graduates are better prepared to handle certain content areas or topics to lessen the immediate need for CPD to perform daily teaching functions. Through programming improvements HBCUs can strengthen the quality of their graduates and improve public perception.

High School Students' Understandings of Elite Athletes with Disabilities

Hayley Frances Fitzgerald

Leeds Metropolitan University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Internationally, within PE inclusion has become a central concern of legislation and policy. Slee (2004) argues that is it important to consider how society comes to know and understand disability. Indeed, the process of schooling provides a significant context in which young people begin to formulate understandings of themselves and others. This presentation aims to explore non-disabled young people's understandings of elite athletes with disabilities. The differential value(s) of athletes with disabilities can be considered by deploying the conceptual tools offered by Bourdieu (1977, 1984, 1990). Of particular relevance to this research are the concepts of habitus and capital.

Method: Data were generated in one high school in England through a series of focus group discussions with 20 non-disabled young people. Visual images were used to trigger and stimulate conversations. Each of the focus group discussions was recorded and transcribed. Transcripts were coded and key themes developed.

Analysis/Results: The main themes emerging from these data include: different, impaired bodies; legitimising and valuing disability sports; and experiencing (un)valued disability sports. These data provide evidence that a paradigm of normativity prevails in sport and many of the focus group participants reproduce these normative conceptions through their understandings of the athletes and disability sports. The sporting habitus serves to affirm this normative presence and is embodied through conceptions that recognise and value certain competencies and bodies more than others. In Slee's (2004) terms, what these young people know about disability is expressed through a deficit medical model. Whilst internationally the social model of disability has increasingly been advocated in education and sport policy, it is clear this view have not been transmitted through the thinking of the majority of the young people in this study.

Conclusions: The focus group discussions raise key questions about what kind of role schools and sport currently, or should, play in promoting understandings of disability that move beyond restrictive medicalised conceptions. PE is positioned as a key site in which experiences and understandings of a (dis)abled physicality are embodied. This context of participation also offers the possibilities for disrupting deficit conceptions of disability. For this to be achieved, restricted views of ‘ability’ and ‘performance’ will need to be extended by teachers, coaches and the young people they support in ways that move beyond current, narrowly defined conceptions.

Exploratory Online Market Analysis of Plus-Size and Regular-Size Exercise Clothing

Christy Greenleaf

Amy Kauffung

University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: In the United States, 32.2% of adults are overweight or obese (Ogden et al., 2006) and < 10% of adults are sufficiently active (Tucker et al., 2011). A number of barriers, including fear of embarrassment and weight bias, may contribute to inactivity (Chambliss & Blair, 2005). Individuals with overweight and obesity may find exercise apparel to be a barrier; yet, to date, research has not explored the plus-size exercise apparel market. This study explored and compared the cost, variety, and color of plus-size and regular-size exercise apparel sold online.

Method: An exploratory online market analysis of four major retailers with designated plus-size and regular-size apparel was conducted to determine the variety, color, and cost. Total number of options, color options, and cost of the most and least expensive item of short sleeve top, long sleep top, pants/tights, and capris for women and shorts for men was recorded for designated plus- and regular-sized items.

Analysis/Results: Average number of tops and bottoms for women was 22 ± 15.6 for plus-size and 289 ± 257.6 for regular-size apparel. For men, average number of tops and bottoms was 66 ± 25.9 for plus-size and 414 ± 420.8 for regular-size. Average number of color options for plus-size women was 3 ± 1.8 and 5 ± 5.2 for regular-size apparel; for men, plus-size was 5 ± 6.6 and regular-size was 6 ± 7.6. Average percent difference for women between the most expensive items was 12.11% ± 9.06, while average percent difference between the least expensive items was 25.44% ± 18.93, with plus-size apparel being more expensive. Average percent difference for men between the most expensive items was 7.26% ± 7.48, while average percent difference between the least expensive items was 10.85% ± 12.75, with plus-size apparel being the same price or more expensive.

Conclusions: This exploratory analysis revealed a trend in availability, variety, and cost with fewer options and variety and higher cost for plus-size apparel. Limited availability and higher cost may deter individuals with overweight and obesity interested in being physically active. Lewis et al. (2011), for example, found that adults reported lack of plus-size exercise apparel to be a source of stigma which negatively impacted their self-esteem and confidence. These psychological repercussions may affect physical activity behaviors. Future studies should examine the extent to which variability of exercise apparel for individuals with overweight and obesity is associated with stigma and physical activity behaviors.

International Perceptions of China, Chinese People and Martial Arts

Yucheng Guo

Tonggang Fan, Shoupei Li

Taoguang Liu

Shanghai University of Sport

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: National image is a concept that encompasses political, cultural and public images of a country. Many foreign people always mention Chinese martial arts when talking about China or Chinese culture. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine international martial arts practitioners' perceptions of China, Chinese people and martial arts.

Method: Participants of this study (N = 400) were international Chinese martial arts practitioners who participated in the 4th International Tai Chi and Fitness Conference, the 5th International Traditional Chinese martial art Festival, the 6th World Cup Sanda Competition and the 9th China Zhengzhou International Shaolin martial art Festival in 2012. Questionnaires were distributed to the participants during the events and 365 were returned; among which 347 (86.75%) were deemed valid. Participants were 59.7% males and 40.3% females and 61.7% with education above the junior college level. Most respondents were from America (38.3%) and Asia (30.8%) respectively. Among all the participants, 61.7% had learned Chinese martial art only.

Analysis/Results: The main perception on the image of Chinese martial arts by international Chinese martial arts practitioners is a long history, followed by great fitness value and cultural content. The main perception on the image of Chinese martial arts practitioners in China is enthusiasm, followed by confidence, courtesy and superb fighter. The main perception on the image of Chinese people is friendliness, followed by self-improvement, enthusiasm and diligence and wisdom. The main perception on the image of China is a long history, followed by a big population, profound cultural accumulation, rapid economic development, and tradition. The main perception of the effects of learning Chinese martial arts is health promotion and physical fitness enhancement.

Conclusions: From the perspective of international practitioners, the images of Chinese martial art, Chinese practitioners, Chinese people and China is highly relevant. Overall, the communication of Chinese martial arts has a substantial correlation with the building of the image of China.

How Volunteering With Youth with Disabilities Influences Acceptance of Diversity

Jessica Lynne Hamm

Erin A. Siebert, Jill Katherine Pawlowski, Jennifer Beamer

Joonkoo Yun

Oregon State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Scholars have begun to advocate for a shift from the medical model to the social model of disability, transitioning from an emphasis on individual limitations to a focus on the role of society and the constructed environment on an individual's disability. The minority group model, a subset of the social model, argues that the experiences of individuals with disabilities are similar to those of racial minorities, in both individual and institutional discrimination. It is believed that in order to reduce discrimination, attitudes toward diversity must be improved. The contact hypothesis predicts that the attitudes of people without disabilities can be positively influenced through quality interactions with individuals with disabilities. However, a greater understanding of the contact hypothesis' mechanisms that affect change in attitudes towards individuals with disabilities is needed, with research focused on how to foster quality interactions between individuals without and with disabilities. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine if different factors influence acceptance of diversity in student volunteers following an eight-week physical activity program for youth with disabilities.

Method: Fifty-eight subjects who volunteered in an 8-week physical activity program for youth with disabilities, completed the Miville-Guzman Universality-Diversity scale – short form. Average scores of weekly measures were used to track subjects' attitudes and experiences of working with both the program participant who has a disability, and supports from the activity leader. Activity leaders were graduate students responsible for implementing a physical activity lesson plan and providing support to the volunteers and participants.

Analysis/Results: A multiple regression was used to evaluate the factors influencing change in diversity via attitude, personal experiences, and participants' experiences with activity leaders. The results indicated that the model explained 11% of the variance due to changes in acceptance of diversity, (R = .11). Also, it revealed that the study participants' experience related to the support of the activity leader was the only significant factor to predict a change in acceptance of diversity scores (β = 0.39, p < .01).

Conclusions: Activity leaders can help foster quality experiences of student volunteers within the setting of physical activity programs for individuals with disabilities, thereby positively influencing the volunteers' acceptance of diversity. Future research is needed to understand the mechanisms activity leaders use when providing quality experiences for volunteers to influence changes in acceptance of diversity.

Butches, Morons and Isolation: Sport Figures' Images in Korean Films

Man-Seok Han, Ji-Eun Lee

Taeho Yu

Deockki Hong

University of Northern Iowa

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Media images including film are powerful tools to formulate a certain figure's stereotypical characteristic. Film viewers are influenced by symbolic representations of figures' characteristics portrayed in films. Analyzing physical educators in popular films is a useful tool to understand media frames of physical educator's social standing. The purpose of this study was to examine the cinematic images of sport figures during the past decade in South Korea.

Method: The ten films were chosen for the study using the following steps. First, each researcher compiled a list of Korean films released between 2000 and 2013 that have been viewed over a million. Second, researchers excluded sport-dominated films because of its limitation for the directors' intentions. Then, each researcher searched story lines and media reviews for the films. Lastly, a peer review was conducted to finalize the list of films that mainly deal with sport figures.

Each researcher observed the films independently while noting the dialogue and camera shots of all scenes involving sport figures for emerging frames of reference regarding physical education teachers, (former) athletes, or coaches. Data were analyzed using ethnographic content analysis, constant comparison method and text analysis.

Analysis/Results: Two categories emerged from the data: sport figures' image portrayed in individual film and their occupations, physical and verbal behaviors, relationships to others, and others' perceptions. Three themes emerged based on the categories: Butches, Morons, and Isolations. First, almost all films described sport figures as butches. Second, sport figures portrayed in films were often lacked of intelligence, finance, family backgrounds, and even ethics. Lastly, they were situated in isolation in many cases.

Conclusions: Recognitions of sport figures including physical education teachers and former athletes have been marginalized and distorted in Korean society. An understanding of the media frames about sport figures is important because it provides an insight about social cognition and behavior in regard to issues of sports and physical education.

The Mascotization of Indigenous Peoples – Is There Honor?

Chadron B. Hazelbaker

Eastern Washington University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: During the early fall of 2012, the Washington State Board of Education passed a resolution asking all school districts in the state to eliminate the use of Native American mascots (Ellin, 2012). Many researchers have discussed racist images in sport and have called for the banning of Native American names and images for all sports teams (Moreley Johnson, 2011; Pewewardy, 2004: Black, 2002). It is believed that the mascotization of peoples objectifies and alienates them. Sports organizations have had various reactions to governmental, media, and indigenous peoples' requests to change names, logos, and imagery. The Washington Redskins ownership has stated that they will never change the logo because it is not only a name, but a unique protected identity (Zirin, 2010). On the other side of the debate are scholars who make arguments against the perverse nature of mocking peoples that Americans have tried to exterminate. The use of indigenous mascots and team names in sports is compared to Germans historically using Jewish caricatures in a similar way (Morley Johnson, 2011). “No other race of people is used as mascots or tokens of luck for sports” (p. 108). Much discussion in the media has been focused on imagery opressing indigenous peoples or honoring indigenous peoples. This study was undertaken in order to better understand the relationships between certain tribes and the athletic teams they are associated with, and to better understand the ideas presented in honoring through identification of indigenous peoples with sports teams.

Method: A qualitative methodology has been used to collect data through interviews, published writing, and team logos in order to explore the idea of “honor” as it relates to the use of indigenous group imagery and traditions in minor league baseball. Using Moustakas' research methodology, data was initially collected in Spring 2014.

Analysis/Results: Triangulation of data has developed examples of honoring logo use, relationships between sport entities and tribes, and developing themes for discussion. Preliminary themes include history, relationships, and long term vision for the dual-win relationship by both parties.

Conclusions: Through early analysis, it appears the development of an honor-based relationship between indigenous groups and sport clubs is rare. However, there are cases where teams and tribes have come together to develop educational, marketing, and operations relationships in order to promote the sport and the tribe.

Ethnic Minority Student Engagement in Campus Recreation: Barriers and Facilitators

Tram V. Hoang

Bradley J. Cardinal

Daniel W. Newhart

Oregon State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Colleges and universities exist in both academic and social contexts, with nonacademic experiences being important for student retention (Tinto, 1975). According to the Consortium for Student Retention Data Exchange (2002), first year student retention rates were highest among White students (80.3%), whereas they were 67.2%, 74.7%, and 75.7% for American Indian/Alaskan Native, Black/African-American, and Hispanic/Latina/o students, respectively. Contributing to improving this situation by assuring that their facilities, programs, services, and staff are grounded in and operating by principles of diversity, inclusivity, and social justice are important concerns of campus recreation professionals. This will become increasingly important in the future, as demographic trends indicate that ethnic minority groups will account for the vast majority of America's total population growth (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to identify barriers and facilitators of ethnic minority students to participating in campus recreation programs.

Method: Undergraduate students (N = 22; n = 14 females, n = 8 males) who identified as American Indian/Alaska Native (n = 6), Black/African American (n = 7), or Hispanic/Latina/o (n = 9) at a major research university located in the Pacific Northwest were recruited from campus cultural centers to participate in one of three focus group discussions. Each focus group lasted 45 to 60 minutes, with each discussion being audio recorded and later transcribed verbatim. The transcribed text was analyzed and coded using the constant comparative method (Strauss & Corbin, 1990), with consensus achieved by two independent coders. The results were also member-checked to ensure that the data was not misinterpreted or incomplete.

Analysis/Results: Ten themes emerged, including four barriers and six facilitators. The barriers included organizational barriers (i.e., crowded facilities, lack of equipment knowledge, socioeconomic barriers associated with additional cost of classes, lack of access to students taking online classes), lack of time, gender barriers, and cultural barriers. The facilitators were social dynamics of campus recreation facilities, health maintenance, personal growth, maintaining a cultural connection, facility and services, and accountability.

Conclusions: Campus recreational programs can create more inclusive environments by ensuring equitable use of shared spaces, facilitating women's weight training, providing online resources to students, creating more structured programming, requiring cultural competence training for all staff, and designating spaces for cultural recreational activities. Future research could explore other potentially underserved student population groups, such as differently abled students; lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, or queer students; student parents; or veteran students.

Perceived Sexual Orientation of Women in Sport and Non-Sport Contexts

Erin Leonard

Nicole Kaysing

Adam Keath

Justin Menickelli

Chris Cooper

Western Carolina University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Gender stereotypes of female athletes are often manifested in the form of sexual orientation. Many women who participate in sports such as basketball and softball are perceived as having masculine characteristics and stigmatized as lesbians (Harrison & Secarea, 2010). This study examined the perceived sexual orientation of women in both sport and non-sport contexts. The investigators were interested in perceived sexual orientations of female athletes and not their actual sexual orientations.

Method: Three women were randomly selected from the 2012 U.S. National basketball, softball, soccer and volleyball teams for a total of 12 women. For each woman selected, two publicly available images were used in the study. One image depicted the woman in a sport context (e.g., playing softball) and the other was a headshot with no identifying clothing (e.g., a softball uniform).

Men (n = 148) and women (n = 181) participants (M age = 28.7 years, SD = 13.04) were shown 12 images of women in either a sport or non-sport context so that participants were not as likely to deduce the purpose of the study. Images were randomized before each survey and were identified only by letter. Survey data was collected on a city street in the southern U.S. (population 85,712) and only individuals who identified themselves and 18 years of age or older were selected for participation.

An investigator asked each participant a scripted query: “As I show you each photo, tell me on a scale of one to five your gut feeling about the person's sexual orientation.” Each participant was then shown a Likert-type, perceived sexual orientation scale (PSOS): 5- very certain the person is gay, 4- somewhat certain the person is gay, 3- not certain if the person is straight or gay, 2- somewhat certain the person is straight, 1- very certain the person in straight. Data from participants who could identity any of the women by name was eliminated.

Analysis/Results: An ordinal logistic regression indicated there were no significant differences in perceived sexual orientation between sport context and headshot images (p = .977). However, separate ordinal logistical regressions indicated a significant difference between sport context and headshot images of basketball (p < .001) and softball players (p < .001).

Conclusions: The results lend support to previous findings which suggest that perceived sexual orientation may be both context and sport dependent. Only women basketball and softball players were perceived as being significantly “more gay” when viewed in a sport context.

Moral Reasoning Relative to Social Justice Issues in Intercollegiate Sport

Julie Latrell

Sharon K. Stoll

Jennifer M. Beller

Washington State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: For 100 years, researchers have argued that sport builds moral character, arguing that sport builds qualities of honesty, responsibility, and justice. Research, involving all NCAA divisions, schools with a Christian mission, high schools, and NAIA schools, has been consistent and found that sport does not build athletes' ability to reason morally about commonly occurring issues in sport. Male team sport athletes, in particular revenue producing sports, appear to be the most highly negatively affected by the competitive environment, scoring significantly lower than individual sport athletes. Female athletes have consistently scored significantly higher than male athletes, yet female team sport athletes score significantly lower than their individual sport peers. Considering this research, the NCAA mandated life skills intervention programs to improve social responsibility. These programs have been in place since the early 1990s. One would assume that moral reasoning about justice issues would improve. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare moral reasoning results of current student athletes from 2014 to the 1989 findings in one Division I institution with a strong Life Skills program.

Method: Participants were males (n = 18) and females (n = 44), team sport and individual sport athletes from one Division I institution. Participants completed the HBVCI, a valid inventory for measuring moral reasoning (based in honesty, responsibility, & justice) in sport (Cronbach = .84 current study; range .77–.89 all studies). The possible range of scores was 12–60, with the higher the score the higher the level of moral reasoning. ANOVA procedures were run with alpha set at p < .05.

Analysis/Results: ANOVA results found that females (M = 43.59+6.93) scored significantly higher compared to males (38.33+8.74), F (1, 58) = 5.24, p = .026, partial eta² = .083. Individual sport athletes (M = 44.48+7.9) scored significantly higher compared to team sport (37.95+5.76) F (1, 58) = 7.52, p = .008, partial eta² = .115.

Conclusions: The current study is consistent with results from 25 years ago. Male revenue producing sport athletes score lowest on issues of honesty, responsibility, and justice. The intervention program does not appear able to overcome the historical and current competitive milieu of sport as athlete moral reasoning scores reflect similarly to the low scores of 25 years ago. This appears troubling relative to social justice issues in sport. Further research should concentrate on whether life skills programs address greatly needed social justice work in sport.

Modified Ride-On Car Use by Children with Complex Medical Needs

Samuel W. Logan

Heather Feldner

James C. Galloway

University of Delaware

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Independent mobility is a fundamental human right throughout the lifespan, not only for function but also to engage in enjoyment and exploration of the world around us. However, because the majority of our society views disability as an individual deficit rather than a social process of discrimination, and mobility technology as a last resort rather than an opportunity, we have created a significant social disparity in access, self-efficacy, independence, and play. In contrast, millions of typically developing children use battery-powered ride-on cars (ROCs) for enjoyment and exploration during childhood. Children with complex medical needs or disabilities deserve this same access to independent mobility and physical activity. Go Baby Go is a community-based, mobility technology research and outreach program that provides modified ROCs to children with disabilities. The purpose of this study was to determine the enjoyment and exploration through modified ROC use by children with complex medical needs.

Method: A case-series design was used and included three children (age range: 19 months to 5 years old). Children were video recorded using their ROC during the 20-week study.

Analysis/Results: Two of the three children demonstrated high levels of enjoyment during ROC use as indicated by the high and low frequency of positive and negative facial expressions, respectively. All three children successfully learned how to drive an ROC, based on the amount of independent driving time during each session.

Conclusions: ROC use appears to be a feasible and enjoyable mobility technology for children diagnosed with complex medical needs, both for enjoyment and to explore their environment. The ROC allowed children to engage in activities that their peers without disabilities often participate in during childhood.

Race and Gender Differences in Moderate to Vigorous Physical Activity (MVPA) Levels of Urban Youth

Kimberly A. Maljak, Erin E. Centeio, Mariane M. Fahlman

Nathan McCaughtry

Alex C. Garn

Bo Shen, Noel L. Kulik

Jeffrey Martin

Wayne State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: There is a strong link between childhood physical activity (PA), adult PA and morbidity and mortality. Morbidity and mortality related to hypokinetic disease disproportionally impact non-white minorities and people of low socioeconomic status (SES). To date, there is a dearth of research regarding the Arab American population and PA levels. The purpose of this research was to determine if PA levels differed between White, African American and Arab American urban elementary school children.

Method: This cross-sectional study involved 285 (117 males; 168 females) fourth grade urban elementary school students of low SES who self-identified as African American (n = 171), Arab American (n = 43), or White (n = 71). PA was objectively measured during the school day using Actigraph G3TX+ accelerometers. PA data was collected over a period of three consecutive school days and an average amount of MVPA was calculated. Data were screened for missing values, outliers, and normality and then an ANOVA was run using MVPA as the dependent variable and race and gender as the independent variables.

Analysis/Results: Significant main effects were found for both race F(2, 284) = 10.94, p < 0.001, h² = .07 and gender F(1, 284) = 15.55, p < 0.001, h² = .05 as well as the interaction of race and gender F(2, 284) = 5.30, p < 0.01, h² = .04. Specifically, male students were more active than female students (M_male = 62.44; M_female = 53.23) while Caucasian students were more physically active than their African American and Arab American counterparts (M_Caucasian = 64.02, M_{AfricanAmerican} = 52.82, M_ArabAmerican = 56.68). There were no significant differences between African American and Arab American students.

Conclusions: Few studies have explored the PA levels of Arab American children. The most significant finding of this research is the low levels of PA in minority urban youth indicating a strong need to implement early interventions geared towards increasing these students' PA levels. These findings are especially troubling given the evidence supporting the protective effect of PA in the fight against cancer, cardiovascular disease and obesity. Childhood PA levels are linked to adult PA levels and early interventions among minority populations, specifically African American and Arab American children are necessary to stem the long term health impact of physical inactivity.

Demographic Differences of Heterosexist Attitudes in Women's College Athletes

Elizabeth M. Mullin

Springfield College

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Heterosexist attitudes are endemic to athletics (Barber & Krane, 2007; Hawes, 2001; Jacobson, 2002). Consistently, men have demonstrated greater homophobic attitudes than women (Roper & Halloran, 2007). Little is known regarding the demographic differences within women's collegiate athletics. The purpose of the study is to compare heterosexist attitudes by type of sport (individual versus team), NCAA division, and other demographic variables.

Method: A national (n = 621) and regional (n = 225) sample of female collegiate athletes (N = 846) concurrently completed the Heterosexist Attitudes in Sport – Lesbian scale (HAS-L; Mullin, 2013) and a demographic questionnaire online or via paper and pencil. A 3 (Division) × 2 (Sport Type) MANOVA and a 3 (Political Affiliation) × 2 (Ethnicity) × 3 (Sexual Orientation) MANOVA were conducted. The four subscales of the HAS-L were the dependent variables: Cognitive/Affective (C/A), Language Behaviors (LB), Inclusion Behaviors (IB), and Avoidance of the Lesbian Label (ALL).

Analysis/Results: No significant first order or second order interactions were found. A significant main effect for Sport Type was found [Λ = .99, F (4, 724) = 4.37, p < .05, partial η² = .02]. Team sport athletes reported significantly higher heterosexist LB than individual sport athletes (F = 16.05, p < .05). A significant main effect for Division was found [Λ = .97, F (12, 1915.82) = 1.90, p < .05, partial η² = .01]. Division I athletes reported significantly higher heterosexist C/A, LB, and ALL attitudes than Divisions II and III. No significant main effect was found for ethnicity. A significant main effect for political affiliation was found [Λ = .93, F (8, 678) = 3.05, p < .05, partial η² = .04]. Conservatives reported significantly higher heterosexist C/A (F = 8.42, p = < .05) and ALL (F = 4.86, p < .05) attitudes. A significant main effect for sexual orientation was found [Λ = .94, F (4, 338) = 5.16, p < .05, partial η² = .06]. Individuals self-reporting as exclusively heterosexual or “1” on the Kinsey scale reported significantly higher C/A heterosexist attitudes than those reporting as “2” or higher.

Conclusions: Attitudinal differences were found in sport type, division, political affiliation, and sexual orientation. Significant differences were most frequently found on the C/A and LB subscales. Coaches, administrators, and sports psychologists should consider education through appropriate use of language and debunking stereotypes when educating their athletes on heterosexism to create a more inclusive environment.

Sport Theme Feature Films and Female Athletes: A Contemporary Analysis

Demetrius William Pearson, Russell L. Curtis

James L. Conyers

Eddie T.C. Lam

Cleveland State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Over the years women have not faired well in support or “protagonist” roles in sport films. However, there have been some subtle changes in the depictions and characterizations, storylines, and number of sport films featuring female athletes since the latter decades of the 20^th century. The purpose of this content analysis study was to trace and highlight salient socio-cultural aspects pertaining to the representation of female athletes in American sport films released during the new millennium. This inquiry was relevant because research suggests (Caudell, 2008; Messner & Cooky, 2010; Pearson, 2010) that role modeling and emulation are often impacted via media depictions (or the lack thereof).

Method: Content analysis and archival research methodologies were employed to systematically identify, examine, and code all American sport films depicting sport “heroines” from 2000–2014 (N = 16), as well as the analysis of published critical reviews of each sport film from “reputable” media sources (e.g., New York Times, Roger Ebert.com, Rotten Tomatoes, etc.). The reviews were a viable data collection source and provided key insight into various aspects within certain sport films. They also served as a form of “data-source triangulation” for reliability and validity purposes (Pitney & Parker, 2009).

Analysis/Results: Descriptive results indicate that of the 95 sport films released during the new millennium 16 (17%) depicted female protagonists. Of the 16 sport films 3 (19%) depicted African Americans, while only 1 (6%) depicted Hispanic females. The sport most represented was basketball (4), which comprised 25 percent of the films depicting female athletes. It was followed closely by boxing (3) and soccer (3) respectively. Interestingly, only one sport film depicted a female in a leadership capacity. And, as previously noted, several films depicted females in non-traditional sport roles.

Conclusions: Our research concurred with other pre-millennium studies addressing female athlete representation in sport films, yet differed also: (a) few female depicting sport films were released; (b) paucity of “bio-pics” featuring notable female sport Figures (e.g., Billie Jean King, Babe Didrikson, Jackie Joyner-Kersee, etc.); (c) very limited depiction of females in leadership roles; (d) pervasiveness of comedic storylines; and (e) the depiction of females in non-traditional sport roles. Thus, even though Title IX led to an exponential increase in female sport participation, their depiction via various media outlets has been limited. According to Bartyzel (2013), Hollywood has an obsession with real-life sport stories but this rarely extends to women.

Perception of Amateurism and Video Games amongst Division II Athletes

Darryl Rankins

Robert Lindsey

Robert Lyons

Queens University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The NCAA maintains a balance between amateurism and the increasing need for generating revenue. (Cianfrone, Kaburakis, Paule, & Pierce 2012). In this balancing act, there were various policy considerations and legal constraints. The behavior of amateurism is something that cannot be monitored all the time and it is more so a concern in Division I athletes as far as enforcing rules and regulations. Few studies have examined the perception of amateurism and video games on African American college student athletes. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the perception of amateurism and video games on Division II African American college student athletes.

Method: A convenient sample of student-athletes from classes in the Department of Health and Human Performance at a small southeastern private historically black college and university was utilized in the study. The perception of Amateurism and Video Games was measured using the Modified Version of Amateurism and Video Games Questionnaire. The responses on the questionnaire ranged from 1 to 5 on a Likert scale with 1 being extremely unlikely to 5 being extremely likely.

Analysis/Results: Independent t-test and ANOVA were utilized to determine the differences between the demographic categories and the perception of Amateurism and Video Games questions, alpha = .05. Students reported means above 3.0 for the following questions, “I would like to be featured in an EA Sports video game”, “I believe the way the NCAA institutions and video games are using student athlete's image/likeliness is fair”, and “I believe that there should be a separate waiver form that would help student athletes clarify the way in which NCAA would utilize student athletes in age likeliness”. Males reported a higher score compared to females in regards to Question # 8, “I would like to be featured in an EA Sports video game”. Analysis of variance revealed that students who played basketball and football scored higher than those who played volleyball, softball, and tennis in regards to Question # 8, “I would like to be featured in an EA Sports video game”.

Conclusions: Results from this study are similar to others in that student athletes in football and basketball wanted to be featured in EA Sports video games and how they felt that the NCAA was fair in how they are using student athlete's images and likeness. Recommendations are made to further examine amateurism and perception video games among African American college student athletes.

Investigating Experiences that Impact the Development of Graduate Students Identities

Jared A. Russell, Michelle Vaughn, Desmond Delk

Korey Boyd

Asherah Blount

Morehouse College

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The purpose of this phenomenological case-study research was to examine the characteristics and nature of “negative diversity-oriented events” (e.g., microaggressions, overt racist or sexist comments, etc.) experienced by a racially/ethnically diverse cohort of KINE graduate students (n = 8) at two land-grant research-intensive institutions of higher education. Additionally, this research provides details on the manner and extent of the impact of these experiences on the participants' racial, professional and social development.

Method: To understand the participants' respective perspectives, researchers used contemporary mixed-methods (quantitative and qualitative) data collection and analysis techniques. Specifically, data collection consisted of individual and focus group semi-structured interviews, critical incident reports and questionnaires. Moreover, qualitative data analysis included developing coding categories, analytic induction techniques and theme development. Complimentary social identity (McEwen, 2005) and racial/ethnic identity (Helms & Cook, 2005) theories formed the framework for this research. Quantitative data were analyzed using the Predictive Analytics SoftWare (PASW) Package 19.0 to generate descriptive statistics including means and frequency counts.

Analysis/Results: Participants' elucidated strikingly similar experiences and perspectives of impactful “negatively diversity-oriented events” which were categorized into three general themes: (a) professional marginalization, (b) academic invalidation, and (c) microaggressions. Further, participants detailed their responses to these events allowing for the development of four additional themes: (a) questioning of ability and value, (b) self-marginalization, (c) open resistance, and (d) “leaning out” or self-limiting development opportunities. Additionally, the importance and sources of support were identified as: (a) peers and non-academic colleagues, (b) faculty advisors and advocates, and (c) family. Lastly, participants provided graduate academic program leadership and administration recommendations and “best practices” to identify and constructively negate “negatively diversity-oriented events”.

Conclusions: This research provides evidence of the common and shared experiences of KINE graduate students from traditionally underrepresented groups. It is clear that what we have characterized as “negative diversity-oriented events” are impactful on graduate students of diverse backgrounds particularly and all graduate students in one manner or another generally. In conclusion, the significance of this research lies in the dissemination of these findings which can lead to informed and purposeful discussion among graduate program administrators and scholars regarding the implementation of appropriate graduate student development processes. The goal of all KINE academic programs must be to provide a safe, supportive, and inclusive environment for all graduate students.

Kinesiology, Sport, Etc.: International Diversity of Department and College Names

David P. Schary

Bradley J. Cardinal

Oregon State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Department names and college affiliations reflect many things (e.g., mission, politics, purpose). In the United States, the field of exercise, sport, and physical activity has accumulated numerous department names and college affiliations. This study's purpose was to gain an international perspective on the organizational structure of the field.

Method: Corresponding authors from one of seven English speaking countries (i.e., Australia, Canada, Hong Kong, New Zealand, South Africa, United Kingdom, and the United States) were identified using a stratified-random sample of journal articles (n = 139) published in 10 different kinesiology-focused journals between 2008–2012. Their department and college names were recorded. Where multiple names in the title occurred (e.g., Exercise and Sport Science), only the first name was used. Chi-square tests of independence, with Bonferroni correction, were used to assess associations. For variables with low expected values (n ≤ 5), Monte Carlo simulation was applied.

Analysis/Results: Of the seven different types of department names, the most frequently used were Kinesiology (27%) and Sport (27%). However, the United States accounted for 73% of Kinesiology (χ² = 116.43, p < 0.001), while the United Kingdom accounted for 78% of Sport (χ² = 125.89, p < 0.001), with neither country utilizing the other name. Across all countries, Sport was also the most popular department name, used in every country except Canada and the United States. With five each, the dispersion of department names within Australia and the US was the largest, followed by Canada and South Africa with four each. There were nine different names of colleges represented, the most popular being Health/Medical (35%) followed by Education (18%). Colleges of Educations were most prevalent in the United States (χ² = 106.00, p < 0.001), accounting for 82%. Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States had six different college affiliations, followed by Australia with five.

Conclusions: Names significantly differ depending on the country or region, reflecting both historical roots and future ambitions. However, this has created some unique arrangements. For example, within North America, the department names reflect a “scientific” approach, but the departments are primarily located in colleges of Education, especially in the United States. In addition, the United Kingdom's strong association with Sport, at both the department and college level, shows the word's inclusivity, which is not reflected in other countries. These results provide faculty, administrators, and professional organizations an international scope of the field's organizational structure and lack of consensus/unity.

Spirituality and the Zone Among African American College Students

Wayne Starkes, Robert Lindsey

Rennae Williams

Dwedor W. Ford

Aaron Livingston

Hampton University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Being in the zone has been described as experiencing a positive state of consciousness, the state achieved by athletes to a peak experience in which total engrossment, effortlessness and transcendence of self can be achieved independent of performance (Prebish, 1993). Research has also demonstrated that some athletes associate being in the zone along with a higher power. However, few studies have examined spirituality and being in the Zone among African American student athletes. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine spirituality and being in the zone among African American college student athletes.

Method: A convenient sample of student-athletes from classes in the Department of Health and Human Performance at a small southeastern private historically black college and university was utilized in the study. Data was collected using a Modified version of the Zone Test and the Spiritualty in Sports Test. The responses on the questionnaire ranged from 1 to 4 on a Likert scale with 1 being strongly disagree to 5 being strongly agree.

Analysis/Results: Independent t-test and ANOVA were utilized to determine the differences between the demographic categories and the Zone and SIST questions, alpha = .05. Students reported means above 3.0 to the following Zone questions: “I look to spirituality or religiosity for guidance of character during a game”, “I look to spirituality or religiosity to keep me healthy during games”, “I look to spirituality or religiosity to pull my team together”, and “I use spirituality or religiosity to help me with the emotional roller coaster of winning and losing..” Students reported means above 3.0 to the following SIST questions: “I have had the feeling of being able to move around, between or through my opponents.”, “I have experienced moments in sports where I feel I can do no wrong.”, “I have experienced a feeling of self-mastery and power when taking risks in sports.”, and “I have had the feeling during sports that I am on automatic pilot.” There was a significant difference between classification and gender and the Zone state questions. There was also a significant difference between classification and the SIST questions.

Conclusions: Results from this study add to the literature new information about the relationship between spirituality and being in the Zone among African American student athletes. Recommendations are made to further investigate the relationship of spirituality and being in the zone among African American student athletes at historically black colleges and universities.

Being Physically Active: South Asian, Muslim Girls Negotiate Familial Boundaries

Annette Stride

Leeds Metropolitan University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Research exploring the physical activity experiences of girls has a strong history of focusing upon particular kinds of girls. Typically, the physical activity narratives of ethnic minority girls remain largely ignored (although note: Hamzeh & Oliver, 2010, 2012, Hill & Azzarito, 2012). Indeed, little is known about the challenges these girls face in accessing physical activity opportunities. This research explored the experiences of a group of South Asian, Muslim girls living in England. A feminist ‘middle ground’ lens (Archer et al., 2001), using Hill Collins' (2000) matrix of domination and an intersectional approach was adopted.

Method: Data were collected over two years in an urban co-educational high school. 95% of the students are from minority ethnic communities and 91% are Muslim. Mixed, qualitative and participatory methods used included, observation of PE lessons; the creation of research artefacts; and individualised interviews with 13 girls. Data were woven together to create a series of critical non-fictional narratives.

Analysis/Results: The family's role in shaping the physical activity experiences of the girls is significant. For example, the girls discussed how their family facilitates their participation through transport, companionship and challenging traditional beliefs within Muslim communities regarding girls being physically active. However, three areas of importance emerged in the girls' lives that influenced their physical activity involvement: household responsibilities; education; and religion and culture. The family materialised as a key mechanism through which these areas are prioritised and monitored. Yet, the girls navigate these challenges in their quest to be physically active.

Conclusions: The first message emerging from this study acknowledges alternative understandings to those often depicted in the media of South Asian, Muslim girls being oppressed, caught between cultures, and experiencing intergenerational conflict. Secondly, whilst Asian families are often pathologised and presented as the cause of various ‘problems’ for young women, and British society (Brah, 1992), these findings highlight the supportive role of the family in different aspects of the girls' lives. Thirdly, whilst the girls from this research share some similar kinds of experiences to White girls from previous studies, positioned at the intersections of gender, religion, age and culture their stories demonstrate some qualitatively different kinds of experiences relating to the embodiment of their Muslim identity. Moreover, they demonstrate their determination to be physically active by not only negotiating the challenges faced by White girls, but by navigating diverse, often conflicting, expectations, as Muslim girls.

Motor Skills and Early Academic Achievement

Amanda Tepfer

Shannon Lipscomb

Molly Kile, Megan McClelland

Megan MacDonald

Oregon State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Early childhood is a time filled with incredible growth in all areas of development and is a critical period for optimal learning. Research also indicates early childhood as a critical period for motor development (Ulrich, 2010). During early childhood (between the ages of 1–7 years), children develop fundamental motor skills. An emerging body of literature suggests a positive relationship between motor skills early academic achievement (Becker et al., 2014).

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship of motor skills and early academic achievement in young preschool aged children.

Method: Ninety-one children, between the ages of 3–5 years, were assessed on motor skills and early academic achievement. The average age was 51 months, ranging from 37 to 68 months. Motor skills were assessed in the fall using the Peabody Developmental Motor Scales, 2^nd ed. (Folio & Fewell, 2000). Early academic achievement was assessed in the spring of the same preschool year using sub-tests of the Woodcock-Johnson III. These sub-tests included early literacy and early math skills (Woodcock & Mather, 2001).

Analysis/Results: Separate multiple linear regressions predicting early academic achievement using motor skills were used to analyze the data. Motor skills in the fall positively predicted early academic achievement in the spring. Stationary skills, ( = .260, p = .032) and visual motor skills ( = .504, p = .001) positively predicted early literacy skills. Grasping skills ( = .237, p = .05) and visual motor skills ( = .463, p = .001) positively predicted early math skills.

Conclusions: Children with better motor skills in the fall had better academic achievement skills in the spring. These findings shed-light on the role motor skills play in early academic achievement for young preschool aged children.

African Americans' Scary Stories and Physical Education Folklore

Elizabeth A. Woodruff

Matthew D. Curtner-Smith

The University of Alabama

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Research suggests that transferring from elementary to secondary school can be a difficult experience for many children, and students making this transition often suffer from anxiety and stress. One source of stress is the scary stories transitioning students hear about their new schools, particularly those about physical education and sport. The purpose of this study was to examine the scary stories young African American adults recalled hearing about physical education as they made the transition from elementary to secondary school.

Method: Folklore and the concept of role reversal were the theoretical perspectives that guided data collection and analysis. Participants were 51 African American students enrolled at one historically Black college. They were asked to write down scary stories they recalled hearing prior to transferring to secondary school within a two-item open-ended story record. Stories were coded and categorized and reduced to key themes using analytic induction and constant comparison.

Analysis/Results: Stories were coded and categorized and reduced to key themes using analytic induction and constant comparison. Fifty-nine general scary stories were collected within three themes: (a) bullying and deviant behavior, (b) high academic standards, and (c) supernatural incidents and mythical rooms. Sixteen scary stories about physical education and sport were collected within four themes: (a) hard physical exercise, (b) communal showers and homosexual advances, (c) bullying in physical education, and (d) team initiations. These themes were similar to those found within earlier British studies and within one study of Caucasian Americans. Also in congruence with the earlier studies, the themes indicated a link between schooling and the body. The fact that there was no reference to physical education and sport within the general scary stories and that many of the participants could not recall scary stories about physical education when prompted to do so suggested that the subject was a peripheral feature within the participants' folklore. This may have been because of the high standard of physical education they were provided. Conversely, it may reflect the insignificance of the subject in the participants' lives.

Conclusions: The study provided signposts on where the focus should be in order to improve the transitional process for children moving to secondary school. Specifically, results suggested continued emphasis on eradicating bullying, honing new academic skills, and familiarizing incoming students with their new school. In terms of physical education, results suggested that the focus be on quieting fears about showering, changing clothes, and lesson content.

Sport and Coaching

Fake Movements and Some Kinematic Parameters in Soccer

Emel Cetin

Akdeniz University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The aim of this study is to examine some kinematic parameters during fake movement in Antalyaspor U16 soccer team.

Method: 15 male athletes (age: 16.00 ± 0 years; height: 175.40 ± 7.53 cm; weight: 69.13 ± 6.97 kg) played soccer in Antalya Spor U16 soccer team participated in this study. Each athlete who participated in the study did accurate a shot to goal with left and right fake movement. Shooting performances were recorded two camera and all performances evaluated in biomechanical.

Analysis/Results: Statistical significant difference was found at trunk and knee angles, between height of max and min center of gravity values and right and left step length values during the fake movement (p < .05).

Conclusions: At the fake movement of athletes to right direction were observed better performance. Dominant limb (right) and agility values have been effective in these results.

Service Quality and Customer Satisfaction of Sport Centers

Siu Yin Cheung

Tsz Chung Chiu

Jennifer Y. Mak

Marshall University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine the consumer expectations and perceptions of the sport centers' service quality which were operated by the government department (GD) and the outsourcing expertise (OE).

Method: The SERVQUAL was used to measure consumer expectations and perceptions on sport centers' service quality. The questionnaire was originally written in English and then translated into Chinese. It was reviewed for content validity by a panel of experts and then was pilot-tested using 40 consumers to assess the validity and reliability. Based on the results of the pilot study, further modifications were made in order to clarify some ambiguous wording in the Chinese version. The questionnaire contained three parts. Part I and II each consisted of 22 questions related to consumer expectations and perceptions on sport center service respectively. The participants were asked to rate service quality using a 7-point Likert-type scale. The final part consisted of 14 questions related to exercise patterns and demographic information. The questionnaires were distributed to six complex sport centers in which three of each managed by GD and OE respectively. The entire procedure yielded a total of 302 valid and usable questionnaires.

Analysis/Results: The data were analyzed using several statistical techniques. The Independent sample t-tests were used to assess the differences in expectation, perception and service quality gap mean scores among the five service quality dimensions between the public and outsourced sport centers. Paired T-tests were used to measure the service quality gap between consumer expectations and perceptions. Factorial Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) tests were performed to identify the differences among gender, income level, education level, and administrative system with regard to service quality expectations and perceptions respectively and the gap scores. The results showed that expectation scores were higher than perception scores in all types of sport centers. Moreover, the results found that perception scores in outsourced sport centers were significantly higher than public sport centers. No significant effect on service quality dimensions was found on gender, however, significant mean differences were found on income group, education level, and administrative system.

Conclusions: The finding implied that the quality of service provided by all types of sport centers were below the expectation of users. Users perceived outsourced sport centers provided a better service than public sport centers. The government may consider increase the outsourcing services and/or implement improvement programs to enhance the service quality of public sport centers.

PYD Through Completion of the MBA Three-Week Intervention Program

Lucas W. Clift

Eastern Washington University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Participation in organized sport programs can have a lasting effect on youth not only in their specific sport but in the larger society as well. Research shows that sport is an activity that commands a degree of primary or secondary involvement unsurpassed by other institutionalized settings (Frey & Eitzen, 1991). Participating in sports gives one the opportunity to learn valuable lessons that may not be able to be learned in other settings. Early research focused on youth as problems who needed to be fixed (Witt, 2002). Research has since moved from this approach and now studies youth as humans who need to be developed and taught. While much anecdotal evidence has pointed to the need for more study in Sport for Development programs, there is little empirical data on program outcomes on participants. This study will use inductive reasoning to analyze positive youth development (PYD) through the completion of Midnight Basketball Association's (MBA program). Using Lerner's 5 C's of PYD, this study seeks to understand the role of a basketball intervention program on adolescents and the program.

Method: A pre-post survey research design will be used to assess participant perceptions of personal changes following the organizational objectives of the MBA: participant's character, self-esteem and discipline. Lyras and Welty-Peachy's (2011) Sport for Development Theory will frame the survey instrument and analysis. Data will be collected during Fall of 2014. The participants will be ages eleven through fourteen who are enrolled in the MBA in Spokane, Washington. The target populations of the program are youth in the central urban neighborhoods. Participants are assumed to be at-risk and of lower socioeconomic status.

Analysis/Results: For this study a dependent samples t-test will be used to compare the means of participant's pre and post-test questionnaire answers. The dependent t-test will identify if there are any statistically significant differences between means. Descriptive statistics will allow for the comparison of values of questionnaire answers as well as allow for comparison of gender.

Conclusions: Positive youth development (PYD) seeks to enable individuals to lead a healthy, satisfying, and productive life as youth, and later as adults. Problems in promoting positive youth development emerge because sport programs can differ in design and quality, creating an environment that does not promote positive development. This study is significant because it aims to create better opportunities for our youth and add to the literature on outcomes of PYD programs.

Conceptualization of Sportsmanship Among Aspiring Coaches: A Visual Study

Brian Culp

Kacey DiGiacinto

Robert Schmidlein

San Jose State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Recent events have called attention to an examination of sportsmanship practices and the underlying assumptions regarding behavior in competitive situations. Generally, scholars (Abad, 2010; Goldstein & Iso-Ahola, 2006; Keating, 1978) have attempted to provide a portrait of sportsmanship in two distinct ways. First, the concept is described through words such as fairness, courage, and determination. Second, it is defined though actions such as treating others justly while respecting authority and opponents. Despite attempts at a consistent definition of sportsmanship, codes of behavior are largely subjective among communities of practice, sport tribes, and even the most ardent observers. Compounding this narrative are global structural changes and an accelerated technological age that Toffler (1970) suggested is overwhelming for people. In respect to technology, visual media images are a unique vehicle that captures a range of sociohistorical and cultural processes and ideals (Weber & Barker-Ruchti, 2012). In particular, visual media images influence behavioral choices that help to shape opinions, perceptions of value, and ultimately dispositions (Mayehauser, 2006; Renggli, 2007; Türk, 2010). The purpose of this study sought to examine aspiring coaches' perceptions of sportsmanship using sport images as a focus for reflection.

Method: Seventy three aspiring coaches completed an electronic open-ended survey that inquired about their sportsmanship practices and views on photographs displaying sportsmanlike behaviors. Content analysis of participant surveys assisted in the identification of themes from aspiring coaches.

Analysis/Results: Analysis of the data indicated the following: (1) aspiring coaches' views on sportsmanship reflected a human nature value orientation that equated following rules to acceptable behavior (2) aspiring coaches' narratives showed inconsistencies with their definitions of sportsmanship and their reflections on sports photographs, and (3) aspiring coaches' perceived sportsmanship as deficient outside of the confines of mainstream American sport.

Conclusions: The results of this study suggest that sportsmanship is a contextual ideal that needs to be further deconstructed to develop meaning given the influence of visual media. Also, the analysis of sports photographs may assist future professionals in uncovering meanings of sportsmanship and work towards consistent application of the ideal in their practices.

Parental Pressure, Anxiety and Performance Among Age Group Swimmers

Timothy Michael Dasinger

Birgitta L. Baker

Louisiana State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Youth sport can enhance a child's social, physical and psychological development, and can also create a tighter family bond (Heinemann, 2005; Müller & Sternad, 2004; Smith, Cumming, & Smoll, 2011). Parents introduce children to youth sport and can increase a child's level of enjoyment in the sport. However, parents can also place too much pressure on the child, which can lead to increased pre-competition anxiety and decreased performance (Bois, Lalanne, & Delforge, 2008; Scanlan & Lewthwaite, 1984). The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships among perceived and desired parental pressure, pre-competition state anxiety, subsequent performance, and intention to continue the sport in youth swimmers ages 9–18.

Method: A sample of 43 swimmers (17 male, 26 female; M = 12.8 ± 2.6 years) on a United States Swimming (USS) sanctioned club team in a mid-sized Southern city participated in this study. These swimmers completed the directive behavior scale of the Parental Involvement in Sport Questionnaire (PISQ) in the days preceding a swim meet. Variables analyzed in the PISQ include perceived pressure, desired pressure and the discrepancy between perceived and desired pressure for each parent. Immediately before the swimmer's first race of this meet, each athlete completed the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 Modified for Children (CSAI-2C); the swimmer's performance from this first race was compared to the previous personal best of the athlete to develop a performance time-ratio. After the meet concluded, each swimmer declared his or her intention to continue swimming past this year.

Analysis/Results: Bivariate correlations and regressions were run to analyze the questionnaires. Discrepancy of father's pressure (b = 0.322, p = .015), age (b = .518, p = .007), and gender (b = 2.476, p = .022) were significant predictors of cognitive anxiety in a regression analysis. In separate regression analyses, cognitive anxiety predicted intention to continue (b = − .066, p = .036); the more cognitive anxiety a swimmer experiences, the less likely that swimmer will intend to continue swimming and age was the only significant predictor of performance (b = .012, p < .001).

Conclusions: Results indicate the importance of working with parents to learn appropriate supportive behaviors when interacting with their children in sport settings and working with parents and coaches to develop programs to reduce cognitive anxiety in children participating in sport.

Health Care Attitudes and Burnout of Graduate Student Athletic Trainers

Travis Edwards, Daquane Ellington

Sharon K. Stoll

Jennifer M. Beller

Washington State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Medical students experience long training hours with limited down time to rest, recuperate, or recreate. Research supports negative effects on attitudes, exhaustion, and feelings of personal accomplishments. Athletic training graduate programs appear to follow a similar model of long hours. Heavy travel schedules and the depersonalization of athletic environments appear to lead to high levels of stress and exhaustion. Graduate course attendance and performance appear to suffer. Research shows that women athletic trainers leave the profession by age 28 because of work/life imbalance, conflict with parenting and personal time, thus making up only 25% of full-time athletic trainers in the Division I setting. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship of health care attitudes, health care practices, depersonalization, and personal accomplishments relative to emotional exhaustion among randomly sampled graduate student athletic trainers across all NCAA divisions.

Method: Participants were male (n = 73) and female (n = 39) graduate student athletic trainers across all Divisions. Participants answered, using SurveyMonkey, the Maslach Burnout Inventory (valid tool for measuring burnout in medical professions) and a general health care attitude (Cronbach .79) and practice (Cronbach .76) survey. Forward multiple regression was conducted to determine which independent variables (health care attitudes, health care practices, depersonalization) were predictors of emotional exhaustion. Correlations were run between gender, emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishments.

Analysis/Results: Regression results indicate an overall model of two predictors (health care attitudes, depersonalization) that significantly predict emotional exhaustion R² = .501, = .48, F (4,107) = 26.8, p = .0001. The model accounts for 50% of the variability in emotional exhaustion. Personal accomplishment is inversely related to emotional exhaustion (r = − .29, p = .002) and depersonalization (r = − .31, p = .001), accounting for 8% and 9% of the variability respectfully. Gender did not significantly predict in this model.

Conclusions: Findings support that the depersonalization of the athletic environment and poor health care attitudes negatively impact graduate athletic trainers, leading to emotional exhaustion, low feelings of personal accomplishment, and burnout. This research supports that the current medical model of long, intense hours negatively impacts graduate student athletic trainers regardless of gender. Medical providers need to rethink this model as depersonalization and poor health care attitudes appear to lead to emotional exhaustion and a lack of personal accomplishment which could impact quality of health care and increased burnout from the profession.

Spectators' Perception on Social Media Use to Manage Risks

John B. Egberts

Daniel P. Connaughton

J.O. Spengler

University of Florida

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Fan aggression, particularly at major sport events, is a potential risk faced by spectators. Sport managers employ various risk management methods to reduce fan aggression including but not limited to security personnel, strict policies, and text-messaging systems so fans can notify security of aggressive behavior. The purpose of this study was to explore spectators' (1) perception of risk regarding fan aggression at major sport events (NCAA DI & professional sports), and (2) belief and intention regarding use of social media to reduce fan aggression.

Method: After a literature review, expert panel review, and pilot study, a 14-item survey was developed to measure spectators' use of social media, perceptions regarding the risk of fan aggression, and intentions to use social media to reduce such risk. Students (N = 403) from two classes at a southeastern U.S. university were invited to participate in the study. A total of 334 students completed the online survey representing an 83% response rate. Data were analyzed utilizing SPSS 18.0.

Analysis/Results: Respondents were approximately 72% female, 96% were 18–22-years-old, 97% had a Facebook profile, 52% had a Twitter account, and 91% had attended at least one major sport event. Of the 303 respondents who attended a major sport event, 23% occasionally felt at risk from aggressive fans while 8% frequently or very frequently felt at risk. Over 47% agreed or strongly agreed that using social media to communicate with authorities would reduce such risk. However, only 34% agreed or strongly agreed they would use social media to communicate with authorities. Almost 37% agreed or strongly agreed that using social media to communicate with friends and others would reduce the risk. Interestingly, 43% agreed or strongly agreed that they would use social media to communicate with their friends/others regarding fan aggression. Strong, positive associations were found between beliefs and intentions regarding using social media to receive important, timely info (Gamma = .656, p < .001), communicate with authorities (Gamma = .548, p < .001), and communicate with friends/others (Gamma = .341, p < .001) regarding fan aggression.

Conclusions: Using social media as an additional, two-way, line of communication may enhance security and reduce the risk of fan aggression. Almost 81% of respondents had a phone capable of social media communication. In addition to communicating about fan aggression, future research should explore the use of social media to manage other risks at major sport events (e.g., terrorism, weather threats).

The Roles Mentors Play in Basketball Coaching

Jeremy Micheal Elliott

Paul Schempp, Brian S. Berger, Bryan McCullick

Jeff White

University of Georgia

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The purpose of this study was to identify the most and least dominant roles in basketball coaches' mentoring relationships. Specifically, this study investigated 11 different roles played by mentors in two categories: (a) “Career Development Functions” and (b) “Psychosocial Support Functions” (Kram, 1985). Further, differences in the impact of these roles were analyzed to determine any variances due to years of experience, education, and current coaching level.

Method: High school and college coaches (N = 83) participated in the study. Using the Coaches Mentor Role Instrument (CMRI) (Schempp, et al., 2014), data were collected at the 2013 National Association of Basketball Coaches (NABC) annual convention held in conjunction with the NCAA Final Four. Potential participants were approached at the NABC convention and asked to complete informed consent and then the CMRI. Data analysis included descriptive statistics, correlation, ANOVA, and regression analysis.

Analysis/Results: Descriptive statistics found the mean for the roles classified as “Career Development Functions” was 4.12 (SD = 0.67) and the mean for the roles categorized as “Psychosocial Support Functions” was 4.32 (SD = 0.58), indicating mentees scored their mentors higher in the roles categorized as “Psychosocial Support Functions.” Notably, mentors were scored highest in the roles of Acceptor (M = 4.57, SD = 0.59), Friend (M = 4.56, SD = 0.65) and Challenger (M = 4.35, D = 0.76). Significant correlations were found between: (a) years of coaching experience and the Protector role, and (b) the duration of mentoring relationship and roles of Sponsor, Promoter, Role Model, and Counselor. Regression analysis revealed an inverse relationship between years of coaching experience and the Protector role, whereby less experienced coaches rated their mentors higher as Protectors than more experienced coaches. Finally, coaches, who maintained their mentoring relationships for longer durations, had higher regard for their mentors in both the Career Development and Psychosocial Support Functions and scored their mentors higher in the Sponsor, Promoter, Role Model, and Counselor roles than those with shorter mentoring relationships.

Conclusions: Given the recent and numerous calls for more research on mentoring as a means for coach development (Bloom, 2013), this study has implications for practice and research. The results indicate that young coaches tend to view and value the mentor's role as a Protector which is information that coaches serving in the mentoring role should heed. Researchers should note that while the coaches in this study rated their mentors highly in their fulfillment of the Challenger role, the literature does not indicate how that role is exercised in coach mentoring.

The Roles Mentors Play in Basketball Coaching

Jeremy Micheal Elliott

Paul Schempp, Brian S. Berger, Bryan McCullick

Jeff White

University of Georgia

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The purpose of this study was to identify the most and least dominant roles in basketball coaches' mentoring relationships. Specifically, this study investigated 11 different roles played by mentors in two categories: (a) “Career Development Functions” and (b) “Psychosocial Support Functions” (Kram, 1985). Further, differences in the impact of these roles were analyzed to determine any variances due to years of experience, education, and current coaching level.

Method: High school and college coaches (N = 83) participated in the study. Using the Coaches Mentor Role Instrument (CMRI) (Schempp, et al., 2014), data were collected at the 2013 National Association of Basketball Coaches (NABC) annual convention held in conjunction with the NCAA Final Four. Potential participants were approached at the NABC convention and asked to complete informed consent and then the CMRI. Data analysis included descriptive statistics, correlation, ANOVA, and regression analysis.

Analysis/Results: Descriptive statistics found the mean for the roles classified as “Career Development Functions” was 4.12 (SD = 0.67) and the mean for the roles categorized as “Psychosocial Support Functions” was 4.32 (SD = 0.58), indicating mentees scored their mentors higher in the roles categorized as “Psychosocial Support Functions.” Notably, mentors were scored highest in the roles of Acceptor (M = 4.57, SD = 0.59), Friend (M = 4.56, SD = 0.65) and Challenger (M = 4.35, D = 0.76). Significant correlations were found between: (a) years of coaching experience and the Protector role, and (b) the duration of mentoring relationship and roles of Sponsor, Promoter, Role Model, and Counselor. Regression analysis revealed an inverse relationship between years of coaching experience and the Protector role, whereby less experienced coaches rated their mentors higher as Protectors than more experienced coaches. Finally, coaches, who maintained their mentoring relationships for longer durations, had higher regard for their mentors in both the Career Development and Psychosocial Support Functions and scored their mentors higher in the Sponsor, Promoter, Role Model, and Counselor roles than those with shorter mentoring relationships.

Conclusions: Given the recent and numerous calls for more research on mentoring as a means for coach development (Bloom, 2013), this study has implications for practice and research. The results indicate that young coaches tend to view and value the mentor's role as a Protector which is information that coaches serving in the mentoring role should heed. Researchers should note that while the coaches in this study rated their mentors highly in their fulfillment of the Challenger role, the literature does not indicate how that role is exercised in coach mentoring.

Training and Competition Behaviors of a Winning Collegiate Soccer Coach

Stephen Harvey

Kristen Dieffenbach

Edward Cope

Sheffield Hallam University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The coach remains a significant influence on the success of winning teams in collegiate athletics. Studies of winning coaches behavior have been undertaken in basketball (e.g., Becker & Wrisberg, 2008), football (Voight & Carroll, 2006) and volleyball (Lacy & Martin, 1994), with these being limited to training contexts only. There remains a critical need to understand the coaching behaviors and practices of coaches in other NCAA sports to develop an understanding of ‘effective’ coaching across different sports. This study reports on observations of one female NCAA D1 head coach, ranked among the top 25 winningest active women's soccer coaches, to determine her utilization of coaching behaviors within training sessions and competition.

Method: The coach was videotaped during spring training sessions (N = 4; M = 91.5 mins; SD = 11.79) and competition matches (N = 3; M = 118 mins; SD = 5.77). Video was analyzed using the Coach Analysis Intervention System (Cushion et al., 2012). This was supplemented by field note observations both ‘live’ and from the videotaped records. Systematic observation data were initially analyzed deductively using descriptive statistics. This was followed by an inductive analysis to ascertain potential ‘patterns’ of coaching behavior. Multi coder reviews were conducted to ensure inter-rater reliability exceeded recommended levels of 85% (van der Mars, 1989).

Analysis/Results: The findings demonstrated the coach's alignment of intervention behavior in training and competition. Instruction (19.76% training; 29.82% in competition), positive feedback (19.01%; 24.39%) and silence (9.32%; 14.50%) were the predominant behaviors across the two contexts. Higher percentages of these behaviors were present in competition because the coach was freed from management responsibilities (23.26%; 5.59%). Qualitative analyses documented that a positive feedback statement was made either prior, during, or after each intervention.

In both contexts the coach's behaviors were primarily tactical (64.56%; 60.02%) with more behaviors directed towards individuals in competition (78.02%) when compared to training (55.11%). Intervention behaviors that contributed sparsely in both contexts included questioning (5.69%; 2.15%) and negative feedback (4.70%; 2.35%).

Conclusions: Consistent with previous research, in training the coach used high levels of instruction and feedback, which was interspersed with periods of silent observation (e.g., Tharp & Gallimore, 1976). This current study also demonstrated that the coach's competition behaviors were consistent with her training behaviors, something not yet documented in the previous literature. These findings suggest the importance of aligning training and in-competition behaviors to assist coaches in creating a positive environment within which athletes can improve performance.

Burnout and Years of Sports Competition: A Follow Up Study

Shelley L. Holden

Christopher M. Keshock, Brooke E. Forester, Steven F. Pugh

Robert J. Heitman

University of South Alabama

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The purpose of the current study was to determine the correlation between years of sport competition and an athlete's level of burnout as measured by the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) subscales of Emotional Exhaustion (EE), Depersonalization (DP), and Personal Accomplishment (PA).

Method: The study was limited female athletes at a Division I institution in the southeastern United States. Participants were solicited from the various female sports teams at the university. All participants volunteered to participate. The number of female athletes who completed the MBI was 115. Ages ranged from 19 to 24 (M = 19.8) and participants were current members of the basketball (n = 15), cross country (n = 8), golf (n = 7), soccer (n = 29), softball (n = 17), tennis (n = 3), track and field (n = 19), and volleyball (n = 17) teams.

Analysis/Results: A Pearson correlation was conducted for each of the three burnout scales (EE, PA, DP) and years of competition. A significant association was found between EE and years of competition (r(115) = .296, p = .001). No significance was found for competitive years and PA(r(115) = − .146, p = .118), nor competitive years and DP(r(115) = .160, p = .088).

Conclusions: Current findings differ from previous findings. Researches' previous study indicated that years of sport competition are not correlated with levels of burnout in female Division I collegiate athletes. However, the current study revealed that athletes who have been competing for a greater number of years experienced a higher level of burnout on the MBI subscale of EE. Emotional exhaustion refers to a tired fatigued feeling that develops as an individual's emotional energies are drained over time (Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1996). Therefore, based upon prior research and the results of the current study, future research should continue to study the effects of years of competition and burnout in order to truly understand its effects on athletes. Further, future research should examine male athlete's levels of burnout as it relates to years of competition. Another potential area of study is to determine if those athletes who are less able to cope with the stressors of competition leave sports or if they “learn” to cope as they gain experience.

The Beneficial Effects of Bracing on Shot Put Performance

Lawrence W. Judge

Jean Marie Burke

Tiffany Patrick

Tyler Guidry

Elizabeth Wanless

David Bellar

University of Louisiana at Lafayette

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The action of a put, in the shot put event in track and field, is an overhand throw or cast with a pushing motion from the shoulder that places a significant amount of stress on the musculature and joints in the wrist that may lead to injuries. The purpose of this study was to determine if the incorporation of a wrist wrap, either small or large, has an impact on the throwing distance of a shot put thrower.

Method: The participants were 18 male Division I track and field athletes in the United States who are (age: 21.1 yrs ± 3.7; height: 187.7 cm ± 5.1; weight: 120.8 kg ± 19.6) experienced in the shot put event. The athletes reported to a competition shot put venue 3 separate times with no less than 24 hours between meetings. Each visit required the subject to complete an agility warm up routine (15 minutes of general warm-up and dynamic stretching) prior to testing. Once warm up was completed the subject was permitted 3 unmeasured warm up throws followed by 3 measured throws wearing the predetermined wrist wrap (light or heavy) or control for that particular test day. The throws were measured using an open reel tape measure.

Analysis/Results: The average (t₁₇ = 1.89, p = 0.038) and maximum (t₁₇ = 1.94, p = 0.035) throw distances while the athletes were wearing the heavy wrist were significantly greater than when the athletes were not wearing a wrist wrap. Improvements in average (1.9%) and maximum (2.2%) throwing distances for the heavy wrist wrap condition exceeded the criterion of 0.9% to 1.5% for smallest worthwhile improvement in the shot put event.

Conclusions: These results provided insights on the beneficial effects of taping and bracing on “real world” sports performance that has not been previously evaluated. Based upon these findings, the use of power lifting style wrist wrap is advisable for the shot put athlete to enhance sports performance.

Development and Validation of QOLS for University Athletes

Sang-Jo Kang

Jun-Woo Lee

Cho-Young Yook

Sae-Hyung Kim

Jin-Mi Kim

Sejong University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The purpose of this study was to develop and validate the quality of life scale (QOLS) for the university athletes in Korea. Athletes in the university setting are unique and different from normal population, so a valid QOLS is needed to be developed. Convergent and discriminant validity evidence using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) were examined to establish the validity evidence based on the internal structure of the QOLS.

Method: Based on the literature review and through consultation with content and measurement experts, a 25-item QOLS was generated. The scale consists of five factors: physical function (PF), economics (EC), social relationship (SR), self-esteem (SE), and emotional state (ES), and each factor has 5-items. The scale was administered to 221 university athletes in Korea. For convergent and discriminant validity, AMOS 21.0 program was used to analyze the data. Convergent validity was determined by composite reliability (CR) and average variance extracted (AVE). If CR is over 0.70 and AVE is over 0.50 for each factor, convergent validity is supported. Discriminant validity was determined by AVE and coefficient of determination (CD) that is a squared correlation between each two factors (i.e., PF-EC, PF-SR, PF-SE, PF-ES, EC-SR, EC-SE, EC-ES, SR-SE, SR-ES, and SE-ES). If each two factors' AVE is bigger than the CD, discriminant validity is supported (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988).

Analysis/Results: 15 of the 25 items had good path coefficient (>.50) with acceptable fit statistics. The 10 items were eliminated from the final estimation, which resulted in 3-items for each factor. Overall, model fits the data well (non-normed fit index [NNFI] = .921; comparative fit index [CFI] = .940; root mean squared error of approximation [RMSEA] = .067). All factors (PF, EC, SR, SE, and ES) have acceptable CR (>.70) and AVE (>.50). All two factors' CDs (i.e., PF-EC = .383, PF-SR = .265, PF-SE = .355, PF-ES = .004, EC-SR = .357, EC-SE = .373, EC-ES = .010, SR-SE = .363, SR-ES = .058, and SE-ES = .003) are lower than the AVEs, which demonstrated convergent and discriminant validity evidence.

Conclusions: This result supports validity evidence based on the internal structure of the QOLS. The scale can be used to assess the quality of life of individuals properly and provide meaningful information to university athletes. The newly developed QOLS for athletes in Korea should be validated with another sample to increase external validity.

Keywords: Convergent validity, Discriminant validity, Quality of Life Scale

Application Rasch Model and Extended Angoff Developing Golf Ranking System

Sae-Hyung Kim

Jun-Woo Lee

Sang-Jo Kang

Jae-Hyeon Park

Hyeoijin Kim

Tae-Gyu Kim

Han-Byul Kim, Chang-Hwan Choi

Min-Su Jeon

Korea National Sport University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Golf player rankings in Korean high schools are determined by sum of the frequency of successful driving (FSD) shot, frequency of successful approach (FSA) shot, and frequency of successful iron (FSI) shot. Players have to shot five times at each FSD, FSA, and FSI, so 15-score is the best score. However, evidence based on test content by golf experts suggests the driving, approach, and iron shot have different difficulty. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to develop a more fair and accurate ranking system for Korean high school golf players as employing different weights on the three shots.

Method: A total of 282 male high school golf players in 2013 were collected. The frequency of successful(S) and failed(F) at three shots (driving, approach, iron) was counted. To determine the difficulty of three shots, Rasch analysis with Winsteps 3.62 software (Linacre, 2009) was employed. The model fit criteria was set by Infit and Outfit statistics ( ≥ 0.70 and ≤ 1.30). Based on obtained difficulty score from Rasch analysis, weight scores on the three shots for S and F shots were assigned by five golf experts as employing three rounds of the extended Angoff method.

Analysis/Results: The difficulty of three shuts from Rasch analysis showed acceptable model-data fit. The most difficult shot was to success was approach (logit = 1.02) compared to other shots (iron = 0.75, & driving = − 1.78). Based on the difficulty obtained from Rasch model, weight scores assigned from extended Angoff were as follows: FSA = 1.50 vs. FFA (frequency of fail approach) = 1.00, FSI & FFI (frequency of fail iron) = 1.44, FSD = 1.00 vs. FFD = 1.50 (frequency of fail driving). Utilizing the weight of the shots, the derived equitation for the player rankings is = [(FSA × 1.50)+(FSI × 1.44) + FSD] − [FFA+(FFI × 1.44)+(FFD × 1.50)].

Conclusions: The newly developed high school golf male player ranking system should be validated to another sample (e.g., players in 2014) before applying to real evaluation. In addition, the derived equitation in this study may be able to apply for male players only, but not for female players.

Homophily in Parental Network of Top 100 Korean Rhythmic Gymnasts

Kyung-Hwa Lee, Han-J Lee, Narae Son

Jun-Hee Gee

Se-Hyung Ha

Yonsei University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The homophily principle states that people's networks are homogeneous with regard to socio-demographic, behavioral, and intrapersonal characteristics (McPerson. Smith-Lovin, & Cook, 2001). Homophily limits people's social worlds in a way that has powerful implications for the information they receive, the attitudes they form, and the interactions they experience. Limited studies have explored homophily in sports setting. The purpose of this study was to investigate the structures of parental networks of Korean rhythmic gymnasts and to examine whether homolhily existed. Research questions were: (1) What are the network structures of Korean rhythmic gymnasts' parents? (2) What structural parameters contribute to parental network structures, and (3) Is there an association between parental network and flow of information in their networks?

Method: A total of 77 mothers of youth rhythmic gymnasts (6–18 years old) participated in this study. Each of those mothers was contacted individually and asked to complete a Name Generator Questionnaire (i.e., list four names that you have a close relationship with, list name(s) of the best coach(es) in the field, etc.) and general socio-demographic survey. Their gymnast children's ranking of the year for2013 was also reported to examine their status. Data were analyzed using social network analysis tools such as UCINET, p-net, and Quadratic Assignment Procedure.

Analysis/Results: This study found that (1) homophily was identified in parental networks of gymnasts (2) homophily (e.g., by gymnasts' ranking, team affiliation, coach) contributed to the total social network of parents, and (3) interacting only with others in the network, members received information about coaches/coaching from the strong ties rather than weak ties (Granovettor, 1973).

Conclusions: This study suggest that parental homophily ties are formed by the ranking of their children in the sports arena through which they exchange information about competition, coaches, school works, etc.. This study has confirmed Festinger's (1950) classic theory of social comparison which posited that individuals would use as a reference group those who are similar to them.

Youth Sport Coaches' and Administrators' Perspectives on Coaching Education

Laura Petranek

Nicole Bolter

Boise State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Evidence suggests coaches learn valuable information from formal coaching education programs and that athletes have more positive experiences when coached by a trained leader (Barnett, Smith, & Smoll, 1992). Aside from formal coaching education, coaches obtain and use knowledge from a variety of other sources, such as informal observations, previous playing experience, etc. (Lemyre, Trudel, & Durand-Bush, 2007; Wiersma & Sherman, 2005). Erickson and colleagues (2008) recommend the identification and assessment of all sources of information used by coaches to help structure coaching education. Therefore, our purpose was to assess the educational needs of youth sport coaches by examining coaches' previous experiences with formal coaching education and the usefulness of knowledge gained through a variety of sources. This study extends the literature by including viewpoints from coaches and administrators about the perceived need, value, and availability of coaching education opportunities.

Method: Our sample included coaches (n = 202) and administrators (n = 38) of youth sport organizations representing over 20 individual and team sports in scholastic and non-scholastic settings for children between the ages of 3–17 yrs. Participants were on average in their early 40 s, Caucasian, male, and had more than five years experience in their specific role. All participants completed an online survey. Coaches were asked to identify and evaluate their formal coaching education experiences as well as informal sources of information used to inform their coaching. Administrators were asked about the availability and value of coaching education in their organizations.

Analysis/Results: Most coaches who had attended formal coaching education agreed/strongly agreed they learned valuable information (79.7%) and would use the information in their coaching (75%). However, only 33.2% of coaches said they often used/used all of the time formal coaching education as a source of information. Coaches reported they often used/used all of the time other sources of information, such as previous playing experience (81.2%), watching the sport they coach (82.2%), observing other coaches (82.2%), and talking with other coaches (82.7%). Few administrators reported coaching education was a required criterion for selecting coaches (26.3%) but most felt coaches needed to update or obtain new coaching skills (81.6%).

Conclusions: Findings provide insight into the value and need for both formal and informal coaching education and clues as to how best design coaching education programs to meet the needs of both coaches and administrators.

Perceived Stress in Undergraduate Male and Female Athletes and Non-Athletes

Steven F. Pugh

Shelley L. Holden

Robert J. Heitman

University of South Alabama

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The purpose of the current study was to compare the perceived stress levels of male and female athletes and non-athletes at a Division I institution as measured by the Sheldon Cohen's Perceived Stress Scale (PSS).

Method: The study was limited to students and student athletes at a Division I institution in the southeastern United States. Participants were solicited from various sports teams and classes at the university. IRB approval and informed consent were obtained. All participants volunteered to participate. In total, 107 students completed the PSS, (n25) male athletes, (n25) male non-athletes, (n = 18) female athletes, and (n = 39) female non-athletes. The mean age for the groups were male athletes (M = 20.04, SD ± 1.15), male non-athletes (24.08, SD ± 5.01), female athletes (M = 19.72, SD ± .894), and female non-athletes (M = 23.79, SD ± 5.03).

Analysis/Results: Stress data were analyzed using a 2 × 2 factorial design with Gender (male or female) and Athletic Participation (yes or no) as the two independent variables. The total stress score was used as the dependent variable. Significant main effects were found for both Gender (F(1,103) = 4.99, p < .028) and Athletic Participation (F(1,103) = 8.214, p = .005), but no significant interaction (F(1,103), p = .887). Females had significantly higher mean stress scores (M-18.82, SD ± 6.10) than males (M = 16.00, SD ± 6.87) and athletes had significantly higher mean stress score (M = 18.98, SD ± 5.37) that non-athletes (M = 15.89, SD ± 6.98). These results infer that within the realm of the sports surveyed, athletes reported significantly more stress than non-athletes and females reported significantly more stress than males.

Conclusions: The data indicated a greater level of perceived stress for athletes than their non-athlete counterparts and for females among both groups. The additional stress of being a student-athlete was an expected outcome in the elevated perceived stress scores for athletes. However, the elevated scores for females, as opposed to males, for both groups were not. Current research suggests that females typically deal with stress more effectively than males. The researchers have no explanation for the discrepancy based on gender, but this is certainly a topic for investigation. Questions to be examined might include: Why would females perceive more stress than their male counterparts? Is the higher level of perceived stress a matter of self-imposed drive for excellence? Is it the lack of coping strategies? Or, do female students perceive stressors that male students do not? Since unmanaged stress is a huge factor in wellness, these are important questions to be addressed.

Impact of Footwear on Sprint Performance

Jane Roy

Laura Sarrett

Will Cohen

Donna Dunaway

Samford University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The 40-yard dash is a frequently used test to assess sprint speed, which is an essential component for success in many sports (e.g. football). ‘Cleats’, running shoes and barefoot are three basic types of footwear that an athlete may use when training and performing, yet very little research has been conducted that compares the differences between them. The purpose of this study was to explore the effects of these 3 different types of footwear on 40-yard dash sprint performance.

Method: Healthy, physically active, male college students (n = 33) who were not on a varsity athletic team participated in the study. Participants provided and wore their own shoes, which were inspected prior to testing to ensure they met study criteria. All runs were performed on FieldTurf artificial grass playing surface, and each participant followed a standardized warm up before testing. Participants ran two 40-yard sprints in each footwear mode (barefoot = BF, athletic shoes with studded rubber cleats = CL, and athletic pavement running shoes with rubber soles = RUN) within one day using a random counterbalanced design. There was a 1-minute rest period between each sprint and a three-minute rest when changing footwear. Infrared timing gates recorded the time from when the participant's foot left the starting block, to when the participant's body crossed the 40-yard line.

Analysis/Results: Mean ±  SD measures for anthropometrics and footwear sprint speeds were as follows: Age = 21 ± 1.0 years, BMI = 24 ± 3.5 kg/m²; Shoe Size (U.S.) = 11.3 ± 1.2; BF = 7.668 ± 0.423 m/s; CL = 7.665 ± 0.190 m/s; and RUN = 7.589 ± 0.192 m/s. No significant correlations were found between any of the anthropometric measures. Repeated measures analysis found a significant difference in speed between BF and RUN (p = 0.04).

Conclusions: These findings suggest that the type of footwear worn while running a 40-yard dash may affect run speed. This study has shown that there was no significant difference between BF and CL, and that RUN shoes may impair performance. The results from the present study provide valuable information that can be used by coaches, trainers and athletes when selecting footwear and evaluating sprint performance.

The Effects of a Coaching Program on International Basketball Coaches

Jack V. Sears

Darla M. Castelli

The University of Texas at Austin

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The International Basketball Coaching Experience (IBCE), organized by Global Sports Partners, provides coaches from around the globe with a basketball experience during the week of the NCAA Men's Final Four Championships and the National Association of Basketball Coaches (NABC) convention. The ICBE mission is to develop all aspects of coaching in a positive, enjoyable, and professional atmosphere. The purpose of this research study was to conduct a program evaluation to determine the effectiveness of an instructional coaching program while focusing on three areas: 1) coaching and teaching the sport of basketball, 2) perceptions and attitudes toward American society and sports culture, and 3) potential modification of ethical practices related to coaching and sport.

Method: Using a field research approach allowed the researcher to observe the participants within their context and influential environment. Data collection involved interviews and observational fieldwork in formal and informal settings. Data were triangulated across four semi-structured interviews, artifacts, and the researcher's journal containing the observations, and reduced through a constant comparison. Themes, codes and categories were identified, through the labeling of data. Purposeful inductive and deductive sorting, focusing, and reorganizing the data, allowed the researcher to draw final conclusions.

Analysis/Results: Six themes emerged: 1) IBCE training is effective and unique, 2) positive interactions direct the global language of basketball, 3) some things fall short in translation, 4) hospitality drives cultural exchange, 5) the convention environment and vendors were connectors, too, and 6) see you again next year!

Conclusions: The strategy of inviting international coaches to America for significant basketball training and interaction proved to be positive and worthwhile to all participants. Translation of technical language is important thus requiring translators who are familiar with basketball. Coaches expressed a strong desire to attend similar future events, bringing other coaches from their countries. Experiencing this cross-cultural event has great potential to impact coaching practices and the game of basketball worldwide.

Coaching from a Wheelchair: Perspectives, Perceptions and Reactions

Mark A. Smith

Scott Douglas

University of Northern Colorado

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The perception of a coach directly influences the motivation, self-perception, and ultimate success level of any team or athletic program. Very few studies have examined the perceptions and reactions of able-bodied athletes who have been coached by a coach with a physical disability. The purpose of this exploratory study was to examine the perspectives, perceptions and reactions of male high school athletes, and their respective parents and/or guardians in a successful high school basketball program, who were coached by a coach who used a wheelchair.

Method: Participants included varsity basketball athletes who had been coached for a minimum of 1 season and their respective parents and/or guardians. Parents and Athletes provided anonymous written responses to open ended survey prompts related to initial perceptions of having a coach in a wheelchair, strengths and weaknesses of the coach, and advantages and disadvantages to the athlete and the team by having a coach in a wheelchair. All data responses were transcribed. Once organized, a broad and holistic inductive analysis approach was taken to examine trends. First the data were analyzed for general themes, followed by breaking down the general themes into subthemes.

Analysis/Results: Data analysis identified three broad themes, with subthemes. These themes included: First Impressions, Learning about Life and Earning Respect. First Impressions described both parent and athletes responses to having a coach in a wheelchair. Concerns and Forging Relationships were two subthemes consistently identified by both parents and athletes under the theme First Impressions. The second theme, Learning about Life, focused on the positive attributes that a coach in a wheelchair conveyed to the varsity athletes. Two subthemes presented themselves within this broader theme: Overcoming Adversity and Never Judge. More than Basketball and Coaching Knowledge constituted the third theme, Earning Respect, which highlighted the challenges and advantages that a coach in a wheelchair might experience when coaching an able bodied basketball program.

Conclusions: Athletes and parents alike recognized the unique and positive attributes that having a coach in a wheelchair brought to a high school basketball program in terms of knowledge, experience and building relationships. In this exploratory study, the coach who uses a wheelchair had to earn respect through slightly different avenues within the coaching process than a coach who was not. However, affective coaching variables (perseverance, admiration and dealing with adversity) provided a platform to forge strong program-wide relationships and demonstrate coaching expertise.

Social Media in Athletics: A Review of Division III Policies

Eric M. Snyder

University of Oklahoma

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The influence of social media in the lives of students, including the student-athlete subpopulation is massive and has sparked the creation of policies to police activity. Research examining social media policies has focused specifically on the Division I perspective (Sanderson, 2011). Division III athletes also utilize the communication tool and therefore exploration regarding social media policies at the Division III level is warranted.

Research pertaining to student-athletes and social media is limited. A total of four academic studies have analyzed concerns regarding student-athletes and social media (Butts, 2008; Browning & Sanderson, 2012; Havard, C. T., Eddy, T., Reams, L., Stewart, R. L., & Ahmad, T., 2012, Snyder, 2014). Additional research pertaining to legal issues related to social media policies has been addressed by the following (Epstein, T. L., 2011; Hopkins, J., Hopkins, K., & Whelton, 2013; Parkinson, 2011). Sanderson (2011) offers the only study that explores the content within athletic department social media policies. Sanderson's study called for further investigation of social media policies at each division level.

Method: A list of Division III conferences (N = 45) and member schools (N = 449) was obtained from the NCAA Website (NCAA, 2013). The athletic department web site for each school was then visited to obtain the student-athlete handbook (N = 97).

A textual analysis was conducted (Potter, 1996, Paek & Shar, 2003). policy was read and social media policy elements were noted and grouped to answer the research questions.

Analysis/Results: Of the policies that were analyzed, 32 institutions had implemented a policy that allowed monitoring of student-athletes profiles. The remaining 65 institutions did not specifically mention any monitoring or banning policy however; they did provide guidelines to the student-athletes regarding appropriate behavior. No institution had a written policy that banned student-athletes from using social media, although one institution highly discourages them from utilizing the 21^st century communication. Analysis revealed the following content restrictions/advice: personal contact information (n = 77), inappropriate pictures (n = 83), inappropriate comments (n = 65), offensive language (n = 65). The policies mentioned these specific social media sites: Facebook (n = 94), Myspace (47), Twitter (76), Youtube (31).

Conclusions: Social media and intercollegiate athletics will continue to develop their relationship. It is suggested that many policies be revisited to emphasize and include the positives of social media. Additionally, the researcher advises the athletic departments to monitor social media policy trends within state and federal legislation.

How Coaching Behaviors Relate to the National Coaching Standards

Courtney Teatro

Pamela H. Kulinna, Hans van der Mars

Jayoun Kwon

Arizona State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: This study used the conceptual framework of the National Coaching Standards (NASPE, 2006) to study effective coaches and compare their coaching behaviors to the National Coaching standards. Although many studies have looked at the effectiveness of high school coaches, no studies could be found that also investigated how successful coaches' behaviors aligned to the National Coaches Standards.

Method: A convenience sample of ten, Caucasian and male, high school coaches were recruited to participate from a large school district in the Southwestern US as participants in this study.This study included two observations of coaching behaviors and the environment (using the ASUOI instrument; Lacy & Darst, 1984), one formal and several informal interviews, along with document analyses. All data were then compared to the National Coaching Standards (NASPE, 2006).

Analysis/Results: Descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations, frequencies, percentages) were reported for the observation data. A constant comparison technique (Brannon, 2005) was utilized to code, record, and analyze data from the various sources. Data triangulation (i.e., observational results, informal interviews, field notes, and document analyses), an independent peer reviewer, a search for negative cases and member checks were used to support the trustworthiness of the data. Results showed that these high schoolcoaches exhibited many positive and effective behaviors (especially related to instruction). It was surprising to find that none of the 10 coaches were familiar with the National Coaching Standards and that the standards were not fully reflected in the ASUOI, the coaching documents, or the coaches' philosophies. All eight of the domains from the Coaching Standards were observed during practices or present in documents; however, domain five (instruction) was observed much more frequently than all other domains. The qualitative themes identified across data sources were: (a) the importance of program structure and environment, (b) educational background and pedagogical content knowledge, and (c) coaching experiences.

Conclusions: This study is significant since no other studies could be found that compared coaching behaviors and materials to the National Coaching Standards. This study is also significant since it highlights the need for coaches to become aware of and to meet the National Standards for Coaches. It also highlights that many of the National Coaching Standards were not observed in a cohort of effective high school coaches.

Stakeholders' Views of Coaching Efficacy

Courtney Teatro

Pamela H. Kulinna, Hans van der Mars

Jayoun Kwon

Arizona State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The study grounded in self-efficacy theory sought to investigate varsity coaches' self-efficacy, including investigation of stakeholders' perceptions of coaches' efficacy using parallel items. The three research questions guiding this study were: (a) How efficacious are coaches? (b) What are student athletes' and parents' perceptions of their coaches' efficacy? (c) How does coach efficacy relate to stakeholders' perceptions of coach efficacy?

Method: Coaches, athletes, and parents were recruited from school districts in the Western U.S.A. Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval was obtained from the University and school district. All participants provided informed consent or assent. A total of 516 coaches, 115 athletes, and 103 parents were recruited. Coaching efficacy was assessed using the Coaching Efficacy Scale (Feltz et al., 1999). Specific factors in the CES include: (a) instructional techniques, (b) motivation, (c) character building, and (d) game strategy. The scale includes 24 multi-dimensional self-report survey items were scored on a 10-point scale. A modified version of the CES was used for the athlete/parent survey.

Analysis/Results: Confirmatory Factor Analyses was performed using the CES data for both Athletes and Parents. Cronbach's α showed excellent internal consistency reliability for the original four-factor structure of the instrument for both athlete and parents (Athlete: IT = .94; M = .94; CB = .89; GS = .90; and Overall = .97 and Parent: IT = .95; M = .97; CB = .95; GS = .97; and Overall = .99). CFA was also performed using the CES data using the factor structure identified by experts as representing eight factors of NASPE Coaching Standards. The findings regarding perceived coaching efficacy and stakeholders views are consistent with previous reports (Kavussanu et al, 2008). Coaches Efficacy rated high on all 4 CES Subscales. However, stakeholders' views showed athletes were low in motivation and ability to coach individual athletes on techniques and in good sportsperson-ship and the parent showed low ratings for coaching effectiveness related to motivation and perceived efficacy in game strategy.

Conclusions: The current study identified coaching experience and background knowledge (education) as two key components of coaching efficacy as it relates to the CES. The CFA with all 3 groups showed a good fit of the data with the original four-factor model. Thus, these results provided additional support for the CES model with these three groups (Feltz et al, 1999). Athletes who are more experienced may be hypercritical of their coach and the compatibility between instructional technique and game strategy. Finally, coaches appear to evaluate themselves more positively than stakeholders.

Goal Orientation and Professional Behaviors of High School Coaches

Melissa Thompson

Kristen Dieffenbach

Linda J Schoenstedt

Kimberly Bodey

Indiana State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: A considerable amount of literature has connected goal orientation to behavior in sport (Duda, Olson, & Templin, 1991; Dunn & Dunn, 1999). Findings suggest that those with higher ego orientation are more likely to engage in aggressive acts while those with high task orientation are more likely to engage in prosocial behavior. However, much of this research is focused on athlete behavior. Because, the social environment is also thought to directly impact athlete behavior (Shields et al., 2007), research on coaches and their goal orientation is critical. The purpose of this study was to examine goal orientations of high school sport coaches and the influence of their goal orientation and perceptions of sportspersonship on professional coaching behaviors.

Method: High school sports coaches were recruited through an online survey. Coaches completed the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (Duda & Nicholls, 1990), the Multidimensional Sportspersonship Orientation Scale (modified to reflect the coach perspective; Vallerand, et al., 1997), and the Professional Issues in Sport Coaching Questionnaire (Thompson & Dieffenbach, 2014).

Analysis/Results: Stepwise multiple regressions were used to determine the variables (gender, sport, years coaching, attitude toward sportspersonship, goal orientation, etc.) that would predict coaches' professional behavior in each of the eight coaching scenarios of the Professional Issues in Coaching Questionnaire.

Conclusions: Conclusions will be discussed related to how coach characteristics influence professional coaching behaviors. Special attention will be paid to how coach education programs can shape goal orientation and attitudes toward sportsmanship.

Narcissism and Coaching Efficacy in Coaching Education Students

Melissa Thompson

Clayton Kuklick

The University of Southern Mississippi

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Narcissism is an approach to self-regulation whereby self-esteem is inflated through social processes resulting in several negative behaviors like overconfidence, aggression, and shallow interpersonal relationships (Twenge & Foster, 2010). Recently, researchers have determined that narcissism rates are on the rise, specifically within a college population. In contrast, coaching behaviors connected with high athlete satisfaction include a caring climate (Fry & Gano-Overway, 2010), a positive approach to coaching (Barnett, Smoll, & Smith, 1992), and high coaching efficacy (Myers, Vargas-Tonsing, & Feltz, 2005). The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between narcissism and coaching efficacy in a sample of coaching education students.

Method: Coaching Education students (n = 149) from a southeastern university were recruited for the study. Participants were asked to complete a short demographic survey, the Narcissistic Personality Inventory, the Coaching Efficacy Scale, and a jobs survey created for this study.

Analysis/Results: Preliminary analyses revealed a Cronbach alpha of .81 for the NPI and of .96 for the Coaching Efficacy Scale and .89 for the perceived job availability scale. Narcissism scores were somewhat high (M = 18.9, SD = 6.1) as were coaching efficacy scores (M = 196.9, SD = 19.1). Results suggest a significant, yet weak, positive relationship between narcissism and coaching efficacy (r = .19, p < .05). Finally, a multiple regression analysis revealed coaching efficacy and years of coaching experience to be significant predictors of perceived job availability.

Conclusions: Results of the mean scores for narcissism will be discussed in relation to the population means for college students. The risk associated with high levels of narcissism in a coaching population will also be discussed. Finally, perceptions of job availability will be discussed in relation to coaching efficacy and the role of coaching education in shaping student perceptions.

Motivational Differences Between Repeat and First-Time Sport Event Volunteers

Jennifer L. VanSickle

Michael J. Diacin

University of Indianapolis

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Numerous sport organizations rely on volunteer labor to serve in various capacities that are integral to the effective and efficient delivery of the special events they stage (Green & Chalip, 2004; Fairley, Kellett, & Green, 2007). Motives for sporting events volunteers have been investigated (Twynam, Strigas & Jackson, 2003; MacLean & Hamm, 2007; Bang & Ross, 2009). Motives for volunteering included egoistic, purposive, leisure, love of sport, and material reasons. Although event organizers welcome all volunteers, volunteers who serve at a particular event on a repeated basis are desirable because the organization benefits from the skills and knowledge return volunteers have obtained through repeated experiences. Because retaining volunteers from one year to the next year is a challenge for personnel who organize events, it would benefit event organizers to understand factors that motivate volunteers to return to serve at an event. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to investigate the motives of first-time and repeat volunteers who served at a collegiate swimming event.

Method: A modified version of the Volunteer Motivations Scale (Bang & Ross, 2009) was completed by 194 of 650 (29.8%) volunteers. Volunteers completed the nineteen (19) item survey online after the conclusion of the event. A t-test was used to assess the differences between groups.

Analysis/Results: Purposive incentives such as making the event a success, helping others and creating a better society were identified as the top motives for volunteering among both repeat and first-time volunteers. Material incentives such as tangible rewards were the least motivating factor for both groups of volunteers, along with leisure factors (volunteering with friends) and egoistic factors (gain career experience and resume-builder). Using an alpha level of .05, results of the independent samples t-test revealed no statistical significance between the groups on any of the motivating factors.

Conclusions: The results of this investigation demonstrate that, while volunteer motives are multifaceted, they are not altered by previous experiences. Given the enormous reliance event organizers have upon volunteers, researchers must continue to investigate this phenomenon in order to assist organizers in developing effective strategies that will not only entice volunteers to serve at the event, but also entice them to serve on a repeated basis. Suggestions include recruitment strategies that focus on altruistic, purposive outcomes that can be obtained through serving at the event.

Teaching and Learning

NFL PLAY60 FITNESSGRAM-Closing the Gap Between Good and Great Teachers

Kelly Allums-Featherston, Norma Candelaria

Katelin Anderson

Yang Bai

Pedro F. Saint-Maurice

Iowa State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Physical education teachers are inundated with national programs that can be implemented to impact the physical activity and fitness levels of their students. However, evidence is lacking related to barriers that teachers face as they select which, if any, programs they implement. The purpose of this presentation is to present qualitative data from NFL PLAY 60 FITNESSGRAM (FG) project participants. The NFL PLAY 60 FG Project provides access and resources to the FG software and encourages participation in PLAY 60 programs.

Method: NFL PLAY 60 FITNESSGRAM Project teachers were invited to participate in focus groups during the 2014 AAHPERD national convention. Teachers (n = 13) were divided into two focus groups. The focus of discussions were to explore perceptions of project teachers and their peers related to motivators and barriers for adoption and implementation of FG and PLAY 60 programs. Focus groups were audio-recorded, transcribed, and data were analyzed using content analysis. Reflective notes and member checks were also employed to enhance data triangulation.

Analysis/Results: All participants felt there were clear differences between physical educators who participated in national programs and those that did not. Overall themes that emerged from discussions that related to motivators included presence of district support, delegation of tasks, understanding importance of data use, and having a positive impact on students. Themes related to barriers included, time, feeling overwhelmed, technology use, and the presence of too many supplemental programs.

Conclusions: Physical educators can be the change agents in schools when it comes to implementing health-related programs; however, some teachers have yet to adopt these new (and often free) programs. The findings provide target areas and strategies that can be used by program developers, district coordinators, and policy makers who posit to make an impact on those unreached students and teachers in school-based programs.

Behavior Analysis, Physical Activity and Individuals with Disabilities: A Meta-Analysis

Andrew Alstot

Kellie Kawamoto

Rachel Young

([email protected]).

Pacific University

Background/Purpose: It is well known that physical activity can aide in the prevention of obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases. However, people with physical and/or intellectual disabilities may be at greater risk of acquiring such health problems than non-disabled individuals because they tend to be less active (Berktas et al., 2011). It is important, therefore, to identify teaching techniques that are effective with individuals with disabilities. Many studies based in Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA), a scientific perspective of human behavior that focuses on variables extrinsic to individuals as the main influences on their behavior, have improved the physical activity of people with disabilities as well as positively influenced social interactions within physical activity settings. Despite the successes of ABA-based interventions with individuals with disabilities reported within singular studies, the overall effect of these interventions is unknown. Therefore, the primary purpose of this study was to use meta-analytic techniques to examine this overall effect. The secondary purpose was to assess the influence moderator variables (gender, age, disability type, intervention type, skill type, and target behavior) had on the overall effect.

Method: To identify studies for inclusion, several electronic databases were searched using related key words. Once studies were identified, they had to meet three criteria to be included in the meta-analysis: (1) utilized single subject design, (2) included an ABA-based intervention, and (3) included a dependent variable that measured behavior of individuals with disabilities in a physical activity setting. Once articles were identified for inclusion, moderator variable information was coded and numeric data were extracted to calculate effect sizes (ES).

Analysis/Results: The standardized mean difference formula (SMD) was used to calculate each ES_SMD (Olive & Smith, 2005). Using a random effects model, the overall weighted mean ES and moderator analyses were conducted using Comprehensive Meta-Analysis software. The ES_SMD was 1.743 (95% CI = 1.533, 1.953), suggesting ABA interventions had a very large influence on the behavior of individuals with disabilities in physical activity settings. Four moderator variables, gender, age, disability type, and skill type, had a significant influence (p <  .05) on the overall effect.

Conclusions: The findings of this study suggest that ABA-based interventions are very effective in improving motor and social behaviors of individuals with disabilities, regardless of the type of ABA technique used. Adapted physical educators can be confident in the usefulness of ABA, but should also be mindful of individual differences when implementing these teaching techniques.

Examining a Classroom-Based Service-Learning Model for Teaching Students with Disabilities

Jihoun An

Bomna Ko

Seok Yoon

Chowan University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Service-learning (SL) is a widely employed pedagogical strategy in academia to promote students' understanding of course content, a sense of civic responsibility, and self-efficacy (Butin, 2010). It is experiential learning for students to be involved in a structured service activity that meets community needs and to reflect on their learning experiences regarding the course content (Bringle & Hatcher, 1995). Particularly in physical education, SL has been recognized as an effective teaching method and used highly in adapted physical education (APE) courses as a way of increasing teacher candidates' (TC) understanding of disability, improving attitudes toward students with disabilities (SWD), and encouraging self-efficacy (Block, Taliaferro, Harris, & Krause, 2010; Piletic & Davis, 2010; Roper & Santiago, 2014). However, few studies have addressed how to design SL projects within a course (Cervantes & Meaney, 2013). Therefore, this study explored TCs' experiences and learning from a classroom-based service-learning (CBSL) model for teaching SWD, focusing on the success and challenges of a structured CBSL model, the assigned roles of teacher and teacher assistant, an understanding of disability, and teaching competency.

Method: This study employed a qualitative intrinsic case study grounded in situated learning theory postulating that the individual's knowledge is acquired and constructed by active participation in social communities and that individuals form their identities in relation to the communities they engage (Lave & Wenger, 1991; Wenger, 1998). Fifteen TCs (2 female, 13 male) provided adapted aquatics instructions to a self-contained special education classroom (n = 22, 6–8th) for 10 weeks as either an instructor or a teaching assistant, in turn. Data were gathered from face-to-face interviews, participant observation, TCs' reflections, photos/videos, and field notes. An inductive thematic analysis was used to capture TCs' experiences and learning from the CBSL model (Creswell, 2013). Research rigor was established through thick description, prolonged engagement, triangulation, and multiple coders (Patton, 2002).

Analysis/Results: Five themes emerged from the data: (a) learned life lessons, (b) challenging but rewarding experience, (c) grew as a person as well as a teacher, (d) boosted my confidence, (e) they are like us: do not judge a book by its cover (label). All TCs perceived the CBSL model as beneficial for their learning and noted that a structured instructional environment enhanced their understanding of disability and teaching competency.

Conclusions: It is recommended that SL experiences in authentic settings (e.g., APE class) be provided for TCs to develop their knowledge and skills in teaching PE for SWD.

PETE Candidates' Engagement in Active Learning Classroom Activities

Suzan F. Ayers

Gayle Thompson

Western Michigan University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The science of learning plays a key role in active learning (Doyle & Zakrajsek, 2013) and is grounded in the belief the learner is central to the process. Active learning instructional techniques have been described as collaborative learning, active learning, or flipped classrooms. Since active learning participants bear the responsibility to engage with content in a meaningful way, the flipped classroom requires learners' preview of content before class (i.e., Power Points, podcasts, readings) to allow in-class time for discussion and interaction with hands-on activities that foster content application (Bennett, 2012). The principles of active learning align fully with the practical application of content included in Physical Education Teacher Education (PETE).

Method: The purpose of this mixed method study was to investigate candidates' (N = 43, 30.2% female) engagement on a daily and weekly basis in one secondary methods class over three semesters. One instructor taught this course to a unique cohort of candidates each semester. Sample active learning instructional techniques included scenario building, partner lesson plan development and assessment, and practical lab activities. At the end of each class period, candidates completed a 5-item Likert-type questionnaire (1/low to 10/high) to reflect engagement (daily). At the conclusion of each week, candidates responded via e-mail to five open-ended prompts as a reflection about the relevance, value, and applicability of that week's content and learning activities (weekly).

Analysis/Results: Quantitative data (daily) from 39 course meetings produced 529 post-lesson assessments of engagement which were analyzed descriptively using SPSS v20. A t-test revealed no statistically significant gender differences on any variables, so all data were analyzed together. The 438 qualitative responses (weekly) were analyzed by both investigators separately, coding decisions were documented and then all data were coded using the agreed-upon procedures to determine themes. Daily results included candidates': (a) overwhelming advanced preparation for class (94.5%), (b) belief that advanced preparation was key to in-class success and learning (M = 9.01, s = 1.67), (c) conviction that they would use class content in a professional setting (94%), and (d) engagement in high levels of peer teaching and learning during class. Weekly result themes included: (a) essential knowledge, (b) professionally useful, (c) reflective practitioner, (d) communicating outcomes, and (e) pedagogical reflections.

Conclusions: Candidates reported high levels of engagement in active learning environments which resulted in high relevance among class content and active learning instructional activities in pre-professional practice. We conclude that using active learning instructional techniques in PETE courses can improve theory-to-practice applications.

Skills Testing in Physical Education, Teacher Education (PETE) Programs

Timothy M. Baghurst

Mwarumba Mwavita

Nilo C. Ramos

Dakota State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Skills testing of PETE students is a controversial topic, and how programs balance teaching skills, requiring students to demonstrate skill proficiency, and graduate students is not well understood. This study sought to investigate whether, how, and why collegiate PETE programs assess the skill proficiency of their students.

Method: Participants were 287 PETE decision makers representing four-year institutions nationwide that certified physical education teachers. Participants were invited via e-mail and by phone to complete an online survey that requested demographic information about their program, rationale and methodology regarding skills testing, and solicited their opinions about skills testing.

Analysis/Results: Almost half (46%) of PETE programs required their students to pass a skills-based test or demonstrate proficiency in fundamental skills where 54% did not. One-way analyses of variance were performed to examine mean differences in opinion statements between these two groups. Participants from skills-testing programs were significantly more supportive of the statement that proficiency in fundamental motor and sports skills is an important attribute for a physical educator [F (1, 262) = 6.97, p < . 05] and were more confident that their students would pass an independent evaluation of their skill proficiency [F (1, 257) = 9.44, p < . 05]. Participants from non-testing programs were significantly less confident that their students would graduate without clearly demonstrating proficiency in a range of fundamental sports skills and locomotor movements [F (1,262) = 45.38, p <  .05]. There were no statistical differences between the two groups on the belief that skill proficiency can be accurately assessed by grade point average in skill-based classes, and when pooled participants were almost evenly split on this issue. In addition, participants were evenly split on whether it was more important for PETE students to be skills proficient or physically fit.

Conclusions: The number of programs that do not skills test was unexpected, but it was not surprising that support for skill-based testing and proficiency received greater support by those programs that formally assess it. However, when forced to choose, there appears to be no consensus on what is more important for a graduating PETE student: that they be fit or skill-proficient. To raise the skill-proficiency of physical education teachers, PETE administrators need to consider whether a skill-based test should be a programmatic requirement for graduation that is separate from a student's grade point average in skill development classes.

Profile of Health and Physical Education Teachers in Kentucky

Jonathan Dunham Vorbeck

Michael Ballard

Derek Holcomb

Eastern Kentucky University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: A review of the literature showed a paucity of studies focusing on secondary physical education and health teachers' professional experiences and needs. The purpose of this research is to describe the method and results of a survey administered to secondary (9th-12th grade) health and physical education teachers across the state of Kentucky in order to assess their self-reported perceptions and professional experiences regarding health and physical education.

Method: During the fall 2013 semester, 346 secondary health and physical education teachers in the state of Kentucky were sent an electronic copy of the Kentucky Health and Physical Education Profile Survey via e-mail. Current Kentucky secondary (9th - 12th grade) health and physical education teachers' e-mails were accessed from each public school district's website. Of the 346 participants sampled, 96 completed the on-line survey for a response rate of 27.7%. There were 12 questions based on the teachers Professional Experiences and 9 questions based on the teachers perceptions.

Analysis/Results: Age was the only demographic variable that showed significant differences in teachers' response patterns. Concerning undergraduate education, teachers over the age of forty were more likely to possess a degree in physical education compared to their younger colleagues. Over 95% of teachers who reported coaching at least one athletic team indicated that it positively impacted their teaching.Examination of the results indicated that teachers over the age of forty were more likely to report coaching duties to have a positive impact on their teaching and were less likely to report coaching as having a negative impact on their teaching compared to younger teachers. 63.5% of participants indicated that they had not attended a professional development training provided by the Kentucky Department of Education during the past 12 months. Most teachers, 82.3%, reported that they had not attended a professional development training provided by KAHPERD within the past 12 months.

Conclusions: Several future recommendations were made based on the findings of this study due to word limitation only a few are mentioned here: Assess workload of new teachers as it pertains to stress levels and job performance; Assess reasons health and physical education teachers are not seeking membership in state and national organizations; Assess which benefits state and national organizations provide that health and physical education teachers find most useful and least useful; Identify modes of delivery for professional development (e.g., webinars) health and physical education teachers prefer; Assess institutions of higher education for majors in health education, physical education and dual degree options.

Understanding Dance and Rhythm Exergames Within a Physical Education Setting

Brett N. Barron

David W. Chorney

University of Alberta

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Recently, a new wave of gaming known as active gaming or exergaming is showing it can be an educationally functional and enjoyable method of learning within areas of the curriculum which highlight dance or other individual activities.

This study aims to better understand the impact that dance and rhythm exergames have on students within a physical education setting. Although similar studies have used dance and rhythm exergames within a school setting, this is the first study to incorporate a multiplayer version of the game (Dance Dance Revolution), as up to 48 users can play simultaneously.

Method: This concurrent mixed methods study rotated the dance and rhythm exergame, Dance Dance Revolution Classroom Edition, among six participating schools within an urban school district in Western Canada. Cooperating schools used the exergaming tool for approximately three weeks. During this time students came into contact with the dance and rhythm exergame due to its insertion into regularly scheduled physical education classes.

Each of the participating schools had a designated lead teacher responsible for the use and maintenance of the equipment. Lead teachers also administered a five-point Likert-type scale after participants had used the equipment for three weeks, allowing students to rate their motivation and attitude levels towards the device.

In an effort to triangulate the data, two group interviews were conducted with three students within each of the respective age demographics: one group from ages 8 to 11, and another group of secondary students from ages 12 to 14.

Analysis/Results: A total of 119 student participated in the study, 65 from elementary and 54 from middle school. Data from the surveys was analyzed in four separate categories. First, each individual site was examined, next elementary students were compared to secondary students, then male survey results were compared to female, and finally the results of all the surveys were looked at as a whole.

Overall, participants in both elementary and middle school noted high levels of intrinsic motivation towards the use of dance and rhythm exergames within a physical education dance unit. These results were verified and given greater context within the group interviews.

Conclusions: Dance and rhythm exergames are not a replacement to participating in games or other activates, rather a unique accompaniment with which physical educators can use to heighten intrinsic motivation and strengthen their programs to better reach curricular outcomes.

Teaching Basketball Free Throws: Wii Vs. Traditional Method

Martie Bell

Linda Hinkle

Rob Rivera, Perry Morris

Paul Freda

High Point University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Two research studies (Bell, Hinkle, et.al. 2014, Bell & Hinkle, 2013) compared the traditional method to the Wii for teaching bowling skills that would transfer to the bowling environment. Results indicated that there was no significant difference between the Wii and traditional method groups, but the researchers emphasized that the 4-step approach must be emphasized when teaching with the Wii. The goal of this study was to compare the two methods for teaching basketball free throws: (1) the traditional method using basketballs, hoops, and activities, and (2) the Wii basketball program – specifically free throws.

Method: This was a pre/post test experimental design study. The pre-test involved all participants trying to shoot 3 foul shots. Four classes of third graders from a local elementary school participated in the study. Each of the classes received 20 minutes of free throw instruction/activities within three 40-minute classes. Two of the classes received instruction using the Wii and the other two received instruction using traditional methods. After the 3 periods of instruction, the participants tried to shoot 3 foul shots for the post-test. Data were collected through videotaping the participants as they performed the free throws during the pre-test and all post-test games and recording the number of successful shots.

Analysis/Results: Data were analyzed two ways: (1) comparing the recorded performances for proper free throw technique (skills) using the rubric that was developed for this study, and (2) comparing the number of baskets made during the pre and post test trials. Results indicate that there was more positive transference for the group that was taught with the traditional method than the Wii, even though there was some positive transference from the Wii group.

Conclusions: Implication of the study is that the traditional method was more effective than the Wii when teaching basketball free throws. The Wii can also be an effective tool for teaching this skill as long as there is emphasis placed on form and technique. Not only was this an important factor with the Wii, but also it is an important factor on both the traditional method and Wii group participants' improvement.

Guideposts and Roadblocks to Career-Long Scholarly Engagement of PETE Faculty

Catherine P. Berei

Erica Pratt

Tanjian Liang

Kevin Shephard

Udon Nampai

Guntima Neamphoka

Melissa A. Parker

Abdullah Akbar

University of Northern Colorado

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Research and scholarship are essential for the continued advancement of physical education. Yet, scholarly productivity declines once physical education teacher education (PETE) doctoral students graduate (Ward, Parker, Sutherland, & Sinclair, 2011) and faculty rank increases (Santo, Engstrom, Reetz, Schweinle, & Reed, 2009). According to Dodds (2005), mentors guide higher education institutional cultures and expectations for faculty in the areas of research and teaching, but that is only one factor that may lay the foundation for continued productivity throughout a professional career. The purpose of this study was to explore the reasons PETE faculty remain productive throughout their careers. Research questions were: (a) What helped and guided individuals towards scholarly engagement and productivity throughout their careers? and (b) What roadblocks were encountered when engaging in scholarly productivity?

Method: Participants included nine (5 females; 4 males) senior PETE faculty members who met the criteria for “productive teacher education scholars over time”: (a) academic rank of professor or equivalent status in PETE, (b) fifteen or more years of experience within the PETE, (c) engaged in PETE research as indicated by three or more research based articles published in peer reviewed research journals over the past five years, (d) on-going research presentations in PETE over the past five years, and (e) current and active engagement in a PETE program. Data sources included: (a) individual semi-structured interviews, (b) curriculum vitae, and (c) informal conversational interviews (Patton, 2002).

Analysis/Results: Interview responses were analyzed using open and axial coding (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Trustworthiness was established through: triangulation (multiple investigators, multiple data sources), a researcher journal, a peer debriefer, and a member check. Results indicated major guideposts were: collaboration, finding fit, personal balance, defining a research process, and maintaining a strong work ethic. Roadblocks were: obligations, lack of support, access to participants, and grant writing.

Conclusions: Findings suggest that initial PETE faculty, conscious of these factors, can employ effective strategies to implement guideposts and overcome roadblocks to enhance scholarly productivity; thus preventing the potential for decline in productivity after doctoral graduation and increase in faculty rank. A paucity of literature relating to this topic in PETE warrants the need for continued research to determine factors that influence productivity, and the benefits PETE faculty gain from engagement in scholarship over time. The guideposts and roadblocks documented within this study could help future PETE faculty members remain productive scholars who contribute to and enhance the PETE profession.

Cognition and Understanding of Learning Domain Goals

Ariela Herman

Eve Bernstein

Queens College

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Psychomotor, cognitive, and affective goals are a focus of physical education (PE). While it is often the teacher's intention to impart learning goals in all three domains, how teachers impart, and the way students understand, these goals might differ (Dyson, 1995; Hopple & Graham, 1995). Students can have different cognitive processes to teachers' instruction (Dodds, 1977). To examine both teacher and student cognition the theoretical framework of cognitive mediation was used, focusing on instruction in the three educational domains, and student cognition regarding that instruction (Lee & Solmon, 1992). The purpose of this study was to examine pre-service instruction of the goals in the different domains during PE lessons, and student identification of those goals. If learning is to take place, it is essential that these goals be clearly understood by students (Rink, 2002).

Method: The method was piloted and IRB cleared. Four pre-service teachers, were observed instructing lessons to sixth grade students. Lesson plans, interview and observation data were collected during eight lessons taught by four pre-service teachers. To understand student cognition two students from each teaching group, eight in total, were interviewed following the lessons regarding their perceptions of the goals for each lesson.Stimulated recall (Calderhead, 2011) was used in order to assist students in remembering what the teachers said and the lesson activities. All data were transcribed and entered into N-Vivo 10 and were analyzed for emergence of patterns and themes using the constant comparison method (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Member checking, triangulation, and peer reviewing were used to strengthen the trustworthiness and credibility of the findings.

Analysis/Results: Three major themes emerged. First, when goals were related to sport skills or game play in the psychomotor domain, the pre-service teachers described the goals, and the students identified the goals of the lesson. Second, goals in the cognitive domain were clear to the pre-service teachers and were described in detail, however were rarely identified by the students. Third, affective goals were described by the teacher, but were not connected in specific ways to the activities and not a focus during the lessons and therefore students were unable to describe or connect affective goals to specific activities.

Conclusions: Data indicated that teacher education programs should provide pre-service teachers with specific instruction in how to develop appropriate objectives in all domains, specifically focusing on the affective and cognitive domains as prospective teachers have difficulty imparting these goals to their students.

Middle School Students and Culturally Relevant Units in Physical Education

Luciana Braga

Eloise Elliott

West Virginia University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: This study was part of a larger, multicomponent school-based intervention funded by the U.S. Department of Education Carol M. White Physical Education Program (PEP) grant. The project, titled CHOICES (Children's Health Opportunities Involving Coordinated Efforts in Schools) was implemented in two middle schools located in an Appalachian state. The school component of CHOICES focused on:(a) physical education (PE) curriculum enhancements, (b) continuous professional development for PE teachers, (c) establishment of after school physical activity clubs, and (d) family and community involvement. The purpose of this study was to examine school students' perceptions of and responses to the inclusion of culturally relevant units in the PE curriculum. Specifically, this study examined how less predisposed to be active (LPA) and more predisposed to be active (MPA) students perceived and responded to the inclusion of archery, mountain biking, and slacklining in PE.

Method: A mixed methods design was employed, in which the results of an initial quantitative phase served to identify LPA and MPA students to participate in a subsequent qualitative inquiry. In Phase One, two instruments were used to measure attraction to physical activity and perceived athletic competence of 116 middle school students. Potential participants for Phase Two were selected based on Phase One data analysis and results. In Phase Two, twelve focus groups were conducted with a combined total of 47 students (21LPA; 26 MPA) from one school yielding qualitative data.

Analysis/Results: An inductive content analysis (Miles & Huberman, 1994) along with the constant comparative method (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) was employed in this study. Three overarching themes emerged from both LPA and MPA focus groups' data: (a) Expectations, (b) Engagement, and (c) New Perspectives of PE. Findings indicated that LPA and MPA participants had similar perceptions of and responses to the new units, with minor differences observed among LPA students. The three themes included a total of ten subthemes that depict students' thoughts, engagement, and responses to new units. These subthemes were aligned with the influencing factors of physical activity in children and adolescents outlined by the Youth Physical Activity Promotion Model (Welk, 1999).

Conclusions: Findings from the study underlined the importance of including novel, culturally relevant content in middle school PE. It is recommended that school-based physical activity programs consider the influencing factors on youth physical activity and include content that is innovative, challenging, and relevant to the students, their community, and the culture in which they live

Training Pre-Service Teachers: Examining Teacher Preparation Using Wireless Technology

Sheri J. Brock

Peter Hastie, Vanessa Hinton

Zachary Blatt

Auburn University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The purpose of this study was to measure pre-service teachers' (PST) movement and feedback while receiving teaching cues through wireless communication.

Method: Twelve PST (n = 7 male; n = 5 female) taught 12 lessons in an introductory elementary methods course. Using a quasi-experiment design, PST were systematically assigned to one of three conditions: (1) control – no cues; (2) instructor – cues from the instructor; or (3) peer – cues from a teaching peer. PST wore an ear bud wireless receiver, while the instructor/peer provided cues through a wireless microphone transmitter. Individual interviews were conducted with each PST at the conclusion of the course.

Analysis/Results: A research assistant reviewed and coded videos of the PST for sector changes (SC), motivational feedback (MFB), and performance feedback (PFB). Inter-rater reliability was established by the primary researcher and research assistant on four occasions: SC (97.8%); MFB (93.5%); and PFB (95.4%). Data were converted to rate per minute to normalize lesson lengths. A Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) was conducted using SPSS version 22. Interview data were transcribed and subject to standard qualitative methods in order to generate themes (Patton, 1990). Results indicated significant differences for the instructor condition only, Wilk's Λ = 0.656, F(6, 62) = 2.4, p <  .05. Specifically, univariate analysis signified PST gave more performance feedback when the instructor provided cues F (2, 33) = 8.5, p = 0.001. Post Hoc comparisons using Bonferroni indicated the mean score of performance based feedback for the instructor condition (M = 1.14, SD = .33) was significantly higher than the peer condition (M = .81, SD = .30) or the control condition (M = .61, SD = .31). It is important to note the mean score was higher for the peer condition compared to the control condition, even though there was not statistical significance. Interview data revealed the following dominant themes: (1)PST focused more on teaching when using ear buds; (2)Ear buds were sometimes distracting; (3)Suggestions for improved implementation; and (4)Differences in peer and instructor cueing.

Conclusions: The results of this study show selected teaching behaviors can be increased when PST receive cues using ear bud devices. However, effectiveness can vary based on whether cues are given by a peer or instructor. Overall, interviews showed PST felt positively about their experience using ear buds, but also pointed out how future use could be improved to provide fewer distractions.

Thoughts and Beliefs of PETE Majors: Voices of Lived Experience

David W. Chorney

Nicholas Forsberg

University of Regina

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: This study serves to answer many questions, of key importance is, how do undergraduate Physical Education (PE) major students change in their beliefs, attitudes and perceptions of what it means to be an effective teacher of physical education as they progress through their Physical Education Teacher Education (PETE) preparation program? It's expected that change results when undergraduate PE majors are exposed to both, well planned and taught University curriculum and instruction and kinesiology content courses, combined with professional development, through purposeful and supported practicum experience in the field. In addition to utilizing the theory and findings of Lortie's (1975) “apprenticeship-of-observation model”, other research has been used to supplement this study. For example, many of the student teacher's skills and abilities result from a combination of personal and professional characteristics i.e. (meaningful reflection, personal experience and commitment to the profession). Numerous studies have been conducted to identify these characteristics in physical education teachers (Behets, 1997; Beighle & Pangrazzi, 2002; Stirling & Belk, 2002).

Method: A combination of qualitative and quantitative methods were utilized in this longitudinal study. To date, qualitative and quantitative data have been analyzed from the surveys of students attending two major Universities in Western Canada over the past seven years. Since 2007 data has beeen collected from 18 different cohorts (n = 455). PETE majors from these cohorts have completed pre course, post course and post practicum surveys. Prior to conducting question by question analyses a comparison of age and sex composition across cohorts was performed.

Analysis/Results: Cohorts did not differ significantly with respect to gender (p = .06). Of the 455 respondents to this question 55% were female and 45% were male. Significant differences in the distribution of age were found, (p < .001) but group medians did not differ significantly (p = .251). Some of the components that these PETE majors perceived to be vital in contributing to a quality PE program changed significantly with their responses in the various surveys that were administered. What these PETE majors also valued and what they would prioritize in their respective PE programs upon graduation from university also changed over their time within the study.

Conclusions: PETE majors do change in their beliefs and perceptions of what they envision the profession of teaching physical education to be as they progress through their PETE program. These conclusions are validated with both qualitative and quantitative data from this study. This presentatin focuses on the qualitative components associated with the research and understanding the lived experience of these undergraduate PE majors.

Teaching Behaviors of Trained and Untrained Elementary Physical Educators

Amy Susanne Conn

Steven Namanny

Timothy A Brusseau^F

University of Utah

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: A growing number of states and school districts allow non-specialists to teach elementary physical education. Previous research has shown that youth tend to be more active when taught by a physical education specialist. To date not enough is known about the teaching behaviors of trained and untrained physical educators. The purpose of this study was to observe differences in teaching behaviors between physical education specialists and untrained paraprofessionals.

Method: Three teachers (one professionally trained and two paraprofessionals) were videotaped for a series of 24 (8 lessons/teacher) physical education classes during the 2013–2014 academic year. All three teachers had taught physical education in a large Southwestern US capital city for at least 2 years. Video lessons were observed by two coders using ASUOI and a modified ALT-PE to determine a variety of teaching behaviors. Observers were trained in each instrument and had significant experience using both instruments. Twelve second time (6 seconds observe/six seconds record) intervals were utilized and each teacher was observed for a minimum of six hours across the eight lessons. Interobserver reliability was >80% for all observed lessons. Percentage of time spent in each teaching behavior was calculated and ANOVAs were utilized to examine differences between specialist and paraprofessionals across all coding categories.

Analysis/Results: Overall specialist spent more time in on task and management while paraprofessionals spent more time in off task and silence. Statistical analysis revealed significant differences (p < .05) between the professional and the paraprofessional in three different categories, two from ALT-PE and one from the ASUOI instrument. The professional used the student's first names more frequently, while paraprofessionals spent more time in silence and waiting and were more likely to have students off task, not engaged in lesson material.

Conclusions: Management is essential in maximizing learning and physical activity. The current study illustrated that the paraprofessionals may benefit from additional teaching training related to management. Use of first names by the specialist may be related to greater individual instruction and individual feedback. Silence may be attributed to lack of content knowledge and ability to deal with off-task behaviors. This study takes an important look at teaching behaviors between trained and untrained professionals and highlights the importance training may play in keeping children on task and engaged in activity.

Examining the Content of NCATE Physical Education Teacher Education Programs

Desmond Delk

Jared A. Russell

Asherah Blount

Michelle Vaughn

Korey Boyd

Auburn University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Mission statements represent the ethos and purposes of the numerous organizations that utilize them. In fact, governing boards expect member institutions to have mission and vision statements for each of its entities. Therefore, mission statements should precisely express what is desired to be achieved.

Method: Two hundred thirty eight (n = 238) NCATE (National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education) accredited Physical Education Teacher Education programs' mission statements were examined to observe the elements in these guiding documents. Institutions were aggregated by the Carnegie classification system (Baccalaureate, Masters, or Doctoral; private or public; small, medium or large). These categories allotted a further examination of the impact of institution size and type (public or private) on mission statement elements.

Analysis/Results: Atlas.ti 7 was utilized to code the data. The data was coded in accordance to the content of the mission statements, and from it derived twenty-three codes. For example, “We strive to prepare teachers that serve the diverse students of our state,” would be codes as: preparation of teachers, service (local), and diversity. Peer debriefing (Lincoln and Guba, 1985) was used to cross check the data to ensure validity. The most prevalent element of all institution types was the “Preparation of competent teachers”, with it being included in 131 (56%) of the mission statements. Service occurred in 104 (44%) of the mission statements and diversity appeared in 74 (31%). Mission statements should be the driving force behind the actions of kinesiology PETE programs. Service was a common thread among all types of universities, but the differences lie in the focus on outreach to the greater institutional community. Whereas public institutions focused their service to local communities, private institutions spoke of service in general, oftentimes encouraging global civics. Findings are consistent with similar research on institutional missions (Morphew & Hartley, 2006).

Conclusions: Kinesiology departments must veer away from the neglect of specificity in their missions. As competent teacher candidates are prepared for service in the K–12 setting, their ability to work with all students will be an indicator of their success. The results also found diversity to be a prevalent component of mission statements; however, the generic concept can be misconstrued as a “one-size-fits-all” concept. Clarity in departmental objectives will assist in directing the programmatic actions of the unit. With constant reflection of progress, and a willingness to address shortcomings of their respective mission, PETE departments can produce preeminent educators.

Manipulating Feedback During Physical Education Climates: Motivation and Performance Effects

Daniel K. Drost

Christopher K. Wirth, Lesley S. Keck, Matthew S. Ruckman

John R. Todorovich

The University of West Florida

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Considering the potential health impact of motor skill competency and school physical education objectives, further investigation of motor skill development in physical education is warranted, specifically the impact of climates and teaching methods. According to Achievement Goal Theory (AGT; Ames, 1992; Nicholls, 1989), teachers create motivational climates during lessons that can affect individuals' perceptions of competence and achievement in an activity. Using AGT as a theoretical model, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of TARGET- and feedback-manipulated climates in a short unit of study (two days) of a familiar task (tossing) with regard to change in pre- and post-task measures of perceived competence and skill performance.

Method: Participants (N = 170) from two elementary schools participated in an experimental study within their intact classes. Eight classes were randomly assigned to two motivational climates (mastery and performance) and each climate group was randomly assigned a feedback condition (positive general and informational). The mastery task was a competitive tossing game and the performance task was a constructivist practice experience. Participants completed a pre- and post-task questionnaire (perceived competence, interest/enjoyment, pressure/tension, and effort/importance) and a pre- and post-task skill test.

Analysis/Results: Three doubly-MANOVAs were performed on perceived competence and skill performance over time. Considering the motivational climates, the within subjects effect [F(2,167) = 4.073, p = .019] and the between subjects effect [F(2,167) = 3.940, p = .021] were significant. Considering the feedback groups, the interaction effect [F(2,167) = 3.669, p = .028] and the within subjects effect [F(2, 167) = 5.294, p = .006] were significant. Considering both climate and feedback, only the within subjects effect for time was significant [F(2,165) = 4.659, p = .011]. For each analysis, follow-up mixed ANOVAs were calculated and simple effects were examined. Finally, a MANOVA revealed a main effect and univariate ANOVAs revealed a significant effect on interest/enjoyment (F = 8.327, p < .001). Pairwise comparisons were made using the Tukey HSD test to determine differences.

Conclusions: The motivational climate (with and without consideration of feedback manipulation) did not influence change in students' perceived competence. However, informational feedback did have a negative effect on perceived competence. The negative effects of informational feedback and performance climate on perceived competence appear to negatively affect intrinsic motivation. Not surprisingly, feedback in the form of information positively affected student skill performance regardless of motivational climate. Physical educators must be wary about providing too much information to students. What teachers say could negatively impact future interest in skill and sport participation, even when skill performance improves.

Cultural Competency for School Health Educators

Theresa M. Enyeart Smith

Maria T. Wessel

James Madison University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Inclusion of diversity in academic institutions is essential to teach students skills they need to thrive and lead in today's work environments. These skills include the abilities to work well with students and colleagues from diverse backgrounds; to view issues from multiple perspectives; and to anticipate and respond with sensitivity to the needs and cultural differences. For many years our university has been identified as homogenous for numerous characteristics such as race, ethnicity, gender and sexual orientation. In the last decade the value of diversity among faculty and students has increased dramatically.

The purpose of this study was to identify student views about diversity and culture to improve skills necessary to be culturally competent health educators. Objectives of this study included identifying:

• Student attitudes related to acceptance and accommodation of diverse populations

• Student skills related to cultural competency

• Teaching techniques and activities for culturally competent health educators

Method: The Diversity Survey, a 21 item survey including Likert and short answer/essay items, was IRB approved (I.D. Number 13-0125) and completed by 369 graduating students. Students were assessed on their views related to departmental and university focus on diversity; faculty's acceptance and accommodation of diverse populations within the curriculum and classroom; personal skill development related to becoming a culturally competent health professional; personal knowledge related to diverse populations; willingness to work with people of diverse backgrounds; and participation in various diversity awareness.

Analysis/Results: Using SPSS (v.21), descriptive statistics were determined and chi-square analyses were used to identify relationships between demographic variables and the various diversity variables.

The majority of respondents (71.2% – 87.5%) indicated positive attitudes related to faculty/staff cultural competency, with room for improvement on some items. Some respondents disagreed or were neutral about faculty/staff use of gender neutral language (21.7%) and singling out minority students (19.0%). Culture is defined using many attributes, however, the university is not racially diverse with over 75% of the respondents categorized as white, non-Hispanic, which is representative of the university. No significant relationships were identified between variables. Teaching techniques and awareness activities were identified such as workshops, community interaction and other suggestions to increase students' cultural competency.

Conclusions: In general, students had positive responses related to culture and diversity. Increases in knowledge and professional skills should be ongoing to provide effective health education. Cultural competency is a critical framework for inclusive and effective health education.

Visual Strategies and Motor Performance of Children with Autism

Manny Felix

Garth Tymeson, Richard Mikat, Stephanie Sciarrino

Jooyeon Jin

University of Wisconsin-La Crosse

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The use of visual supports and video modeling are evidence-based instructional practices for students with ASD (Wong, et al., 2013). Many students with ASD will receive a variety of special and general education services, including physical education. To provide effective and appropriate services to students with ASD, teachers must utilize effective teaching strategies. Students with ASD are known to be more visual learners and struggle with verbal communication. The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of using Picture Task Card and Video Modeling visual supports on the object control performance of children and youth with ASD.

Method: Participants (N = 27) included 4-18 year olds with ASD who were tested twice using the Test of Gross Motor Development (Ulrich, 2000). Each testing session incorporated either the Picture Task Card or Video Modeling visual support protocol in a counterbalanced order.

Analysis/Results: Paired T-tests (p <  .05) indicated that no differences existed for the object control raw, standard and age-equivalent scores between the two different protocols. Neither method was significantly different than the other. Both the Picture Task Card and Video Modeling Protocols elicited the same results for the object control raw, standard, and age equivalent scores among all participants.

Conclusions: Use of visual supports is a necessary teacher competency when instructing many students with disabilities, including those with ASD. Physical Education teachers of students with ASD can use both picture task supports and video modeling as effective, alternative means of task prompts and expectancies.

Teacher and Student Perceptions of Fitness: Understandings and (Mis)Communications

Matthew D. Ferry

Dominique Banville

George Mason University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The role of physical education (PE) in teaching for Health-Related Fitness (HRF) has evolved over the years. Scholars have examined HRF in PE from a wide range of theoretical and practical perspectives, including but not limited to: obesity; tracking youth and adult physical activity and fitness; teachers' and students' attitudes toward fitness testing, and school based physical activity and HRF knowledge interventions (Keating, Silverman, & Kulinna, 2002; Mercier & Silverman, 2014; Welk, Eisenmann, & Dollman, 2006). While scholars have also critically examined some of the assumptions and ideologies characteristic of students' perceptions of HRF discourse as it relates to school PE (Burrows, Wright, & Jungersen-Smith, 2002; Hopple & Graham, 1995), no contemporary study has yet to examine simultaneously teachers' perceptions, and the perceptions of the adolescent students they teach, with respect to the role that HRF should play in PE.

Method: Interpretive and focus group methodology guided study design and data collection that spanned one school year. Questions focused on participants' perceptions of what HRF was and was not, the present emphasis and forms of HRF in PE, and potential role and place of HRF in PE. These questions were posed to 31 teachers in individual interviews and 97 of the students they taught in focus groups. Data were inductively analyzed using constant comparison.

Analysis/Results: The main finding of this study revealed a range of congruencies and disjunctures with respect to the role teachers and students perceived HRF currently played and should play in school PE. Specifically, both teachers and students held a number of inaccurate assumptions regarding the desires, ideals, and motives of each other with respect to the present and potential role of HRF in PE. The most prominent themes documenting these miss/non-communications include the framing and importance of HRF, content selection, and instructional quality and depth of HRF knowledge.

Conclusions: The role of HRF in school PE will continue to be of importance as long as federal, state, and local entities remain concerned with youth physical activity levels and related Public Health concerns. The significance of this study lies in disclosing a set of disjunctures that lie between teachers' and students' perceptions of the role HRF curriculum should play in PE, and hence prevents its development in an effective manner. It also points to some ‘unknown’ common ground, that if explicitly stated, could allow teachers and students to craft more beneficial and meaningful HRF curriculum.

Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility to Troubled Female Adolescents

Vivian R. Fowler

University of Alabama

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility (TPSR) model was developed while attempting to begin an alternative youth program in the early 1970's (Hellison & Walsh, 2002). This model appeals to those who believe that teaching is about making a difference in children's lives and helping them overcome difficult life circumstances (Martinek & Hellison, 1997).

The purpose of this study was to examine one physical education (PE) teacher's perceptions of using the TPSR model while teaching PE in an outcome-driven, intervention designed program for 10 adolescent females with a history of delinquent behavior and mental health related issues.

The research questions guiding the study were:

• 1)What were the barriers using the TPSR?

• 2)What were the successes using the TPSR?

• 3)How did the model affect the teacher's view of success?

Method: The researcher used case study design for the 12-week study. The researcher was a PE teacher with 7+ years teaching experience. Data were collected using qualitative methods, including critical incident reports, personal journal, and lesson plans.

Analysis/Results: The data were analyzed using qualitative data analysis.

Through data analysis, three barriers were found. These barriers were: (1) negative attitude about PE, (2) resist empowerment, and (3) the process. Three successes were also found. These included: (1) PE activities, (2) personal growth, and (3) relationships. In addition, the study found that the teacher viewed success as an iterative process. The smallest step forward was counted even if two steps backward followed it.

Conclusions: TPSR did make a slight difference but should be implemented over a longer period and with a teaching peer.

The study was limited by its short duration. Building relationships and trust takes time. As Ennis & McCauley (2002) found, even in the best of circumstances, trust takes time to build and earn – it is a gradual process. This study validated findings in the research that verify relationship and trust building take time and the model is not a quick fix.

Physical Educators' Perceptions of Influential Workplace Factors

Karen Lux Gaudreault

Amelia Mays Woods

Victoria Shiver

University of Wyoming

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Occupational socialization refers to the process by which individuals acquire the knowledge, skills, and beliefs specific to becoming a participating member in a given profession (Zeichner & Gore, 1990). Among physical educators, Lawson (1989) offered that there are various interactive factors that influence the workplace conditions including: political and economic factors, organizational factors, situational factors, and personal-social factors. While much research exists regarding the socialization process for physical educators, continued investigation is needed to account for the changes in how socialization changes over time (Richards et al., 2014). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to better understand physical educators' perceptions of interactive factors influencing their workplace conditions given their current Career Stages (Fessler & Christensen, 1992).

Method: Five pre-service and 16 in-service elementary physical educators participated in the study that occurred during a full-day professional development workshop on teacher socialization. Participants read Lawson's (1989) chapter on workplace conditions influencing physical educators prior to the workshop, and engaged in individual written reflection and focus group discussions following a semi-structured guide. Data sources included individual written reflections and focus group discussions regarding factors included in the model and teachers self-identified career stage relative to Fessler & Christensen (1992) Teacher Career Stage Model. Trustworthiness was established through triangulation, member checks, and peer debriefing.

Analysis/Results: Five focus group discussions were transcribed verbatim for analysis and all data were analyzed using inductive and comparative strategies. The coding process followed suggestions from Merriam (2009) involving open coding, axial coding, and the categorization of codes relative to emerging themes. Findings indicated that standards and policy dictated teachers' curricular choices, while classroom teachers and other school stakeholders' emphasis on standardized testing directly influenced organizational factors with respect to resources and prestige. Further, students' behavior, attitudes, and enjoyment influenced the teachers' level of satisfaction with their work, motivation, and work ethic.

Conclusions: Findings are consistent with existing literature in that as teachers of a marginal subject, physical educators recognize that they receive limited resources and little administrative support. Likewise, these teachers believe that they would benefit from professional development that targets their specific content area. Additional studies are needed to explore the influence of students as a socializing agent and how interactions with students impact teachers' feelings about their work.

Principals' Readings of and Expectations for Physical Education

Meredith George

Matthew D. Curtner-Smith

The University of Alabama

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: School principals have considerable influence on how subjects in their schools are perceived and taught. Research on principals' thoughts, perceptions, and views about physical education, however, is limited. The purposes of this study were to (a) examine how principals read and what expectations they had for physical education and (b) describe the factors that shaped these readings and expectations.

Method: Two components of occupational socialization—acculturation and professional socialization— were the theoretical perspectives that guided data collection and analysis. Participants were 19 principals from two school systems. They were asked to answer 21 open-ended questions within an online electronic survey. Questions focused on their beliefs about and values for physical education as well as the factors that shaped those beliefs and values.

Analysis/Results: Data were coded and categorized and reduced to key themes using analytic induction and constant comparison. Key findings were that the principals had a limited and superficial understanding of the goals of physical education, its curricula, and pedagogies. This was because their beliefs about the subject were largely shaped by their own experiences of physical education and sport as children and youth. Conversely, their professional socialization had little or no impact on their beliefs about the subject because it was either non-existent, weak, or served to support views they had acquired through acculturation. Not surprisingly, therefore, the principals misconceived some aspects of physical education and had faulty, conflicting, and contradicting ideas about other components of the subject. For example, the principals appeared to know little about the different curriculum models available to physical education teachers and teaching styles employed in the physical education setting. Moreover, they implied that physical education and extracurricular sport were synonymous, but that school sport was for highly skilled “athletes” while physical education was for everybody else. In addition, they focused on physical education teachers' character and behavior traits, rather than their pedagogical skill, and advocated that students be evaluated based on effort as opposed to learning or performance.

Conclusions: If these findings transfer to other groups and locations, a major implication of the study is that the training for those intending to become principals needs to include a much stronger physical education component. Such training should be focused on conveying the full range of the subject's potential goals as well as different curriculum models, specific pedagogies, and evaluation techniques. In addition, every effort should be made to change faulty beliefs.

Physical Education Student Teacher Perceptions about Feedback Received from Supervisors

Christie M. Gonzalez-Toro

([email protected]).

Springfield College

Background/Purpose: The purpose of this study was to investigate the student teachers' perceptions on the feedback they receive from their cooperative teacher and university supervisors. The research questions addressed in the study were: a) Student teachers' perception about the feedback he/she receives from his/her cooperative teacher and university supervisor is it effective on improving his/her performance while developing as teachers? b) What criteria is emphasized when the cooperative teacher and university supervisor give feedback to the student teacher? and c) Who provides better feedback while student teaching, the cooperative teacher or the university supervisor?

Method: The participants of this study were five student teachers from the Physical Education Department of the University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez Campus, who completed surveys, daily reflections and interviews that focused on the feedback that was given by the cooperative teacher and the university supervisor. Six categories emerged from the data: performance, evaluation, level of comfort, teaching areas, feedback effectiveness and desired feedback.

Analysis/Results: According to the results, the words and phrases used by the student teachers to describe the cooperative teacher's feedback were: poor performance, neutral, not helpful and does not execute his/her job. When referring to the university supervisor's feedback, they describe it as very helpful and excellent performance.

Conclusions: Student teachers' perceptions on the university supervisor's main focus on feedback directed toward of grammar from the daily plan, class organization, time of the task, how the task is instructed, group control, maximum participation, transition and the execution of the student teacher as a teacher. Results of the cooperative teachers feedback showed that the feedback offered was emphasizes on the initial activity, development and time of the class, group control, time on tasks and the execution of the student teacher as a teacher. According to the student teachers' perceptions, the cooperative teacher does not offer them the necessary feedback to improve in the class room. When comparing the university supervisor he/she does offer the feedback required to improve and develop the student teacher as a teacher.

Physical Education Central: A Possible Online Professional Development Tool

Amber Hall

Todd Pennington, Keven Prusak

Carol Wilkinson

Brigham Young University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: More physical education-specific professional development is needed in our public schools with the intent of promoting teacher change by assisting teachers in their efforts to improve instructional practices. PE Central is one of the most commonly used PE websites in the world—currently receiving some 162,000 visitors and over 1.6 million page views each month. PE Central, however, has never been studied in order to understand who is using the site, user satisfaction, or the whether the site provides PE-specific professional development for teachers. Therefore, the purpose of this study was (a) to assess the usage and satisfaction with PE Central and (b) to ascertain whether PE Central constitutes a valid source of professional development leading to changes in teaching practices and student learning outcomes based on Guskey's model of teacher change.

Method: A two-part survey was developed using standard development procedures to compose and pilot questions based on a Likert scale. Participants (45 pre-service and 288 in-service teachers) from within the SWD AAHPERD completed an online survey assessing the effects of using PE Central on their perceptions of usage, satisfaction, professional development, teacher change, and student engagement.

Analysis/Results: Descriptive data were analyzed using SPSS on variables of interest. Differences between participants were analyzed on usage and satisfaction using a chi square tests, and cross tabulations. Cronbach alphas and Pearson corrleations were calculated to estimate the internal consistency and magnitude of relationships between the items on the two-part survey. Finally, Cohen's d were calculated for the between groups differences related to Guskey's model (M₁-M₂/SDpooled). Results indicated no significant differences between pre- and in-service teachers in usage and satisfaction of PE Central, but that on average the sample population uses it monthly and are more satisfied than not with the site. Results further indicated that PE Central is positively related to provisional and permanent teacher change, and increased student engagement.

Conclusions: Researchers conclude that PE Central is, in fact, accomplishing their mission in assisting teachers with resources to deliver quality PE. Based on the findings, it is recommended that PE-specific professional development modules be created as an approved source of professional development (CEU credits). Following this study developers, researchers, and teachers now understand more fully the impact that PE Central is currently making on teaching and learning, and the potential of the site in providing valuable professional development to teachers.

FITNESSGRAM Differences for 5th, 7th, and 9th Grade California Students

Kellie Green Hall

Amanda Morris

University of Oregon

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The state of California mandates public school students take the FITNESSGRAM Physical Fitness Tests in 5^th, 7^th, and 9^th grade. Results are recorded and available for public view. The purpose of this study was to determine if differences exist between grade level, sex, and ethnicity for aerobic fitness and body composition over time.

Method: Data for the 5^th, 7^th, and 9^th grade students was retrieved for the years 1999, 2006, 2011 and 2013. Analyses for differences in percent of students in the Healthy Fitness Zone (HFZ) were conducted using ANOVAs with Tukey follow-up comparisons. Ethnicity and sex are voluntarily reported by participants on the FITNESSGRAM forms. Close to 1 million youth FITNESSGRAM forms were recorded in 1999 and over 1.3 million in 2013.

Analysis/Results: Many significant differences and interactions between grades, sex and ethnicity across the years emerged. Analyses indicate that 9^th graders had fewer students in the HFZ for aerobic capacity then the 7^th or 5^th which were not different. Males had a significantly higher percentage in the HFZ than females for all grades over all years. For body composition opposite findings emerged, 9^th graders had a higher percentage of students in the HFZ than the 7^th or 5^th which were not different. Males were lower for body composition then females for all grades over all years. Ethnicity analyses revealed that the Asian and Caucasian populations had higher percentages of students in the HFZ then the other ethnic groups across all grades and years. The differences in ethnicity appear to be widening.

Conclusions: Differences exist for sex and ethnicity across grades over time for both aerobic capacity and body composition. The trustworthiness of the body composition measure is discussed. Suggestions and directions based on these findings for physical education curricula are considered. Certainly a need exits for further longitudinal monitoring of fitness level trends, including sex and ethnicity, in American youth. Comparisons to other demographical regions nationwide and worldwide are suggested.

Student Physical Activity During Teaching Games for Understanding Soccer Units

Stephen Harvey

Yang Song

Hans van der Mars

Arizona State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Despite the advent of tactical approaches to teaching sport games (e.g., Teaching Games for Understanding; TGfU), traditional ‘direct instruction’ approaches dominated by skill and drill practice remain prevalent in physical education. The latter tend to result in high levels of inactivity for students (Roberts & Fairclough, 2011). Consequently, better understanding is needed on how tactical approaches can contribute to students reaching the 50% criterion level of health-enhancing moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) for physical education classes (Institute of Medicine [IOM], 2013).

Method: Participants for this study were 87 students from three separate physical education classes (n = 24, 27, and 36, respectively) at one middle school in the Western United States. 24-lessons (n = 8 per class) of TGfU-based soccer (M = 34.43mins; SD = 3.72) were taught by a licensed teacher/soccer coach with expertise in the TGfU approach. Data on students' physical activity (PA) levels and lesson context were collected using the System of Observing Fitness Instruction Time (McKenzie, 2012). Teacher behavior data were collected using the West Virginia Teaching Evaluation System (Hawkins & Wiegand, 1989) in order to encapsulate a greater range of behaviors than possible with SOFIT. Inter-observer agreement checks conducted throughout (i.e., 12.5% of the total lessons) met specified agreement levels (i.e., over 80%) across all categories. TGfU implementation fidelity was assessed using Turner & Martinek's (1999) validation protocol. Percentages of the total number of observed intervals were calculated, from which an average percentage was revealed across the three separate behavior categories.

Analysis/Results: Students' mean MVPA was 57.21% (SD = 11.26%), thus exceeding the IOM's (2013) 50% criterion. Time in VPA averaged 16.83% (SD = 7.53) suggesting that students were also able to attain over five minutes of VPA per class, slightly higher than previously reported (Fairclough & Stratton, 2005). These high MVPA and VPA levels were due to the fact that the students spent a large amount of time in game play (M = 58.82[10.37]) when compared to knowledge (M = 23.81%[8.76]) and management (M = 17.38%[7.55]) contexts. Although spending nearly a quarter of time managing the class (M = 25.07%[9.60]), teacher behavior analyses demonstrated that the teacher used active supervision techniques such as general (M = 26.88%[10.94]) and tactical (M = 16.24%[6.21]) instruction interspersed with periods of general (M = 9.34%[3.45]) and specific observation (M = 3.33%[1.90]) to ensure students engaged in the content being delivered and were not ‘just playing games’.

Conclusions: TGfU approaches can contribute to students' accumulating recommended MVPA levels in physical education, thus providing an appropriate context for fostering game play skills and health-enhancing physical activity.

Transfer from a Positive Youth Development Program to School

Michael A. Hemphill

K. Andrew Richards

Purdue University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Positive Youth Development (PYD) programs have shown potential to teach personal and social responsibility. Physical activity has proven to be an effective medium to promote PYD. Practitioners of PYD aim to teach life skills through sports in ways that can “transfer” to other environments, such as schools. Using Hellison's (2011) TPSR model as a framework, the purpose of this study was to examine ways that youth transferred learning from a physical activity-based PYD program to the school context.

Method: All participants were chosen based on their involvement with a physical activity-based PYD program. Participants included four key groups: youth (N = 21), parents of youth (N = 7), school faculty (N = 3), and PYD program staff (N = 4). Youth participated in individual interviews (N = 20) and focus group interviews (N = 7). All adults participated in individual interviews. Systematic observations (N = 24) of the program were conducted, and school progress reports for youth participating in the program were obtained to examine the presence of PYD programming and school-related outcomes.

Analysis/Results: Data were analyzed qualitatively using deductive analysis. Hellison's (2011) TPSR framework, which includes respect, effort and participation, self-direction, and helping others and leadership was using as the coding structure. Findings indicated strong evidence for transfer of “respect,” “effort,” and “leadership.” For example, all participants explained ways that PYD participants' effort in school was influenced by lessons learned in the PYD program. There was limited evidence for transfer of “self-direction.” For example, evidence from all sources indicated that the youth struggled to set and follow goals. Evidence from all sources indicated the PYD program does transfer some skills into the school and has a positive impact on academic performance. For example, the academic enrichment goals of the PYD program were credited with increasing homework completion and performance in the classroom.

Conclusions: Physical activity-based PYD programs have the potential to promote personal and social responsibility and the transfer of life skills into the school environment. Using data triangulation, this study demonstrates one research-based approach to document transfer of PYD into other settings. The unique role of physical activity needs further examination to understand its role in PYD. Further research should continue to consider the perspectives of individuals within PYD programs and within settings where PYD aims to transfer life skills.

Pre-Service Physical Educators' Stress and Instructional Effectiveness

Jingyang Huang

Southern Arkansas University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Teaching has been reported as a stressful occupation (Kyriacou, 2001). Research has also indicated that preservice teachers might experience high stress during practice teaching (Chan, 2003). Although there has been a proliferation of literature on stress among teachers, few studies have been conducted regarding preservice physical education teachers, and the studies that do exist have mainly investigated the sources of stress among physical education teachers. Moreover, no studies have been found that examine the relationship between stress and teaching effectiveness among preservice physical education teachers. This study examined if stress negatively or positively impacted preservice physical education teachers' teaching effectiveness, thus providing numerous implications for Physical Education Teacher Education (PETE) programs.

Method: A demographic questionnaire, the Teacher Stress Scale (TSS), interview questions, and the West Virginia Teaching Evaluation System (WVUTES) were utilized. A demographic questionnaire was distributed to preservice physical educators prior to their clinical teaching experience. The preservice physical educators were asked to complete the TSS before videotaping one lesson that preservice physical educators taught during the first two-weeks of their practice teaching. Then, 10 preservice teachers who experienced the highest stress levels would be interviewed. Last, the correlation between stress and preservice physical educators' instructional effectiveness was analyzed.

Analysis/Results: A Pearson product-moment correlation analysis was used to determine the relationship between preservice physical educators' stress (the total score of TTS) and their instructional effectiveness (students' total learning time). Results indicated that there was a strong, negative correlation between stress and their teaching effectiveness (r = -0.512, p <  0.01). In addition, the curriculum model and noise were reported as factors that affected preservice physical educators' stress and instructional effectiveness.

Conclusions: In order to improve preservice physical educators' teaching effectiveness, following aspects should be addressed in PETE programs: 1) promote pedagogy content knowledge, 2) continually develop classroom management skills, 3) assist preservice teachers in understanding the curriculum model used, and 4) introduce stress relieving techniques before teaching.

A Comprehensive Assessment of Secondary Physical Education Teacher Fitness Levels

Kevin Hunt

Paige Paige Carver, Taylor Bradberry

Courtney Campbell

Georgia College

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The National Guidelines for Physical Education Teacher Education espouse the position that practicing educators should be “fitness-competent” (National Standards & Guidelines for PETE, 2009). This recommendation is deemed essential to the success of initiatives designed to enhance overall fitness levels in students, based on concepts related to Social Cognitive Theory, which maintain the position that role-modeling is a powerful motivator in influencing learner development.

Method: Certified secondary physical education teachers (N = 156: 115 males, 41 females) from Georgia public schools were administered the Fitnessgram 9 assessment battery. Participants were randomly contacted through public school email addresses for study participation. Participants represented 64 of the 193 state school systems. Participants were assessed using all formal Fitnessgram9 protocols on: aerobic capacity (20m pacer), muscular strength (push-up & curl-up), muscular endurance (push-up & curl-up), flexibility (single leg sit & reach), and body composition (height & weight). All testing sessions were completed individually and scored live by a trained assessor. All sessions were video-recorded, where a sample of recorded sessions were analyzed for reliability. Reliability was established at 99%.

Analysis/Results: Descriptive statistics were generated regarding overall, male, and female scores on each area of assessment. Single sample t-tests were used to compare participants mean scores against Health Fitness Zone (HFZ) standards for each area of assessment. Significance levels were set at .05. Results show that the vast majority of males and females are performing significantly below the HFZ standards for “fitness-competent” adults. Males scored significantly below the HFZ standards on all assessment areas, with the exception of push-ups. Females scored significantly below HFZ standards in the areas of aerobic capacity, flexibility, and body composition. However, despite performing poorly on the muscular strength and endurance assessments, females did not perform significantly below the HFZ in these areas.

Conclusions: The results of this study indicate that male and female secondary physical education teachers in the state of Georgia are unable to perform the majority of Fitnessgram9 tests at a healthy, “fitness-competent” level. Hence, it appears the physical education teachers are not currently in a position to be adequate role models for their learners. The obvious disconnect that has been observed between educator practices and espoused instructional messages has the potential to undermine the effectiveness of the instructor. To what degree this level of hypocrisy is perceived by the learners and hinders the development of healthy lifestyle practices is yet undetermined.

Voices of Students With Disabilities in a Sport Education Season

Allison Jackson

Oleg A. Sinelnikov

The University of Alabama

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: To date, there has been relatively little research on student voice in education and specifically on student voice in physical education. In addition, there is a lack of studies that allow students with disabilities to voice their experiences in physical education. The purpose of this study was to highlight the voices of students with disabilities regarding their perceptions and experiences of participation in a season of Sport Education.

Method: This study used Contact Theory (CT) as the basis for its theoretical framework The participants in this study were four seventh graders (two boys and two girls) from an intact middle school physical education class in the southeast. Data collection took place over a 7-week period during the entire season in which the students participated in flag football. The researcher was present 3 days a week for the entire season and used the following data collection methods: formal interviews with each student, informal discussions, and non-participant observations with field notes. In addition, all lessons were videotaped to substantiate the researcher's field notes.

Analysis/Results: Collected data were reviewed and analyzed using analytic induction and constant comparison processes. Themes were extracted from the data so as to find descriptions and explanations of student participation in the lessons. All the data relevant to each category were identified and examined using constant comparison. Results showed that students with disabilities felt like they were a part of the physical education class. The findings were such that students with disabilities felt they were socially accepted, participated in a student-centered learning environment, had assistance in learning, and experienced teamwork and learned about having roles on their team.

Conclusions: Sport Education permitted students with disabilities to take ownership in their learning alongside their peers by working in small groups, get to know other students on a more personal level, and participate in physical education in a more meaningful way. Until recently, there has been a lack of research on what students with disabilities say about their being included in physical education that resembles real life sporting experiences. The significance of this study was that in a season of Sport Education, it allowed voices of students with disabilities to be identified and their patterns of participation to be documented.

Physical Educators' Competence and Teaching Behavior: Inclusive Physical Education

Mihye Jeong

Karen Stylianides

Penn State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine if perceived behavioral control predicts general physical education teachers' behavior in teaching students with disabilities (SWD) and what factors are related to general physical education (GPE) teachers' competence in teaching SWD.

Method: A convenience sample of 119 Korean general physical education teachers completed this survey. Perceived behavioral control and teaching behavior consisted of 9 and 8 items, respectively. Additional items were related to GPE teachers' competence, previous teaching experience, and other background questions. Descriptive statistic, correlation, standard multiple regression were used to assess relationships among the factors.

Analysis/Results: Descriptive results showed that 45% of the teachers had never taken a course related to adapted physical education (APE). Also, 44% of the teachers had never participated in in-service related to APE. Among them, 44% had excluded SWD from their GPE classes. When the teacher asked to describe the reasons why they excluded SWD, they answered concerns for safety (40%) followed by inappropriate physical education programing (25%), distracting the class (21%), and no teacher assistant (19%). Standard multiple regression revealed that the proportion of the variance in teaching SWD in GPE classes explained by 9 items of perceived behavioral control was 26%, F (9, 110) = 4.379, p <  .01, R = .51, R²⁼ .26. It was found that among the 9 items of perceived behavioral control, professional knowledge (β = .42) significantly predicted teachers' behavior, as did harmony of students with and without disabilities (β = .22), and people's prejudice (β = − .18), but other items were not significant predictors of teachers' behavior in this study. The results of Pearson correlations between each factor of previous teaching experience, professional knowledge, in-service, APE courses taken, and teachers' competence were .50 (p = .00), .34 (p = .00), .26 (p = .01), and .21 (p = .03), respectively.

Conclusions: In conclusion, teachers' professional knowledge, harmony of students with and without disabilities, and people's prejudice were significant predictors on GPE teachers' behavior in teaching SWD. Also, teachers' previous teaching experience, professional knowledge, APE courses taken, as well as in-services were significantly related to the teachers' competence in teaching SWD. In this study, teachers' professional knowledge was found as an important factor related to teachers' competence and behavior in teaching SWD. Future research should take a look at how to and in what ways teachers can improve the professional knowledge in teaching SWD.

Exploring Pre-Service Physical Education Teacher Technology Use During Student Teaching

Emily Jones

Jun-hyung Baek

James Wyant

University of the Pacific

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Technology's role within education has grown exponentially in recent years, yet there is limited evidence of technology integration in physical education (PE) teacher training. Reported barriers to technology integration in teacher training include cost, faculty knowledge/attitude toward technology, and limited curricular space. Proposed integration strategies include technology-focused courses, increased access, modeling of technology use, and field-based experiences. Within PE teacher training, little is known about the impact of technology integration efforts. The purpose of this study was to investigate a technology-rich field experience and how pre-service PE teachers integrate instructional technology in K–12 PE. Of specific interest, pre-service teacher decision making and knowledge relative to the planning, action, and results of technology-Action Research Projects (ARP).

Method: Researchers collected and analyzed archived data across five-semesters. Participants included 78 pre-service PE teachers (52 male; 26 females) enrolled in student teaching at a rural, mid-Atlantic university. Two sources of data were collected: (1) Presentation posters of the completed ARP (n = 75); and (2) Journal entries submitted by students at the three phases of their ARP projects – planning, action, and result (n = 234).

Analysis/Results: Data from the ARP posters were summarized to describe the features of the ARPs. Across the 75 ARPs, 1,379 K–12 students had engaged in technology-rich PE within 35 elementary, 34 middle, and 6 high schools. Team sport and Health-related fitness activities were most often selected by the pre-service teachers to integrate technology, 35 and 34 ARPs respective; 6 within Individual sport units. Activity-monitoring devices were most commonly used, followed by computer/mobile devices and image/audio capturing. Journal entries were sorted into the three ARP phases and deductive analysis was used to identify emergent themes and subthemes: Planning (Decision Making - teaching/learning context, student interests/needs, collaboration with cooperating teacher; Perceived Challenges- student maturity, implementation concerns), Action (Confidence Level – cooperating teacher support, planning, feasibility; Modifications Made- issues with technology, student responses, task re-design), and Result (Perception of Success – student learning, enjoyment, critiques of technology; Influence of Cooperating Teacher- helpful, hindrance, autonomy; Reflection on ARP- replication, future technology use ideas).

Conclusions: As teacher training programs develop strategies to integrate instructional technology, it is recommended that they first understand the impact of the various strategies. Results of this study support technology-rich field-based experiences for pre-service teachers that are guided by an Action Research framework, and enhance our understanding of factors that can facilitate and hinder early career PE teachers use of technology in teaching/learning settings.

Non-Physical Education Major Collegiate Students' Empirically Experiences in Sport Education

Boung Jin Kang

Kyung-Shin Park

Texas A&M International University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The purpose of this study was to exploring the 29 collegiate students' social interaction, empirically experiences and receptivity and how they changed the perception of Sport Education (SE) model (Siedentop, Hastie, & van der Mars, 2004) in volleyball Physical Activity (PA) class.

Method: A total of 29 (17 females and 12 males) non-PE major collegiate students participated in volleyball PA class for 14 weeks that focused on implementing SE model. The SE unit consisted of 10 lessons of modified volleyball. Both quantitative were collected through skill assessment and Volleyball Knowledge Test and qualitative data were collected through class observations and formal-informal interviews to assess students' receptivity and perceptions of the SE model as well as students' volleyball skill progress and their social interaction and beliefs about SE. Descriptive statistics used for quantitative data analysis. Researcher used inductive analysis, and trustworthiness (Lincoln and Guba, 1985, Patton, 1990) was supported through member checks and triangulation of various data sources.

Analysis/Results: All students' knowledge of the volleyball game and skill level significantly improved more in the SE model season class than a previous traditional class format. Every student expressed a variety of experiences of SE in volleyball PA class. (1) All students recognized the benefit of the SE model in volleyball class (i.e. actual involvement, leadership opportunities, social interaction, and skill improvement). (2) Several female students pointed out that implementing the SE model in PA class took too much time at the beginning of the unit of instruction. (3) Level and gender mixed (experienced & non-experienced) class and team setting supported non-experienced students easy to acquire sports skills and understand knowledge.

Conclusions: Despite much of the positive findings: the increased levels of student participation, the students' improved social behavior and leadership, and the students' enjoyment of the unit. All participants pointed to both positive and negative outcomes from the SE curriculum model. Most female students complained that the lack of their understanding of the SE model concept increased the implementation time at the beginning of the season because it was very time consuming to implement due to the organization involved. Nonetheless, the students at both low and high level did see the greater utility of the SE model for skill improvement and decision making opportunities- the shift from an instructor centered to a student centered model of instruction as students took on various roles during the season.

A Meta-Analysis of Physical Education Interventions on Students' Physical Activity

Xiaofen Keating, Rulan Shangguan, Jingwen Liu

Hui Chen

Li Chen

Raj Subramaniam

Yigang Wu

Shanghai University of Sport

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: There have been attempts to promote physical activity (PA) in college students to curb the overreliance on modern technologies that has resulted in sedentary lifestyles. The new shift in lifestyles requires physical education/ health education courses be taught differently in higher education. Researchers have implemented interventions to improve college students' PA through physical education/health education courses. However, there is no information available on the overall intervention effects of such courses. The purpose of the meta-analysis was to examine intervention effects designed to increase PA post-intervention.

Method: Major databases in physical education, psychology, education, health, and fitness were searched for physical education/health education interventions in PA. Studies were chosen based on reported statistics necessary to compute effect size (ES), were written in English, examined physical activity in college students, incorporated a physical education/health education course intervention and were published from 2000 to 2013. Random-effects analyses were used to synthesize data, and meta-analytic analogues of regression and analysis of variance were utilized to examine potential moderator variables. Moderator variable robustness and publication bias were also tested.

Analysis/Results: Nine studies satisfied the selection criteria. Some studies had more than one experimental group, and 27 ESs were calculated. Additionally, two types of research design (i.e., pre- and post-test with a control and experimental group, and pre- and post-test without a control group, respectively) were found. The overall interventions had a medium effect on general PA (Hedges g = 0.47, p <  .01, n = 27 ESs). The effect size for interventions on MVPA and other PA measures (i.e., such as steps, weekly active days, etc.) was .23 (p <  .01, n = 13 ESs) and .38 (p <  .01, n = 14 ESs), respectively, and the difference was significant (p <  .01). Contrary to what has been reported in the literature, the interventions on cognitive component only (g = .31, p <  .01) yielded a significantly larger ES than those studies that used both cognitive and behavioral interventions (g = .29, p <  .01).

Conclusions: Interventions designed to increase college students' PA were only slightly effective, indicating that more effective interventions are needed if larger ESs are desired. Interestingly, cognitive interventions only generated a larger ES on changing PA levels than those that used both cognitive and behavioral interventions, contrary to results involving other adult populations. More studies are needed to confirm the discrepancy of the PA intervention ESs between college students and other adult populations.

Development of Specialized Content Knowledge Through Three Different Learning Contexts

Insook Kim

Bomna Ko

East Carolina University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Ball et al. (2008) and Ward (2012) distinguished specialized content knowledge (SCK), unique knowledge necessary for teaching contents from common content knowledge (CCK), fundamental knowledge for performing contents. SCK is recognized as the bridge for developing pedagogical content knowledge that is one of ultimate goals of physical education teacher education (PETE) programs (Ball et al. 2008). However, little research has examined how to develop this kind of knowledge, what learning contexts are beneficial, and what outcomes to expect in our PETE programs. The purpose of this study is to examine the development of prospective physical education teachers' elementary SCK through different learning contexts in PETE programs.

Method: Six instructors who taught elementary content courses from five PETE programs and 95 PETE major undergraduates in their intact classes participated in this study. To identify their distinct learning contexts, each instructor's survey response, course materials, and a representative videotaped lesson were collected and analyzed. The participating students were requested to complete the elementary content knowledge form at the beginning and end of the course. Using a developed coding template, the numbers of task statements, appropriate/correct task statements, and developmentally/sequentially appropriate task statements were coded from the student data.

Analysis/Results: Teacher data were analyzed using content analysis (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Three distinct learning contexts (i.e., modeling, peer teaching, and lecturing) were identified. Student data were analyzed using ANCOVA. The preliminary data analysis showed that there was no statistically significant relationship between the pre-test (i.e., covariance) and post- test scores as a function of learning context (F (2, 89) = 1.27,p = .287). The ANVOCA showed statistically significant difference (F (2, 89) = 58.08, p = .000, η_p² = .56). The results of post hoc tests showed that there was no statistical difference of students' post SCK scores between peer teaching and lecturing. However, the students who were in the “modeling” context had significantly higher post SCK scores (M = 89.81), controlling for the effect of the pre-test scores, than the other students in the “peer teaching” (M = 50.38) and “lecturing” (M = 40.03) contexts.

Conclusions: It is evident that what students learn is determined by the quality of instructional activities (Ward, 2013). To produce meaningful outcomes in physical education, prospective teachers must develop in-depth understanding of content through participating in quality instruction in PETE. This study allowed us to determine which learning contexts are most influential in terms of SCK achievement.

Student Teachers' Perceptions of Traditional vs. Remote Video Observation

Jennifer M. Krause

Scott Douglas

Brandy Lynch

University of Northern Colorado

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: A very important stage in pre-service teacher training is the student teaching experience. The university supervisor (US) plays a very important role in this developmental stage by maintaining a connection between the cooperating teacher, student teacher (ST), and the university. One of the major roles of the US is to conduct several formal observations of the ST's instruction in the school environment. While the traditional method of supervising STs has been found to be effective, several time, distance, and financial constraints have led to the exploration of remote observation utilizing video chat programs (e.g., Skype, FaceTime, etc.) as an alternative to traditional site visits (Kelly & Bishop, 2013). Due to the critical importance of the role of the US in the student teaching experience and the potential of using remote video, the quality of observation in comparison to traditional, face-to-face supervision environments has been called into question. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the perceptions of STs with regard to traditional vs. remote supervision in terms of logistics, quality of observation, benefits, and challenges.

Method: This qualitative study involved four physical education STs enrolled at a university in the Rocky Mountain Region of the United States. After receiving each type of observation method (e.g., traditional and remote video), the STs completed the Student Teaching Supervision Method Questionnaire to examine their experiences. In addition, the STs participated in a focus group at the end of their student teaching experience to further investigate their perceptions and experiences with both types of supervision.

Analysis/Results: Student Teachers' questionnaire and focus group responses were examined using analytic induction (Huberman & Miles, 1995). Results showed that STs favored traditional over remote video in general, however, they would prefer remote video with a PE content expert over traditional visits if the US did not have PE content expertise (i.e., school principal). Technological challenges such as Wi-Fi connectivity, earpiece discomfort, and environmental distraction were noted by student teachers with remote video. Benefits of remote video supervision included increased ability to hear student teachers' interactions with students, improved feedback potential, and travel time and financial savings.

Conclusions: Results of this study suggest that while traditional on-site observation visits are preferred and ideal, remote video supervision is a viable alternative when technological challenges are appropriately addressed, especially for STs placed out of area.

Perceptions of Working One-on-One With a Student with Severe Disabilities

Todd Layne

Carol C. Irwin

University of Memphis

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Previous research suggests that physical education teacher education programs offer few adapted courses and provide limited hands-on experiences with teaching students with disabilities (Hardin, 2005). Specifically, limited research exists that examines student participation in a field experience devoted to assisting students with disabilities in a self-contained environment (Rust and Sinelnikov, 2010).

Therefore, the purposes of this study were to investigate the perceptions of students working one-on-one with a student with a severe disability in a self-contained environment. Specifically, the purposes of this study were to determine: (1) students pre-and-post level of excitement and confidence of working with students with disabilities, (2) the most beneficial aspects of the experience and 3) the impact on future opportunities of working with students with disabilities.

Method: Participants were 27 (21 Male, 6 Female) university students enrolled in a class titled “Exceptional Learners in Physical Education”. Participants assisted a student from a school for students with disabilities for 1-hour for a total of 10 days. Participants were expected to help with daily tasks, as well as teach skills related to physical education. Data were collected through the completion of a pre-and-post survey to assess student's perceptions of participating in a field experience devoted to assisting students with a severe disability. In addition, the researcher maintained field notes to provide further analysis of the experience.

Analysis/Results: A one way ANOVA was used to analyze the Likert-scale data that were gathered from the participants, while qualitative data were analyzed by reading and re-reading the information to determine themes and patterns. There was a significant difference with student confidence (F = 31.09, p <  .001) and their level of excitement (F = 27.56, p <  .001) for working with students with severe disabilities from the beginning to the end of the field experience.

Qualitative results indicated that students: (a) lack of experience impacted their level of excitement for working with students with severe disabilities prior to the beginning of the field experience, (b) believed the greatest benefit was working one-on-one with the students, and (c) have a greater appreciation for life and are more prepared for future opportunities due to the knowledge gained through the experience.

Conclusions: These results indicate that opportunities to work with students with severe disabilities can enhance the learning experience for physical education students. The uniqueness of working with students one-on-one can enrich awareness and thus provide greater potential for teaching students with disabilities in the future.

A Development of Innovative Instructional Model: TEAM Sport Learning

Byungjun Lee

Deockki Hong

University of Northern Iowa

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: It is well established that appropriate grouping strategies in physical education can enhance students' learning. Recently, physical education researchers in South Korea have developed an innovative instructional model, TEAM Sport Learning that is focus on students' social skills and responsibility in physical education. The acronym TEAM means “Together we can achieve more.” The purpose of this research was to develop a rationale for TEAM Sport Learning model and examine effectiveness of it.

Method: An extensive literature review was conducted to capture current trends and characteristics of grouping strategies in physical education and education in general. Specifically, whole-group instruction grouping, within-class grouping, ability grouping, flexible groping, homogeneous grouping and mixed ability grouping were reviewed. Based on the literature review, the theory of team dynamics were chosen to create a rationale of TEAM Sport Learning.

Analysis/Results: Literature review results showed that concepts such as effective communication skills, conflict resolution skills and team interventions are rarely integrated into lessons in physical education in South Korea. The team dynamic theory suggests that the team is viewed as a living unit so that individuals must help each other. Based on the team dynamic theory, the TEAM Sport Learning model focus on students learning in communication, conflict management, self-control and care for others. As a result, four rationales were developed in the TEAM Sport Learning model. First, grouping should represent the reality of the world in which the participants live in. Second, team must be stable. Then, a conscious effort must be made to group for instruction, not individuals. Lastly, social learning should be in the center of student learning objectives.

Conclusions: Incorporating concepts and ideas of social learning into physical education curriculum creates a bridge for learning social responsibility. The TEAM Sport Learning model can be an effective instructional model to teach social skills and social responsibility in physical education.

Team Building in Sport: An Action Research Study

Byungjun Lee, Dahee Jung

Jaemin Oh

Deockki Hong

([email protected]).

University of Northern Iowa

Background/Purpose: Recently, TEAM (i.e., Together, we can do more!) sport learning instructional model (Lee, 2013) has been developed in physical education in South Korea. The TEAM sport learning model emphasizes team belonging, team building, and team developing in physical education. The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of the TEAM sport learning model using action research in one middle and one high schools in South Korea.

Method: Using an action research methodology, two physical education teachers (i.e., James and Erin) participated in this study. First of all, James and Erin took a graduate school class that they learned the TEAM sport learning model for a semester. Then, James developed a soccer unit (15 lessons) that incorporated the TEAM sport learning model. He taught six eighth grade classes in middle school for a year. Erin developed four units (i.e., Kin-ball, netball, volleyball, and cooperative gymnastics) that incorporated the TEAM sport learning model. She taught eight ninth grade classes in high school for a year. Teachers' lesson plans and their reflection notes, students' interviews, and their daily logs, students' formative and summative assessments were collected in both schools.

Analysis/Results: Data were analyzed inductively and deductively. Teachers' lesson plans and reflection notes showed that teachers followed seven key steps using the TEAM sport learning model. First, each team's identity (e.g., team name) was formed followed by lead-up games. Second, each participant's role was assigned. Third, each team's goal was established. Fourth, team communications and interactions were facilitated. Fifth, team conflict resolution was practiced. Then, team reflection was conducted. Lastly, team festivity was emphasized. Furthermore, students' interviews, daily logs, and assessments showed that students improved their communication skills, personal and social responsibilities, and life skills.

Conclusions: Implementing TEAM sport learning model in physical education in K-12 school setting in South Korea seems to be an effective to teach students' communication skills, personal and social responsibilities, and life skills.

Student Athletes' Friendship Network Their Academic Performance: Social Network Analysis

Han-J Lee, Narae Son, Jun-Hee Gee

Se-Hyung Ha

Tae-Koo Lee

([email protected]).

Snag-Dong High School

Background/Purpose: There is growing concern over the academic performance of college athletes with limited emphasis of academic requirement in Korea. Several strategies are adopted to provide academic support to promote academic success of student athletes. As one of the strategies, peer tutoring uses pairings of high-performing students to tutor lower-performing student athletes in a class-wide setting. Although benefits of peer tutoring (i.e., academic achievement) were reported, limited research explored relationship between student athletes' social relationship (i.e., social network) and their academic performance. Purpose of this study was to investigate the association between involvement in peer tutoring and student athletes' academic achievement and their social networks. Research questions were: (1) What are the network structure of physical education (PE) major students where student athletes are embedded, (2) What structural parameters are contributing to the PE majors network structure, and (3) Is there an association between student athletes' academic achievement and geodesic distance to the peer tutors shown in their network?

Method: Ninety-five freshmen and sophomore college students (M = 78, F = 17) majoring PE participated in this study. Forty-four were student athletes and were provided peer tutoring opportunities. Among the rest of participants, nine students volunteered as a tutor of the student athletes to help prepare for class works throughout a semester. The student athletes met assigned tutors as they needed. Data were collected using Name Generator Questionnaire (i.e., list four names that you think they are your best friend in the PE department) at the end of the semester. Students' grade point average (GPA) was also collected to analyze academic achievement. Data were analyzed using social network analysis tools such as UCINET, p-net, and Quadratic Assignment Procedure. Network distance was calculated if association between geodesic distance and academic achievement exist.

Analysis/Results: Results showed that (1) PE students showed three families under one roof where homophily was identified (2) homophily (e.g., student athletes, students with same sex) contributed to the total social network of PE majors, and (3) student athletes who had reciprocal interactions more with tutors showed improvement in their GPA than other student athletes. Their GPA change is not attributed to the geodesic distance to tutors.

Conclusions: This study concludes that student athletes' reciprocal interactions with peers result in positive influence on their educational achievement. Creating reciprocal friendship between student athletes and non-athletes students should be encouraged to improve academic support service and academic performance of student athletes.

Effect of Acculturation on Choosing Physical Education as a Career

Hong-Min Lee

The University of New Mexico

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Lawson (1988) describes occupational socialization as “all kinds of socialization that initially influence persons to enter the field of Physical Education (PE) and are responsible for their perspectives and practices as teacher educators and teachers” (p. 107). In addition, the theoretical framework of occupational socialization explains the process of socialization into PE teaching and research on PE Teacher Education (Lawson, 1983; Stroot & Williamson, 1993). However, there has been little research on choosing PE as a career which has been informed and guided by occupational socialization theory. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to identify the impact of acculturation on a career choice and to investigate how this impact was mediated by PE teachers’ biographies. In addition, this study explored PE teachers’ personal attributes, sport participation, influence by significant others on occupational choice, and other occupational factors.

Method: The participants were one elementary and three middle school PE teachers (1 female, 3 males; age range 26–40). Data were collected from field notes during passive participant observations, two semi-structured formal interviews and informal interviews, and document analysis of self-reflective posters to gain an understanding of why the participants wanted to become PE teachers.

Analysis/Results: Data were analyzed using analytic induction and constant comparison (Patton, 2002).Trustworthiness of data was established through triangulation, peer debriefing, and member checks. Results indicated that the participants had extensive backgrounds in sport with the majority participating in organized sports during high school. The participants’ socialization into physical education was influenced by situational and social factors, such as positive experiences with a teacher or a coach, positive support by family, and the participants’ strong beliefs in the value of physical education.

Conclusions: The results of this study give detailed picture about the personal attributes of PE teachers. In addition, they provide information about socialization factors, significant others and sport participation during high school years, that shape the participants’ perceptions and beliefs about teaching as their careers. Influences from sport-participation situations may explain why the participants chose PE teaching. Research in PE teacher socialization reveals that prospective PE teachers participate in sport, often beginning at young ages (Wright, 2001), which is in line with the present study's results. Understanding the significance of these experiences on PE teachers’ career decisions may serve to guide teacher educators to improve the effectiveness of Physical Education Teacher Education (PETE) programs.

Effects of Backward Curriculum Design on Trust Building

Tae-Koo Lee

Joo-Hyen Kim

Han-J Lee, Se-Hyung Ha, Jun-Hee Gee

Kyung-Hwa Lee

([email protected]).

Yonsei University

Background/Purpose: Backward-designed curriculum (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005) is a three-stage approach to curriculum design consisting of determining the desired results, acceptable evidence, and the instruction to bring about the desired results. Trust is a core psychological and interpersonal issue in Korean education. Trust building activities in physical education help students to develop mutual respect, openness, understanding, and empathy, as well as to develop communication and teamwork skills. The purposes of this study were (1) to develop PE lessons to build trust using backward curriculum design, and (2) to examine the effectiveness of the lesson.

Method: Participants were tenth graders (N = 379, M = 213, F = 166). Students participated in various trust-building activities such as trust fall (e.g., a person falling backwards from table height into the arms and hands of the group; each group member can opt to take a turn as faller), trust lean (e.g., in pairs of similar size, one person becomes a Faller and one the Catcher), blind walk (e.g., a group is blindfolded and linked together - holding the hand of someone next to them and the shoulder of the person in front; the group is then lead on a walk) as learning experience. In-depth interviews were conducted to collect data after 10class periods. Data were analyzed using qualitative content analysis (Woods, Priest & Roberts, 2002).

Analysis/Results: The results of this study showed that students reported that the learning experiences were (1) fun and enjoyable (e.g., “I had a lot of fun with TF and it's an enjoyable activity”), (2) challenging (e.g., “Challenge and courage was surely needed because falling down backwards provoked fear”), (3) effective (e.g., “I built up trust because I must trust friends whenever I fall down backwards,” “I know somebody will lead us to the spot”). Backward-designed curriculum class activities were effective because students developed a sense of (1) trusting themselves (e.g., “I did it and I feel like I am a new person even though I did not like the activities at first”), (2) trusting friends (e.g., “I have got more friends than ever before, and trusted them all strongly during the activities”), (3) trusting the group (e.g., “I thank you for the PE teacher that I can work with nice group I can trust”).

Conclusions: Results of this study suggested that backward curriculum design was effective in trust-building activities in physical education. Recommendations for using backward-designed curriculum in PE were provided.

Effects of Sportcasting and Scaffolding on Problem Solving Abilities

Tae-Koo Lee

Han-J Lee

Joo-Hyen Kim

Narae Son, Jun-Hee Gee

Se-Hyung Ha

([email protected]).

Yonsei University

Background/Purpose: Sportcasting in Physical Education (Lee, 2011) is a class activity that students simulate sports broadcasting (e.g., students report, analyze, and comment on game play). It encourages problem solving (PS) learning for students. Scaffolding is the support with the intention of helping the student achieves his/her learning goals and contributes to problem solving (Sawyer, 2006). One of the main benefits of scaffolding is that it provides for a supportive learning environment. It was hypothesized that Sportcasting will be effective in a scaffolded learning environment, because students are free to ask questions, provide feedback and support their peers in sport-related tasks. However, limited studies have examined if sportcasting with scaffolding is effective instructional strategies for PS. The purpose of this study was to examine effects of sportcasting with scaffolding on PS abilities, and on academic achievement.

Method: Participants were 46 college students. The static-group comparison design was used: an experiment group (M = 13, F = 13) with supportive scaffoldings (e.g., conceptual explanation, terminology dictionary, visual materials) and a control group (M = 10, F = 10) with reflective scaffoldings (e.g., organizing the environment, using appropriate cues to guide behaviors, and modeling). Group homogeneity was checked before experiment. This study continued for 8 weeks through blended learning on volleyball. Class activities include skill learning (1^st and 2^nd week), modified game play (2^nd through 6^th week), game analysis using video clips (7^th week), writing a script for 4 minute broadcasting (7^th week), and broadcasting using the script and four minute video clip showing volleyball in a class (8^th week). Students’ academic achievement [Volleyball Test Kit (KICE, 2006)] and PS abilities [Process Behavior Survey (Lee, 1998)] were measured on the 9th week.

Analysis/Results: Two-way ANOVA was conducted to analyze the data. There was no interaction (Gender X Group) effect. The results revealed that students in reflective scaffoldings had higher PS abilities (M = 81.15, SD = 8.96) than students in supportive scaffoldings (M = 64.23, SD = 8.78). However, two groups were not statistically different in academic achievement. Gender main effect was found in PS abilities that male students scored higher than female.

Conclusions: Sportcasting with instructional scaffolding promote a deeper level of cognitive skills and male students performed better than female students. The effective scaffolding strategies (Lewis, 2010) for sportscasting were discussed to help students to foster PS skills in terms of content knowledge, epistemic practices, collaboration and self-directed learning

Content Maps as Teaching and Assessment Tool: A Pilot Study

Yun Soo Lee

Harry Lehwald

Phillip Ward

([email protected]).

The Ohio State University

Background/Purpose: It is always challenging for teachers to develop their content knowledge (CK). CK can be divided into two categories: common content knowledge (CCK) and specialized content knowledge (SCK). Even though SCK is more important for effective teaching, little is known about how to develop and assess teacher's SCK. The purpose of this study was to examine the potentials of content maps as a teaching and assessment tool on preservice teachers’ SCK in PETE programs.

Method: The study was conducted at a University in the Midwest. A total of 17 students in the PETE program enrolled in a physical activity CK course designed to teach K-12 volleyball skills were recruited. Prior to the instruction, each student generated a content map of volleyball skills showing the scope and sequence of task progressions (pretest). After completing initial content maps, the content map designed by the course instructor was presented to the students. During a 7-week unit, task progressions were taught in the sequence on the content map. Each week the students were asked to duplicate the content map by describing the task progressions. At the end of the unit, the students were asked to generate a new content map (posttest) based on what they were taught during the course. Three trained raters scored each student's content maps using the developed rubric. Interrater agreement was calculated on 41.2% of data with 88.8% of agreement.

Analysis/Results: There were two main categories of analysis: (a) how much percentage of the contents were matched with the instructor's contents in the content maps (i.e., matching category), and (b) how much percentage of the contents were matched and congruent with the instructor's contents in the content maps (i.e., matching & congruent category). There were meaningful gains from pretest (M = 23.76) to posttest (M = 50.47) of the content maps for matching category. There were also meaningful gains from pretest (M = 31.88) to posttest (M = 56.94) of the content maps for matching & congruent category.

Conclusions: The data show that students acquired volleyball SCK from this course. Though the gains in student's SCK were substantial, they were less than what they were taught. The results confirm that the content maps can be used to effectively teach SCK and accurately measure SCK. Further research with large sample and with different units is warranted to explain the roles of the content maps as a teaching and assessment tool in PETE.

Quasi-Experimental Evaluation of Undergraduate Learning in a Multi-Dimensional Wellness Course

Kristi Leonard

Waldorf College

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Introductory wellness courses are common in higher education. These courses are typically of a unidimensional approach, focusing on just the physical component of wellness. Some educators would argue that a multidimensional approach is a richer and more valuable learning experience. Furthermore, technology has played a larger role in wellness education. College wellness educators and curriculum designers need to determine the implications for both online and face-to-face instructional methods in their execution of teaching the holistic concept of wellness to their students.

The purpose of this quasi-experimental intervention study was to compare two teaching and delivery methods and subsequent self-assessment results of undergraduate students in an introductory wellness course at a small, Midwestern four-year college. More specifically, the study aimed to investigate the null statement: There are no differences in the learning responses and progress between online and residential student populations in a multidimensionally structured wellness course.

Method: Of the 153 (112 online, 41 residential) subjects, 78 (45 online, 33 residential) completed both the pre-test and post-test of a customized wellness survey, which measured students' levels of holistic wellness awareness, knowledge, and potential attitude shift (TestWell Holistic Lifestyle Questionnaire/BMS-WBCI).

Bivariate fit, chi-square, and one-way ANOVA tests were then ran by demographic parameters and both the pre- and post-test results for both the online and residential cohorts. Matched Pairs t-tests also were used to test whether there were significant mean differences between sets of paired data pre- and post-test.

Analysis/Results: The study identified differences between the online and residential students that can essentially impact the effectiveness in which multidimensional wellness courses are implemented.

The online students' positive change scores were statistically significant for the environmental wellness dimension. Residential students scored high in variables related to physical activity, exercise, relationships, and work/life balance.

Conclusions: Course curriculum should remind online students of the benefits of investing in their health, the detriments of ignoring their well-being, and the overall importance of work/life balance. The curriculum should be developed with flexibility in mind. Different kinds of support and opportunities for students to relate the curriculum to their work contexts are important.

Residential students displayed traits characteristic of the personal fable and invulnerability. Course curriculum should remind these students that choices they make now will impact their future. Faculty should be mindful of students' egocentrism when devising classroom instruction. They need to be intentional about raising student awareness of potential outcomes of risky behaviors.

Efforts to Address Childhood Obesity: Physical Educators’ Perspectives

Kristie Lynch

Manhattanville College

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: Childhood obesity is a major health problem in the United States where physical education can play a pivotal role in combating this epidemic. In response to this concern, the New York State Physical Education Learning Standards for K-12 students were transformed into a survey administered to a sample of physical education teachers (N = 261). Emergent themes for teachers and schools taking action steps to respond to the obesity epidemic were examined.

Method: Certified physical education teachers and teachers in training were recruited nationally via an online social marketing campaign and completed an online survey developed by the study author (Survey for Physical Education Teachers (SPET). Data were collected on the following constructs: (1) Demographics and Background Information, (2) Teacher Assessment for Standard 1: Personal Health and Fitness, (3) Teacher Assessment for Standard 2: A Safe and Healthy Environment, (4) Teacher Assessment for Standard 3: Resource Management, (5) Perceived Barriers to Effective Teaching of Physical Education, and (6) Obesity Prevention/ Intervention Effectiveness. Data were cleaned and analyzed using SPSS (version 20.0). Descriptive statistics and regression analyses were conducted.

Analysis/Results: Results demonstrated physical education teachers assess the obesity prevention of themselves and their schools through the role played by teachers. Physical education teachers rated their work in responding to the nation's obesity epidemic with a mean score of 3.84 (Min = 1.0, Max = 5.0, SD = .71 or good). As for schools taking actions steps in response to the obesity epidemic, teachers rated their school's work in responding to the nation's obesity epidemic as a mean score of 3.23 (Min = 1.0, Max = 5.0, SD = .87 or closest to fair). Emergent themes for teachers’ action steps were the importance of daily physical activity and serving as a role model whereas schools’ action steps suggested the need for better nutrition choices in the cafeteria and increased physical education time.

Conclusions: These results suggest that teachers and schools should support multi-faceted interventions in response to the obesity epidemic. Further, obesity prevention efforts should include more SPET studies, longitudinal studies using SPET, a call to action for government agencies and increased respect for the field of physical education. This study emphasizes the endorsement of utilizing a school-based approach to targeting childhood obesity reduction.

Effects of an Academic Course on Students’ Resistance Training Knowledge

Brian W. McGladrey

Chad E. Smith

([email protected]).

Weber State University

Background/Purpose: There is evidence to suggest that high school physical educators and sport coaches are deficient in the knowledge they should possess to effectively and safely instruct students and athletes in the weight room (McGladrey et al., 2014). In part, this deficiency is a result of the fact that physical education teacher education (PETE) programs often do not require students to complete a course in resistance training principles and methods as part of the curriculum (Ayers & Housner, 2008). The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a single academic course on undergraduate students’ acquisition of content knowledge specific to resistance training principles and methods.

Method: Participants in this study consisted of 198 undergraduate students enrolled in a resistance training methods course at a university located in the Southwest United States, from which IRB approval was obtained prior to the start to the study. Participants were degree-seeking students in the programs of PETE, human performance management, and athletic training. The curriculum for this two-credit semester course included lectures, and lab work (i.e., learning and practicing exercises/lifts in a weight room). To answer the study's research question, pre- and post-test scores were collected using a 90-question examination developed specifically for the secondary-school physical educator/coach population (McGladrey et al., 2014). At the start of the semester students would complete the exam as a pre-test; the same exam was administered as the final exam at the course's completion.

Analysis/Results: An analysis of results showed a significant difference in post-test scores (M = 86.38, SD = 10.92) when compared to pre-test scores (M = 61.06, SD = 11.20); t(197) = − 27.08, p < .001. When compared to the exam's passing score of 75%, the pass rate for participants on the pre-test was 11%, while on the post-test it was 90%. These results suggest that completion of a single academic course can positively influence students’ acquisition of content knowledge in resistance training principles and methods.

Conclusions: The pass rate for participants on the pre-test (11%) was similar to findings reported by McGladrey et al. (2014), in which 16% achieved a passing score ( ≥ 75%); however, the pass rate on the post-test was considerably higher at 90%. The significance of this study is that its results suggest that PETE program directors should consider including a methods course (at minimum) in resistance training as part of the PETE curriculum.

National Teachers of the Year's Outcome Priorities: Influence of Experience

Gabriella Maria McLoughlin

Amelia Mays Woods

([email protected]).

University of Illinois

Background/Purpose: Since schools are where most children spend between 40 to 45% of their waking hours (Fox, Cooper, & McKenna, 2004), they are important environments in which to engage children in physical activity. Because physical educators typically lead schools’ physical activity efforts, understanding their attitudes toward teaching physical activity is warranted. Teachers have diverse belief systems related to the relative importance of various physical education goals. This study was grounded in teacher beliefs theory (Pajares, 1992). The purpose was to examine whether NASPE Teachers’ of the Year (TOYs) beliefs systems toward outcome priorities in physical education was related to years of teaching experience and the levels at which they taught.

Method: After obtaining IRB approval, 22 TOYs agreed to take part in the study. Participants’ experience ranged from 8 to 38 years; teaching contexts varied across elementary, middle, and high school levels. Each participated in in-depth interviews, which utilized a standardized open-ended interview approach (Patton, 2002), and completed the Attitudes Toward Curriculum in Physical Education (Kulinna & Silverman, 1999) inventory. The interview and inventory explored the espoused beliefs systems of the teachers toward outcome priorities in physical education.

Analysis/Results: Interviews were tape recorded and transcribed verbatim. Open and axial coding were used to establish common themes within the responses, relating to teacher beliefs theory. Questionnaire data were analyzed using descriptive data from responses, linking these to interview data as triangulation. A main theme was that motor skill development was highly valued in curriculum, yet no participant stated that this was the most important to their teaching. A second theme was that across all experience levels, TOYs in high school all considered individual development and emotional development to be the most important aspects in their teaching. Further, those who believed that fitness development was a priority referred to the influence that increasing fitness had on students’ levels of confidence. This suggests that fitness development as a standalone may be partially influential because of the concomitant benefits. No trends were noted among experience levels in TOYs.

Conclusions: The espoused beliefs systems of the high school teachers tended to place value on more affective outcomes to their teaching, whereas middle and elementary teachers tended to value motor skill and fitness aspects. Outcome priorities in physical education were not necessarily associated with teaching experience.

Achieving the ‘Aha’ Moment: Seeing is Believing in PETE

Jaimie M. McMullen

Sara Deutsch

([email protected]).

Minot State University

Background/Purpose: When considering teacher education programs a common challenge is how to best address the reality of the theory-to-practice gap. The theory-to-practice gap has been widely referenced in nursing education literature and has recently been discussed in PETE and the general teacher education literature (i.e., Cheng, Cheng & Tang, 2010; Standal, Moen & Moe, 2014). In the context of one physical education teacher education (PETE) program, the faculty struggled with getting students to buy-in to using a variety of strategies and curriculum models that were being taught in methods classes when their observation and field experience sites lacked curricular diversity – a challenge that creates relevance for this study. The purpose of this project was to attempt to achieve the “Aha!” moment – or the moment when someone is finally able to see theory they have been learning in university classrooms effectively translated to practice.

Method: In order to achieve this, seven PETE students travelled from a relatively small town in the north-central United States to a large metropolitan center in the Southwest United States where they participated in a variety of professional development opportunities. These activities included visiting local schools to observe physical education lessons taught by accomplished physical educators who employed a variety of strategies and curriculum models, participating in PETE methods classes at large university with an accomplished PETE program, assisting in the facilitation of out-of-class physical activity programs, and attending an in-service development seminar. Multiple data were collected from all participants and included journal entries, field notes from debriefing sessions and interviews.

Analysis/Results: These data were analyzed inductively using an interpretive approach (Erickson, 1986; LeCompte & Schensul, 1999) from which the notion of “seeing is believing” emerged as a pattern associated with achieving the “Aha!” moment across all data types. This led to the assertion that pre-service teachers need opportunities to physically observe and engage in diverse experiences in order to bridge the theory-to-practice gap.

Conclusions: Finding ways to bridge the theory-to-practice gap in PETE is relevant when considering the development of prospective physical education teachers. The authors are not suggesting that programs that lack access to curricular and programmatic diversity in the schools surrounding their university must replicate this novel experience. Rather, the intention of this work is to begin a discussion within PETE of how we can effectively prepare physical education teachers by employing best practices relative to engaging with theory and practice.

The Last PETE Program Standing

Michael W. Metzler

Hans van der Mars

Thomas J. Templin

Kim C. Graber

Thomas L. McKenzie

Sean M. Bulger

Phillip Ward

([email protected]).

The Ohio State University

Conclusions: Between 2010 and 2012, total enrollment in four-year public and private non-profit universities increased by more than 3 percent but enrollment in education degree programs declined significantly. Koenig (2014) cited several reasons for this decline including the (a) emergence of for-profit universities, (b) recent economic recession, (c) changing political climate, (d) emergence of alternative routes to teacher certification, and (e) seemingly negative public perception of the teaching profession. Though no formal published data exist, enrollment in U.S. PETE programs has declined as well, as indicated by the elimination of several in recent years. The future overall health and growth potential of U.S. PETE programs will likely be affected by a number of contextual changes within universities, including research-intensive, mid-level, and smaller universities. These include general trends such as the corporatization of universities, increased dependence on non-tenure track faculty and staff, requirements for faculty to secure external grant funding, demand for universities to show demonstrable impact on the pubic, and the manner in which marketing and recruitment of students is conducted. Based on these trends, possible recruitment strategies will be presented. In addition, symposium attendees will engage in: (a) seeking possible strategies and solutions for reversing the current enrollment trend, and (b) setting a research agenda for SHAPE America for regularly monitoring the status of PETE programs.

Assessment of Risk Management in Adapted Physical Education Textbooks

Kelle L. Murphy

Patricia Hughes

([email protected]).

Oklahoma State University

Background/Purpose: Law suits involving injuries in physical education and sports have increased in the last decade (Appenzeller, 2012). As a result, risk management, a process to minimize losses (Eickhoff-Shemek, Herbert, & Connaughton, 2009), has been introduced as an avenue to lessen the likelihood of injuries and maintain safe programs (Appenzeller, 2012). The purpose of this research was to assess how risk management is being addressed in Adapted Physical Education textbooks. Multiple leading Adapted Physical Education textbooks used in physical education teacher education programs were identified and examined.

Method: Methods included the following: 1) examination of Table of Contents and Subject Index in each textbook to see if a chapter on risk management was included; 2) chapters were examined to see if any of the sections about particular disabilities with high risk contained any content related to risk and risk management (for example, atlantoaxial subluxation danger for individuals with Down syndrome; 3) a Risk Management Inventory developed by one of the authors was used as a guide to examine further the areas in physical education most susceptible to law suits (equipment and facilities, supervision, instruction, emergency and medical procedures [Dougherty, 2010]). An additional category of administrative behaviors was included in the Risk Management Inventory and addressed in the textbooks.

Analysis/Results: There was a huge variability among textbooks, depending on author and topic, regarding safety issues for activities, risks, and appropriate risk management strategies. A majority of the textbooks present the content regarding a disability and minimize or do not address the risks inherently associated with the activity. For example, one textbook covered aquatics without mentioning that credentials (WSI or some sort of swim instruction and adequate supervision) are strongly recommended before taking students into an aquatic environment.

Conclusions: As a result of this examination, we recommend that future textbooks, conversations, lectures, and information about disabilities contain related risk management content.

Understanding Physical Activity During the Transition into University in Korea

Heon Nam, Ansu Lee

Jonghee Bae

Kyeongjin Kang

([email protected]).

Kyungpook National University

Background/Purpose: Transition means moving from current situation or environment to next situation or environment. Particularly, understanding the transition from high school to university is important because declines in physical activity may be most prominent in this period (Bray & Born, 2004). During the transition into university, physical activity is declined by many factors, such as personal relationships, lack of facilities, festival, many choice, opportunity of freedom, and so on (Kwan, 2006). While many researches on physical activity during the transition have been conducted in other countries, research is needed for understanding perceptions and barriers of physical activity in Korea university students. Thus, the purposes of this study are to examine perceptions and barriers of physical activity during the transition into university in Korea.

Method: Participants consisted of 312 freshmen students in K university located in D city in Korea and responded International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) to identify the lowest level of physical activity. 24 students (male: 12, female: 12) were selected for conducting the focus group interviews which were divided into 6 groups composed of 4 students (male: 2, female: 2). Students were asked to sign consent form including the purpose and rationale of the study prior to the focus group interview. Then each focus group had semi-structured meeting for about an hour. Data were analyzed using a thematic analysis. Member checking, peer debriefing, and triangulation strategies were used for increasing data trustworthiness.

Analysis/Results: Results showed that perception about physical activity indicated in both ways. In positive ways, participants perceived physical activity as stress relief, confident form, and personal relationships improvement. They also perceived it as negative ways such as psychological burden, cost-bearing and sense of inferiority. Results in physical activity barriers were classified into four factors. First factor was individual barriers that were lack of time due to busy university life and lack of knowledge about physical activity. Second was personal relationship barriers such as absent of friends that play with physical activity and lack of interest on physical activity at home. Third factor was social community barriers that were frequent meeting as university freshman students and active participants for department event. Last was facility environmental factor such as lack of exercise facilities.

Conclusions: After transition into university from high school, physical activities were declined by many factors. Not only studying factors that decline freshmen's physical activity, but also plan for conquest these barriers should be studied to promote freshmen's insufficient physical activity.

Perspectives of PETE on a National Curriculum in Physical Education

Junghwan Oh

Kim C. Graber

([email protected]).

University of Illinois

Background/Purpose: Since the publication of ‘A Nation at Risk’ (National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983), there has been a growing response in the educational community that a nationwide curriculum and national testing are necessary to hold schools accountable for high achievement and ultimately raise educational standards (Apple, 1996). Some scholars believe that conversion to a national curriculum could lead to clearer instructional guidance and more coherent learning goals. This has been widely debated in the United States, where the tradition of local control and state responsibility are dominant. The purpose of this study was to use a Systemic Reform model (Smith & O'Day, 1991) to investigate whether establishing a national curriculum in physical education is reasonable and feasible.

Method: Twenty-four Physical Education Teacher Education scholars from colleges and universities across the United States consented to participate. All participants had served or were currently serving in a leadership capacity at the state or national level in a primary professional organization. Each participant was interviewed using formal and informal questions for approximately 60 minutes. The interviews occurred in person during the 2014 annual SHAPE America National Convention and through phone interviews thereafter.

Analysis/Results: Interview transcripts were inductively and deductively coded using open and axial techniques (Corbin, & Strauss, 2008) and were triangulated by comparing the responses of individuals employed at different types of institutions. Results indicated that the majority of participants oppose the idea of developing a national curriculum because the rigidity and inflexibility of such a system would not allow implementation in the culturally, geographically, and climatically diverse U.S. school context. In addition, they believe that a national curriculum would not be readily accepted in the United States due to the strong tradition of local and state governance of curriculum, the multi-layered educational policy structure, and the anticipated resistance of teachers, schools, and states to change.

Conclusions: In order to allow for both educational consistency and flexibility in the United States, the content and pedagogical requirements of a national curriculum must be conceptualized. Employing a national curriculum would require long-term planning to determine the scope, sequence, breadth, and depth of the changes. This would include how to specify the appropriate motor skills and knowledge to be assessed; supply adequate resources and funding for each school district; foster collaboration between multi-level administrative groups, professional organizations, and schools; and promote pre- and in-service professional development.

Investigating Life Skill Needs of Youth in After-School Sports Programs

Lee Okseon

Kyunghwan Jang

Mirim Park

([email protected]).

Seoul National University

Background/Purpose: After-school programs are considered as one the critical developmental contexts for youth where they can have extended and enriched learning opportunities(Noam, Biancarosa, & Dechausay, 2003). The goal of after-school programs should not be limited to keep the youth off the street but provides skills and competency-building opportunities to promote healthy and positive youth development. Sport and physical activity programs can be one of the ideal contexts to cultivate life skills for youth and facilitate their transfer of life skills to their everyday lives. Although there is a growing interests in sport-based life skills programs in Korea, few studies have explored life skills needs of youth, and the majority of programs have been designed by program providers. As a result, diverse needs of youth, parents, and program instructors tend to be either overlooked or not fully considered for the program design. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore life skills needs of Korean youth in after-school sports programs and examine issues related to successful implementation of programs.

Method: Participants were ten school-based afterschool program instructors and 20 youth who participated in afterschool sport programs provided in the schools, and their parents(n = 20). Data were collected from the interviews with instructors and youth to identify life skills needs of youth and issues related to successful program implementation. In addition, open-ended survey was administered to parents to examine their perceived life skills needs of youth.

Analysis/Results: Data were analyzed inductively and trustworthiness of data was ensured through data source triangulation and member check with participants. Findings revealed the four categories of life skills: (a) playing well, skills for maintaining active life styles (e.g., active leisure, having fun), (b) connecting well, skills for promoting social competence (e.g., connecting with diverse community personnel, coaches), (c) coping well, skills for dealing with stress and challenges (e.g., coping with stress, conflict resolution), and (d) dreaming well, skills needed for having future aspiration and purposes (e.g., sense of purpose, career exploration). For the successful implementation of sport-based life skills programs, participants addressed the needs of: (a) adopting ideal mix of explicit and implicit methods of teaching life skills, (b) providing extra-curricular contents as well as extended contents, and (c) strengthening educational values of after-school sports program.

Conclusions: The findings of this study provides implications for designing after-school sport programs by incorporating life skills identified from triangulation of multiple perspectives.

Physical Education Teacher Education Communities of Practice: Expectations and Motives

Melissa A. Parker

Kevin Patton

([email protected]).

California State University, Chico

Background/Purpose: Teacher educators are frequently responsible for conducting research and writing for publication, while dealing with the most effective way to engage preservice students in becoming a teacher. Yet, there is a paucity of research examining teacher educators’ responsibility for their own continued professional learning (Brody & Hadar, 2011; Cochran-Smith, 2003). Communities of practice (CoP) and professional learning communities represent an increasingly utilized learning strategy with potential to give rise to praxis between practice-based learning and pedagogy (Watson, 2014) by addressing participant identified need, collaborative problem solving, continuity, and support (Parker, Patton, & Tannehill, 2012). The purpose of this study was to examine teacher educators’ expectations of and motives for joining physical education teacher education CoP. Specific research questions were: Why do individuals express an interest in engaging in a CoP? What do they envision will be associated benefits?

Method: Participants included teacher educators (N = 35) representing seven physical education teacher education CoP in the US, Europe, and Southeast Asia. Groups included inter- and intra- university CoP with varied goals. Yet, regardless of the location all were participant originated and non-mandated, focusing on self-generated problems. Data sources included formal and informal interviews, field notes, and related artifacts. Interview data were analyzed using open and axial coding (Corbin & Strauss, 2008).

Analysis/Results: Teacher educators reported frequently feeling isolated both personally and professionally. Therefore, their motives for participation in a CoP were discussed in terms of moving from isolation to collaboration. The variety of anticipated benefits included personal professional learning, programmatic improvement, and betterment of the larger physical education profession. Teacher educators expressed that CoP represented the potential to enhance their pedagogic, inquiry, and supervisory abilities, while broadening their repertoire of research skills and productivity. Teacher educators also described their participation as a means to explore the logic of their practices and recognize discordant values, allowing them to become an agent of change.

Conclusions: Revealing their motives and expectations for their participation in CoP, these teacher educators acknowledged the potential of CoP as a bridge between breaking through their personal and professional isolation to improvement of their own teaching and research practice. Hence engagement in CoP may afford a means to counter some of the individualism existing within higher education, while fostering professional learning to enhance teacher education.

Effects of Teacher Evaluation on High School Physical Education

Sharon R. Phillips

Sarah Dolittle

Kevin Mercier

([email protected]).

Adelphi University

Background/Purpose: High stakes standardized and local testing along with observation-based teacher effectiveness measures are swiftly being mandated across the country. Policy makers are leaning heavily on this wave of teacher evaluation and accountability to improve teaching and learning. Little is known, however, about how teacher evaluation systems are impacting teaching and learning in physical education (PE).

Using Fullan's model for school change as a framework, this study begins to delve into how this evaluation process is being implemented and how it is impacting administrators, teachers and students in PE. Fullan presents three phases of school change: initiation, implementation and institutionalization. This study investigates the initiation and early stages of implementation to assess the changes to high school PE resulting from a new teacher evaluation system.

Method: This study took place over an 18 month period in three suburban districts in the New York metropolitan area. Interviews with PE administrators, PE teachers and students along with observations of PE classes were conducted at the beginning of the first and the end of the second years of a new teacher evaluation system. During these time periods researchers immersed themselves in the schools through observations, informal interviews and collecting artifacts.

Analysis/Results: Data were analyzed to find common themes and patterns using the constant comparative method. The first theme to emerge was that the pressure of implementing this evaluation system seems to land the most heavily on the physical education department head. With a lack of central office support, scattered professional development opportunities and new time-consuming teacher observation systems, many PE teachers indicated a substantial increase in the time needed for teacher evaluation. Second, students and parents did not seem to be impacted by the changes associated with the new teacher evaluation system. Many students did not seem to take assessments seriously within physical education, thus negating the results. The final theme that emerged was that this newly implemented system seems to be minimally changing how physical education is taught.

Conclusions: Fullan indicates that restructuring occurs often in schools, but what is needed to create change is a reculturing. This study suggests that only a low level of restructuring has occurred in the wake of the new teacher evaluation system within PE programs. With decisions being made about PE teachers based on new evaluation systems, it is critical that we understand how it is impacting teaching and learning in PE.

Effect of PSI on HRF Knowledge and Physical Activity

Steven L. Prewitt

James C. Hannon, Gavin Colquitt

Timothy A. Brusseau^F, Maria Newton

Janet Shaw

([email protected]).

The University of Utah

Background/Purpose: There is a general low level of health-related fitness (HRF) knowledge among secondary students in the United States which can impact current and future physical activity (PA) levels. An instructional strategy that may increase HRF knowledge without decreasing PA may be the Personalized System of Instruction (PSI).

Method: Two classes from a private, urban high school in a major city within the Mountain West region of the United States participated in the six week study. Group 1 (n = 24) completed a unit on personal fitness using the PSI model while Group 2 (n = 29) used a traditional, DI approach. Knowledge was assessed three times (pre, post, 3-week follow-up) using a 45-question standardized HRF knowledge test. Class time PA was reported using a modification of the SOFIT observation system.

Analysis/Results: A 2x3 ANOVA was used to compare HRF knowledge scores showing a significant increase in Group 1 scores from pre to post-test (p = 0.003) as well as significant increases in scores between Group 1 and Group 2 (p = 0.03). Physical activity results were compared using a pair-samples t-test with outcomes revealing differences in class time PA levels (t = − 0.27, p = 0.79).

Conclusions: These results suggest that PSI is a successful model for increasing HRF knowledge while maintaining physical activity levels.

Implementation of a Personal Fitness Unit Using PSI

Steven L. Prewitt

James C. Hannon, Gavin Colquitt

Timothy A. Brusseau^F, Maria Newton

Janet Shaw

([email protected]).

The University of Utah

Background/Purpose: Levels of physical activity and health-related fitness (HRF) are decreasing among adolescents in the United States. Several interventions have been implemented to reverse this downtrend. Traditionally, physical educators incorporate a Direct Instruction (DI) strategy when teaching potentially leading students to disengage during class. An instructional strategy that has shown to be effective in increasing content knowledge and skill competency in physical education is the Personalized System of Instruction (PSI).

Method: Students (N = 24) from a private, urban high school in a major city within the Mountain West region of the United States participated in the six week study. Video and audio taping, along with interviews and journals were used to determine if criteria standards associated with PSI were met.

Analysis/Results: Study results were compared with previous established confirmation criteria for PSI. Outcomes showed that 3 of the 4 components of PSI were met as well as 10 of 12 design features suggesting that implementing the personal fitness unit using PSI was successful.

Conclusions: With its characteristics of self-pacing and mastery learning, PSI has the potential to be an effective teaching model within physical education.

Middle School Students’ Perspectives of Physical Education Teacher Credibility

Nilo C. Ramos

Timothy M. Baghurst

Bryan McCullick

([email protected]).

University of Georgia

Background/Purpose: Physical education (PE) teachers can profoundly impact students’ experiences in PE (Bailey, 2006), including students’ engagement and skill development (Society of Health and Physical Educators [SHAPE America], 2014), which ultimately may promote active healthy lifestyles (Graham, Holt/Hale, & Parker, 2013). Consequently, the preparation and development of effective PE teachers appears to be essential. Source credibility theory (Hovland, Janis, & Kelley, 1953) proposes that PE teachers’ power of persuasion, and as a result, effectiveness, can be increased when students perceive them as credible. However, the literature on PE teacher effectiveness is remarkably bereft of studies on PE teacher credibility. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate middle school students’ perception of PE teacher credibility.

Method: Participants were eight girls and eight boys in both the 6^th and 8^th grades (N = 32) from a rural school located in the Midwestern United States. Students were selected to participate based on their (a) PE skill level (high or low) and (b) ability to communicate as adjudicated by their PE teacher. To reduce bias in the assessment of participants, the PE teacher was frequently informed that the study was about the credibility of PE teachers in general. Data were collected in the school setting over a two-month period (over 60 contact hours) through the use of: (a) observations, (b) field notes, (c) open-ended questionnaire, (d) student drawings, and (e) group and (f) individual interviews.

Analysis/Results: The four-stage analysis procedure proposed by Miles and Huberman (1994) was used to analyze the data inductively and identify commonalities and themes. Source credibility theory (Hovland et al., 1953) assisted in making meaning of students’ perceptions of credibility. According to the participants, in order to be credible PE teachers should: (a) be physically competent, (b) walk the talk, (c) be a skilled teacher, and (d) be a caring teacher – who can develop personal relationships and relate to students in a more personal level.

Conclusions: Understanding what middle school students believe to be characteristic of credible PE teachers seems vital when effective PE teachers are considered to be important in the development of children's positive dispositions toward physical activity (SHAPE America, 2014). Specifically, dispositions that include modeling physical health and fitness. Middle school students’ insight about PE teacher credibility has valuable implications for PETE programs and in-service PE teachers concerned with teacher effectiveness, and consequently, student learning.

Role Stress, Burnout and Resilience in Core and Non-Core Teachers

K. Andrew Richards

Michael A. Hemphill

Thomas J. Templin

([email protected]).

Purdue University

Background/Purpose: Teaching has long been considered a stressful profession and may becoming even more stressful due to recent changes in state- and national-level educational policies that govern K-12 education. Due to differences in reward and accountability systems, teachers of core subjects (e.g., mathematics, English, science) likely experience this stress differently than those who teach non-core subjects (e.g., physical education, art, music). However, few studies have examined differences in the ways in which core and non-core subject teachers experience their work. Using role theory, the purpose of this study was to develop an in-depth, qualitative understanding of role stress, burnout, and resilience among core and non-core subject teachers.

Method: Participants included 13 core subject teachers (4 male, 9 female) and 15 non-core subject teachers (7 male, 8 female). Teachers' years of experience ranged from 1 to 39 years, with the average teacher having spent 19.98 years in the classroom (SD = 11.19). The majority of the participants (86%) identified as Caucasian. Data were collected through one semi-structured individual interview (45-90 minutes) conducted with each teacher. Interview questions focused on role stress, burnout, and resilience as well as teachers' satisfaction with their teaching position.

Analysis/Results: To facilitate a comparison of core and non-core teachers, data were analyzed separately for each group using analytic induction and constant comparison. Emergent themes for core and non-core teachers were compared and synthesized into four themes. In the first theme, workload and stress, core teachers articulated more role stress and a heavier workload than non-core teachers. Core teachers also felt more pressure related to student and teacher accountability than non-core teachers. Both groups talked about the need to juggle role-related responsibilities, but core teachers reported bringing grading home more often than non-core teachers. While both groups reported feelings of stress and burnout, interactions with children made their work worthwhile and helped build resilience. Most teachers indicated that, despite the stress, they were satisfied with their career choice.

Conclusions: Results of this study suggest that there are numerous qualitative differences in the ways that core and non-core teachers experience their work. Core teachers reported heavier workloads, more pressure related to accountability requirements, and the need to juggle a wider variety of responsibilities than non-core teachers. Despite differences in the teachers' experiences, both group articulated some stress and burnout, but persevered because of relationships developed with children. This study contributes to understanding the differences between core and non-core teachers' lived experiences.

Effect of Social Skill Instruction During Elementary Physical Education

Amaury Samalot-Rivera

Jose Jimenez

Francis Kozub

Takahiro Sato

([email protected]).

Kent State University

Background/Purpose: In many urban schools in Puerto Rico high levels of antisocial behavior had been reported (Santos, 2001). The Department of Education estimates that in 2011 there were increases in number of schools considered to be high-risk (177 to 209) (Feliciano, 2011). Further statistics from law enforcement demonstrate an increase in violence in elementary schools in Puerto Rico since 2000. Personal and social responsibility instruction had been used effectively to improve the antisocial behaviors of students in high risk schools during the physical education class (Samalot-Porretta, 2012; Escartí, Gutiérrez, Pascual y Marin, 2010). Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of a curricular model on social skills instruction during physical education on the development of personal and social responsibility of elementary children from high risk schools in Puerto Rico.

Method: A Quasi experimental design was used to examine seven high risk schools in the town of Arecibo Puerto Rico. Random assignment was used to create an experimental and comparison condition where one group received the intervention consisting of fifteen lessons related to social skills instruction on a modified version of the appropriate behaviors during physical education and sports curriculum (Samalot- Rivera, 2007). Questionnaires were then used to examine students, parents, and teachers to measure their perceptions about the effectiveness of the intervention.

Analysis/Results: Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze the effectiveness of the intervention on the personal and social responsibility development of elementary children. Results demonstrated intervention effectives and social validity in developing personal and social responsibility for elementary school children during physical education class at high risk urban schools. Further, results demonstrated the existence of statistical difference between the control and experimental groups improving conducts associated to personal and social responsibility for the experimental group. Social validity data demonstrate parents and teachers were satisfied with the intervention and its effectiveness.

Conclusions: The strategies proposed through the model of curricular intervention were effective in developing personal responsibility and social responsibility. This evidence support previous findings about the effectiveness of implementing social skill instruction in the physical education class (Samalot- Porretta, 2012). It is recommended to provide this knowledge and tools to future physical educators during their training.

Service-Learning Effects on Kinesiology Students’ Attitudes Toward Children With Disabilities

Jose A. Santiago

Jihyun Lee

Emily A. Roper

([email protected]).

Sam Houston State University

Background/Purpose: Service-learning (SL) is a pedagogical approach used in academic courses to connect discipline specific theory to practice (Richards, Andrew, Wilson, & Eubank, 2012). A growing amount of research has focused on the educational and attitudinal benefits associated with integration of SL in adapted physical education (APE) coursework (Sherrill, 2004; Roper & Santiago, 2014). Although the use of SL in APE courses has increased (Richards et al., 2012), there are few experimental studies examining its effects on students’ attitudes toward children with disabilities. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the effects of SL on undergraduate kinesiology students’ attitudes toward children with disabilities.

Method: Twenty-nine kinesiology undergraduate students (males = 17; females = 12, mean age = 22.2) enrolled in an APE course completed the Attitudes toward Disabled Persons Scale (ATDP; Yuker, Block, & Young, 1970) − Form O at the following three periods: (1) before SL, (2) during SL, and (3) after SL. The SL component of the course consisted of six 50-min on-campus adapted physical activity sessions for school age children with a variety of disabilities. Kinesiology students were responsible for teaching the children developmentally appropriate gross motor skills while creating positive and meaningful interactions.

Analysis/Results: A 2 × 3 mixed design ANOVA was used to examine the effects of the gender and periods on the on total ATDP-Form O scores. No significant main effects or interactions were found. The gender × periods (F_(2,54) = 1.84, p>.05), the main effect for gender (F_(1,27) = .47, p>.05, and the main effect for periods (F_(2,54) = .07, p>.05) were not statistically significant. ATDP-Form O scores were not influenced by either gender or periods. Cronbach's alpha yielded a reliability coefficient of .79 for the ATDP-Form O.

Conclusions: Results of the present study indicate that completion of a SL component in an APE course does not result in favorable attitude change toward children with disabilities when measured by the ATDP. The lack of significant improvement in positive attitudes may be attributed to the insufficient contact time and structure of the SL component not specifically aiming to change students’ attitudes. The SL component in an APE course may need to be carefully designed and with a specifically structured environment when aiming to promote positive attitude change toward children with disabilities.

Effects of Pro-Social Instruction During a Sport Education Unit

Ben Schwamberger

Oleg A. Sinelnikov

Vivian R. Fowler

([email protected]).

The University of Alabama

Background/Purpose: Sport Education (SE) is an instructional model within physical education (PE) that promotes competent, literate, and enthusiastic sports persons (Siedentop, Hastie, & van der Mars, 2011). The results of research on prosocial behavior within SE are mixed, with Alexander and Luckman (2001) reporting positive outcomes while Brock, Rovegno, and Oliver (2009) suggest that student social status strongly influences students’ power within the season regarding whose opinions are heard. Vidoni and Ward (2009) theorize that student prosocial behaviors can be manipulated through an intervention with a PE teacher. The current study examined a fair play intervention on middle school students’ prosocial behaviors during a unit of SE taught by a pre-service teacher (PT).

Method: A female PT enrolled in a PETE program at a large public research university and three eighth grade students (2 males, 1 female) in one intact PE class at a middle school participated in the study. Student participants were purposefully selected with the assistance of a PE teacher based on the following criteria: highly disruptive, disruptive and not disruptive.

Data were collected through direct observation across 16 SE lessons and coded using a modified instrument on helpful and harmful behaviors (Vidoni & Ward, 2009). Interobserver (IOA) agreement was conducted on over 33% of lessons and exceeded the recommended 80% mark.

Analysis/Results: A single subject ABA design (Sharpe & Koperwas, 2003) was used across two behaviors. The intervention consisted of a sustained on-site research-based workshop addressing the promotion of prosocial behavior through: 1) Prompt/praise, 2) Positive pinpointing, 3) Student task cards, 4) Discussion. Data analysis included visual inspection of the number of occurrences of helpful and harmful behaviors plotted on a graph.

Results indicated that participants increased their helpful behaviors as a result of the intervention, and two participants continued to increase their helpful behavior after intervention. Two participants decreased harmful behaviors during the intervention while one continued to decrease harmful behaviors following the intervention.

Conclusions: Implementing a research-based and sustained intervention program aimed at improving prosocial behavior did appear to be effective. SE is a flexible curriculum (Siedentop et al., 2011), thus its iterations may vary in their implementations (Curtner-Smith, Hastie, & Kinchin, 2008). Consequently, some SE seasons may not innately promote prosocial behaviors (Brock et al., 2009), yet our findings demonstrated that it was feasible even with the most disruptive students. Future SE seasons should include a continued emphasis on prosocial goals from the teacher.

Pre-Service Classroom Teachers Locus of Foci While Teaching Physical Education

Ben Schwamberger

Zachary Wahl-Alexander

([email protected]).

The University of Alabama

Background/Purpose: Value orientations reveal an individual's philosophical belief about teaching and learning which influence teachers' decisions within the physical education curriculum (Jewett, Bain & Ennis, 1995). There are six value orientations that describe the philosophical beliefs of teachers. Teachers hold different beliefs in what value orientations they feel are most important, for example when priorities are placed on students mastering the body of knowledge within a curriculum, teachers are said to favor a discipline mastery value orientation. Having a stronger understanding of where preservice classroom teachers (PTs') place their focus while teaching physical education is important as it will help physical education teacher educators better educate classroom PTs' who may need to teach physical education later on. The purpose of this study was to examine classroom PTs' locus of foci during the delivery of their first physical education teaching experience.

Method: This study took place at a large public research University in the Southeastern part of the U.S. Two intact classes (N = 44; 40F, 4M) of elementary education majors enrolled in a physical education practicum course took part in this study. An overall goal for students enrolled within the course was to develop a stronger understanding of a model-based instructional system within the physical education setting. Data was collected through qualitative methods including field observations, formal interviews, critical incident reports (264), and reflective papers (264).

Analysis/Results: A three-step process of open, axial and selective coding was used to analyze data. Results indicated that a majority of participants were focused on the social and managerial task systems. However, as time progressed, PTs' began to show more emphasis within the instructional task system. Classroom PTs' were most concerned with keeping students engaged, active and having fun.

Conclusions: The results from this study indicate that classroom PTs' initially struggle with developing an instructional focus, in fact PTs' were most concerned with keeping students busy, happy, and good (Placek, 1983) during the early field experience. This did appear to change as classroom PTs' began to advance to a more instructional focus in their teaching. This study indicates that learning how to teach within a model-based instructional system is complex as well as challenging. In order to get classroom PTs' to focus more on the instructional task system, more time is needed to work with classroom PTs' before they enter into the school setting.

Examining Pre-Service Physical Education Teachers' Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK)

Kristin A. Scrabis-Fletcher

Susana Juniu

([email protected]).

Montclair State University

Background/Purpose: Implementing technology within all areas of education is an objective in most schools strategic plan. It appears in mission statements, effective teaching objectives, and student learning objectives (Goktas, 2012). Physical education (PE), like all subjects, needs to integrate technology and, physical educators need to think creatively for opportunities to integrate technology to create more enriching learning experiences for their students (Pyle & Esslinger, 2014). The purpose of this study was to investigate pre-service PE teachers' technological pedagogy skills, beliefs about, and implementation of technology in their classes.

Method: A modified version of Pre-service Teachers' Knowledge of Teaching and Technology (Semiz & Ince, 2011) was completed by 91 pre-service physical education teachers from several universities in the Northeast. Using a 5-point Likert scale, the 39-item inventory assessed: (a) demographic background, (b) technological knowledge, (c) pedagogy knowledge, (d) content knowledge, (e) pedagogical content knowledge, (f) technological content knowledge (TCK), (h) technological pedagogical knowledge (TPACK), (i) technology, pedagogy, and content knowledge, and (j) modeling computer use by professors.

Analysis/Results: Initial analyses revealed that there is a significant association between the amount of TPACK pre-service teachers perceived having and the technology that physical education teacher education (PETE) faculty modeled including various methods for implementation. These results are supported by 50% of the students' agreeing that over 60% of the PETE faculty provide an effective model of combining content, technologies, and teaching approaches in their teaching. Males reported greater levels of TCK than females. Open ended responses indicated that PETE faculty were likely to use traditional forms of technology (PowerPoint and video) however, cooperating teachers were using more current technology including SmartBoards and iPads.

Conclusions: Integrating technology in PE will assist in creating more efficiency and greater understanding of concepts. If a teacher is able to utilize an iPad for assessment, or demonstrate skill analysis in real time on a SmartBoard along with having students practice the skill within progressive learning tasks, and follow-up with an online learning assignment for homework students will gain a deeper understanding of content. This study has shown that PETE programs are moving in the right direction, however, more examples of integration, using current technologies, need to be modeled by both PETE faculty and cooperating teachers more readily so pre-service teachers are well trained in implementing technology within a lesson. This study provides significant findings that technology is being used, however equity is not always represented within implementation.

Academic Peer Mentoring in PETE: A Win-Win

Deborah Sheehy

Karen Richardson, Misti Neutzling

Maura Rosenthal

([email protected]).

Bridgewater State University

Background/Purpose: Physical education mentoring literature has focused primarily on three distinct areas: beginning teachers, higher education faculty (Griffin & Ayers, 2005), and K-12/university partnerships (e.g., Parker, Patton & Tannehill, 2012). Mentoring also plays a substantial role on university campuses with the current focus on promoting student success and increasing graduation rates; however, academic peer mentoring within the university classroom remains largely unexamined (Colvin & Ashman, 2010). The purpose of the study was to explore the experiences of PETE academic peer mentors and to examine how they enhanced their understanding of constructivist teaching, developed leadership skills, and supported learning for peers.

Method: Participants included seven academic peer mentors, serving in disciplinary, activity, or pedagogy course, and three PETE faculty at a midsized liberal arts university. Data collection included a 60–90 minute focus group interview with peer mentors and faculty, audio recordings of classroom interactions, student open response questions, informal interviews, and written artifacts. Analysis: Data were analyzed qualitatively and were collected over one semester for each peer mentor (Corbin & Strauss, 1998).

Analysis/Results: Data were analyzed qualitatively and were collected over one semester for each peer mentor (Corbin & Strauss, 1998). Results: First, peer mentors deepened their understanding of constructivist teaching as they used a range of approaches to support learning of difficult concepts for their peers. Second, increased social capital was afforded to the mentors through the enhanced social connections that developed. Third, the collaborative mentor to faculty relationship further enhanced the mentors’ social capital and overall academic experience. Fourth, development of leadership skills for peer mentors varied based on the personal characteristics and position in the PETE program.

Conclusions: Researchers found mentors gained social capital in the form of perceived support from other students and from their relationship with professors. In addition, peer mentors experienced connectedness to other students and faculty as they were a resource to students both in and outside of class. The importance of social connections to academic success has been well documented and is an important outcome for the peer mentors in this study. The academic peer mentors served to both uncover and to help mitigate the hierarchical relationship that existed between professors and students which is essential to a positive educational experience. Access to academic peer mentors was salient given the student population at the study site, as students reported that they are average or below average in intellectual self-confidence as compared to US peers.

Reliability of Communication Style Measures

Bethany Shifflett

San Jose State University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: One important factor influencing learning can be the quality of communication between an instructor and student. One of the tools available for identifying individual communication style is Gregorc's Transaction Ability Inventory (TAI). Given conflicting reports regarding the instrument's reliability, this study explored the reliability of transaction ability inventory scores from collegiate faculty. In addition, the challenge of working with ipsative measures and the impact on reliability were highlighted.

Method: An online version of the TAI was developed and faculty (n = 124) from one college within a large comprehensive university were invited to complete the inventory. Within a week the faculty were asked to complete the inventory a second time so the reliability of the data could be examined. The reliability of the scores from each of the four style categories represented in the TAI was examined using coefficient alpha. The reliability of a differential score, which provides an indication of the extent to which the individual has a dominant communication style, was also examined with coefficient alpha.

Analysis/Results: Reliability (stability) was found to be good (coefficient alpha ranged from .78 to .96) for scores from each of the four style categories and the differential score. A key point, which potentially explains the conflicting reports in the literature, is that the ipsative (rank ordering) nature of the inventory can result in the collection of information with many errors. In this study, close examination of the data suggested that faculty often provided likert-scaled data rather than ranked data. Hence, recommendations focus on strategies to facilitate the collection of usable data.

Conclusions: Verification of the reliability of TAI scores enables faculty to confidently employ the inventory to assess their communication style preferences as well as those of their students. The TAI takes little time to administer and if the information is then used for self reflection, the potential for both students and faculty to make productive use of the information is considerable. A greater understanding of personal communication style preferences itself is of value. With that information, both students and faculty can potentially apply that information in ways that strengthen teaching and learning.

Appropriate Standards for Ballgame Teaching

Naoki Suzuki

Tokyo Gakugei University

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: As the most common assessment instrument used for learning in games the Game Performance Assessment Instrument (GPAI) focuses on performance in games but is not without criticism from a number of perspectives. For example, MacPhail, Kirk & Griffin (2008) suggest that the likelihood of classroom (generalist) or even specialist teachers of physical education committing to both a Tactical Games Model pedagogy and to GPAI assessment techniques is low. From a participation perspective, it has also been criticized for a focus on performance instead of on the contribution that students make to the team (Suzuki, 2008) with the suggestion made that “Contribution outcomes” rather than “Performance outcomes” should be assessed (Suzuki, 2011). This presentation reports on a study that aimed to clarify how teachers observe games during teaching according to standards based on contributions or performance outcomes and which use a mixed methods methodology.

Method: View Tracker (Eye tracking) was used for examining how teachers observed the game during teaching. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with teachers after observing the game. There were 30 participants; six expert teachers, six experienced teachers, six novice teachers, 6 pre-service teachers who are going to take a PE teacher license and 6 pre-service teachers who are not going to take a PE teacher license. Each participant observed the game as movie clips after they were provided both contribution indicators (standards) and performance indicators (standards). Their viewing was tracked and recorded, after which they participated in a semi-structured interview.

Analysis/Results: As a result, and not related to teachers' developmental stages, participants looked at the whole game when they had contribution indicators, and saw the part of game when they had performance indicators. Moreover, it became clear that it was very easy for participants to make a decision for the next action when they had contribution indicators. Furthermore, participants could assess the off-the-ball movement easily when they had contribution indicators.

Conclusions: These findings are emphasizing that the outcome of teaching game should be regarded not as a performance but as a contribution. Moreover, these findings might lead to develop appropriate assessment method.

Improving Elementary Health Education Despite Competition from Core Instruction

Susan K. Teddlie

Donna A. Betzer

Lai Kwan Pei

([email protected]).

Houston Independent School District

Background/Purpose: Despite widespread concern over children's health, elementary health educators struggle to compete for instructional time and resources in an era dominated by core instruction. Districts also tend to employ a constantly changing mix of prevention programs. The aim of this research was to determine whether K-5 students who received a comprehensive, grade-levelled curriculum would acquire greater health knowledge than students whose schools followed their districts’ standard health guidelines. Treatment students received Healthy Lifestyle Choices Behavioral Health(HLC), a series of 144 heavily scripted lessons (24 per K-5 grade) covering life skills, conflict resolution, nutrition, fitness, substance abuse and safety.

Method: The three-year, mixed methods quasi-experimental study began in fall 2010 in 15 rural and urban schools serving both low- and high-risk communities. Schools were paired on key risk factors, then randomly assigned to condition. Students in grades 3–5 were pre- and post-tested annually using a grade-leveled health knowledge assessment developed for this study. A structured observation protocol was used to describe and measure the quality and fidelity of HLC instruction.

Analysis/Results: Knowledge data were analyzed using an ANCOVA model with one dependent variable (spring knowledge), one fixed factor (treatment), and three covariates (fall knowledge, income, and race). Classroom observations data were analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatively and were used to categorize teachers into “higher” and “lower” fidelity groups. Consistent with instructional change theory, the treatment groups exhibited comparable knowledge in Year 1, while HLC instructors adjusted to using a comprehensive curriculum. Treatment students gained significantly deeper knowledge than comparison students in Years 2–3. (Probability levels in Year 2 were p < .001, p < .0001, and p < .001 for grades 3–5 respectively, and in Year 3 were p < .001, p < .003, and p < .0001 for grades 3–5 respectively). Regardless of treatment, low-income students were consistently less knowledgeable than their moderate income peers. Low-income treatment students acquired significantly deeper knowledge than comparison students (p < .010, p < .0001, p < .005 at grades 3–5 respectively in Year 1 and p < .018, p < .003, and p < .001 in Year2 at grades 3–5). Students taught by “higher-fidelity” instructors made significantly larger knowledge gains (p < .01) than students taught by “lower” fidelity teachers.

Conclusions: Although the current preoccupation with core instruction has exacerbated barriers to high-quality health instruction, students can make significant health knowledge gains when they receive consistent and coherent instruction throughout elementary school. Students make the greatest knowledge gains when their teachers maximize instructional time and use multiple instructional strategies to reinforce student learning.

Effects of Stability Balls on Student Activity and Teacher Perceptions

Michelle L. Thornton

Heather Erwin, Eric Moore

Christine Johnson

([email protected]).

University of Kentucky

Background/Purpose: Regular physical activity elicits important health benefits, reduces risk for obesity and is linked with enhanced academic performance among students (Trost, 2009). It is recommended children engage in at least 60 minutes of moderate physical activity most days of the week, yet fewer than half of children ages 6 to 11 meet that recommendation (National Physical Activity Plan, 2010). NASPE (2004) reports 95% of parents believe regular physical activity helps children perform academically. One way to increase physical activity, enhance levels of attention, and improve academic achievement is to integrate stability balls (Schilling, 2003). The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of stability balls on students’ on-task behavior, physical activity levels, and teacher and students’ perceptions of stability balls in the classroom.

Method: Physical activity levels were calculated via accelerometers on 22, 4^th grade students and 2 teachers at one private school in Southeastern US. Students participated in a total of 10 consecutive school days; 5 days sitting on a stability ball and 5 days on a chair. Momentary time sampling was conducted from 8:00AM until 3:00PM on students’ on- and off-task behavior, every 30-seconds. Students and teachers completed a pre- and post- social validity scale survey to track the perceptions of stability balls from the students and teachers in regards to physical activity and on-task behavior.

Analysis/Results: Results indicate students who sit on stability balls during class increase more physical activity over time, whether that time be considered in the sedentary (p = .011) or light (p = .002) activity time. Results suggest through use of momentary time sampling, the amount of time students were considered on-task increased an average of 80 minutes/day, while the amount of time off-task decreased nearly 6 minutes/day when seated on stability balls. After completing a pre- and post- social validity scale, both teachers and students demonstrated higher mean average perceptions (teacher: pre- 6.25, post- 8.9; student: pre- 4.0, post- 4.3) of stability balls in regards to focus, energy expended, on-task behavior, and management.

Conclusions: With the push for academic improvement scores, schools are not placing as much emphasis on physical activity breaks in the classroom (Mahar, et al. 2006). This study indicates students are able to achieve more physical activity when seated on stability balls, and are able to stay more on-task during classroom lessons.

A Case Study of Teaching Efficacy in Physical Education

Thomas N. Trendowski

Amelia Mays Woods

([email protected]).

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Background/Purpose: Teaching efficacy is the belief to bring a desired outcome in student learning and engagement while collective teaching efficacy is the belief that faculty as a unit thinks that they can influence students. Teaching efficacy has been primarily studied in physical education quantitatively, using scales that have not been proven to be reliable in the specific context, and also do not effectively analyze teaching efficacy. Teaching efficacy has not used observations to understand whether a teacher's idea of efficacy is reflective in his or her practice. This study aimed to understand the relationship of teaching efficacy/collective teaching efficacy and its impact on curriculum, teaching practices, teaching effectiveness, and teaching career cycle.

Method: A month of observations, for the entire school day, in one Northeastern high school observed three high school physical education teachers. Tools used in the study are: Quality Measures of Teaching Performance Scale (QMTPS) was taken three times for each participant that measured teaching effectiveness, Teaching Efficacy Scale for Physical Education (TESPE) that measured teaching efficacy, Attitudes Survey Towards Curriculum in Physical Education (ASTCPE) that measured teachers' view of ideal curriculum, three forty-five minute interviews, an access of one hundred informal interviews, observation of the each individual physical education teacher for two fifty minute blocks, and field notes.

Analysis/Results: Findings reveal (a) misconception of curricular choice (b) high teaching efficacy despite practice not being congruent (c) low teaching effectiveness (d) misconception of the teaching career cycle the teachers were in (e) high collective teaching efficacy for the physical education program. In addition, teachers believed they were truly effective teachers however; their definition of effective teaching is not the same as physical education literature.

Conclusions: The research draws upon the Dunning-Kruger Effect, a theory not yet discussed in physical education literature, that states the highest 25% in a skill underestimates their performance while the lowest 25% overestimate their performance. These finding are significant because (a) teachers were over confident in their teaching abilities and were not aware of the lack of learning occurring in the classroom (b) teachers identified themselves as a department that had an effective physical education program (c) the study shows a variance in the definition of teaching effectiveness that each teacher had and these definitions did not align itself with theory of teaching physical education effectiveness.

Flipping Collegiate Physical Activity, Health and Wellness Courses

Michelle Vaughn

Jared A. Russell

([email protected]).

Auburn University

Background/Purpose: A key factor in emboldening collegiate students to become physically active and improve their health and wellbeing is to create effective pedagogy with an intellectually stimulation, engaging and, student-centered focus. Recently, the science, mathematics, and engineering fields have acknowledged the Flipped Classroom Approach (FCA) as an effective pedagogical approach with these homogeneous attributes mentioned. The FCA is a student-centered learning approach, which incorporated both online learning outside of the classroom as well as a variety of activity based learning styles for practical application in the classroom. Despite its pedagogical effectiveness there is scant research to support its application at any level in physical education.

Method: This research explored the implementation of a FCA unit's impact on the engagement of students and instructional delivery of collegiate physical education content. The five variables examined were student skill development, knowledge acquisition and retention, self-efficacy and self-regulation, and both student and teacher perceptions of the FCA instructional model. The students and the teacher of two sections of a muscular strength, flexibility, and cardiorespiratory fitness course were investigated. The data collection methods involved were one-on-one interviews, classroom observation, skills rubrics, self-efficacy, self-regulation, and teaching methodology surveys, health knowledge and fitness tests, and pedometer measures.

Analysis/Results: The paired sample t-test and case study analysis revealed students’ skills and knowledge improved from pretest to posttest over the course of the unit. While their self-efficacy and self-regulation were not significantly influenced by the unit there were gradual improvements in both areas. The students enjoyed the variety of exercise presented, the autonomy, the integration of content, and engagement that the unit offered. Equally as important, the students enjoyed the unit and felt engaged in the learning process. The teacher acknowledged that the FCA was an effective pedagogical approach to implement in the collegiate physical education course.

Conclusions: The significance of this research is that it furthers the understanding of an effective pedagogical approach, which is practical and capable of enhancing student skills, knowledge, and engagement in physical activity. The FCA could also increase the competency of technology diffusion in physical education and health and wellness curriculums. Future research should continue to examine more closely the relationship between the FCA and students’ self-efficacy and self-regulation with prolong experiment or intervention.

Influence of Negotiations on Instruction During University Activity Courses

Zachary Wahl-Alexander

Matthew D. Curtner-Smith

([email protected]).

The University of Alabama

Background/Purpose: Research conducted previously indicated that negotiations between preservice teachers and pupils differed in type, amount, and effect on instruction during units taught within different curricular models to elementary and middle school children. The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of negotiations between graduate teaching assistants (GTAs) and undergraduate university students on GTAs' instruction within activity courses.

Method: Participants were 10 GTAs who taught a variety of activities within one university's basic physical education program. Six of the GTAs were studying sport pedagogy (SP) and four were studying exercise science (ES). Data collection techniques employed were non-participant observation, document analysis, and formal and informal interviews.

Analysis/Results: Data were analyzed by employing analytic induction and constant comparison. Key findings were that students initiated negotiations mainly aimed at reducing accountability in terms of attendance, class length, and evaluation. These negotiations were usually verbal and had the by-product of increasing time to socialize. They were more powerful when initiated by a group of students. Student-initiated negotiations aimed at changing instructional tasks were limited, engaged in more often by students of lower ability, and were mostly aimed at increasing game play and decreasing time spent on skill practice. Patterns of student-initiated negotiations were similar across activities and for both genders. They were, however, different within classes taught by ES and SP GTAs. Specifically, classes taught by ES GTAs tended to feature relatively more negative student-initiated negotiations. This was because ES GTAs primarily employed direct styles of teaching and the multi-activity curriculum model which did not provide an outlet for student voice. Moreover, ES GTAs' managerial frameworks were relatively weak and did not deter students from engaging in negative negotiations. Further, ES GTAs' content knowledge was relatively weak. Consequently, they provided fewer refining and extending tasks and the pace of their lessons was comparatively slow. In contrast, the SP GTAs deterred negative negotiation by including more tasks and teaching at a quicker pace. Moreover, they employed more indirect styles of teaching and curricular models (teaching games for understanding and sport education) which encouraged students to engage in positive forms of negotiation and incorporated time in which they could socialize.

Conclusions: The results of the study suggest several courses of action that might lead to improvements in GTAs' instructional quality. These include interventions aimed at improving GTAs' pedagogical range and skill, content and curricular knowledge, and their ability to negotiate.

Pre-Service Teachers Attitudes, Values and Beliefs About Teaching Physical Education

Janice L. Wallace

Darla M. Castelli

([email protected]).

The University of Texas at Austin

Background/Purpose: Pre-service physical education teachers (PSTs) enter the planned sequence of pedagogy courses with an apprenticeship of observation, or in their experience what they believe it is like to be a physical education teacher. These observations are specific to personal knowledge, beliefs, and value orientations about teaching physical education that can filter ideas compatible and incompatible with the teacher education program objectives centered on teaching and learning. To deliver teacher education programs that are meaningful and relevant, PSTs' perceptions such as these must be better understood. The purpose of this project was to investigate PST's perceptions and attitudes toward teaching physical education and to identify how they changed as a result of coursework in the planned sequence of pedagogy courses.

Method: This research study employed mixed- methods approach to capture information from three different cohorts of PSTs at multiple time points within their PETE program. Data were collected from 34 participants enrolled in three different courses within one PETE program over one semester. A demographic survey, the Value Orientation Inventory-2, and semi-structured interviews were utilized. Data were analyzed inductively by data source and deductively when comparing all data sources and confirmed as trustworthy through peer audits, team debriefing, and member checking Profiles were created for each class cohort in an attempt to identify PST attitudes and value orientations, and how they changed over time.

Analysis/Results: Descriptive analysis of the VOI-2 survey showed cohort one and two were unsure of their value orientations while cohort three (PSTs who were enrolled in the student teaching practicum) exhibited a high priority for the Discipline Mastery value orientation. Qualitative results revealed all three cohorts exhibited defined attitudes and perceptions of physical education, which evolved over time. Findings also revealed that PSTs perceived secondary physical education as non-academic and the teacher/coach role conflict was a concern.

Conclusions: Like previous occupational socialization studies PSTs within a single program identified specific attractors and repellers for those who elect to major in physical education, and these ideas affect their beliefs. PETE program messages contributed to the modification of attitudes and perceptions of PSTs socialized as a result of their apprenticeship of observation. This case study provides evidence that PETE does affect PSTs with moderate to strong coaching orientations.

Perceived Competence in Teaching Physical Education Among Classroom Teachers

Jianyu Wang

([email protected]).

California State University, Bakersfield

Background/Purpose: Classroom teachers are required to teach physical education in some states such as California. However, previous research indicates many classroom teachers do not feel competent to teach effective physical education lesson (Barney & Deutsch, 2009). Understanding of teachers’ perception of teaching physical education may help develop better teacher education programs to prepare pre-service teachers in teaching physical education. Therefore, the purpose of the study was to examine perceived competence in teaching physical education among classroom teachers.

Method: Participants were 30 classroom teachers (5 males, 25 females; M age = 40.3, SD = 8.54) from a public school district in central California. Average of teaching years of the participants was 12.8 (SD = 6.56). The participants completed a survey that assessing their perception of competence in teaching physical education (e.g., teaching fundamental motor skills, sports and games, movement concepts, and administering fitness test etc.). The perceived competence, the 7-point Likert subscale, was adapted from the literature (Williams & Deci, 1996). Additionally, self-developed and 5-point Likert subscale on preference of teaching physical education and professional training were included in the survey.

Analysis/Results: The reliability coefficient (Cronbach's alpha) for perceived competence in teaching physical education was .87 and the reliability coefficient for the preference of teaching physical education was .75. Results indicated general perception of competence in teaching physical education was with mean of 5.35 (SD = 1.34). Perceived competence in teaching sports and games scored highest (M = 5.58, SD = 1.33), next teaching fundamental motor skills (M = 4.97, SD = 1.97), and movement concepts (M = 4.85, SD = 2.16), and administering fitness testing scored lowest (M = 4.66, SD = 2.25). The preference of teaching physical education among the participants scored very low (M = 2.70, SD = 1.11) and the participants preferring PE specialists to teach physical education scored very high (M = 4.30, SD = 0.84). Additionally, the participants felt they lacked of professional preparation and training (M = 2.57, SD = 1.19). It seems that the participants feel competent to teach physical education; however, they prefer not teaching physical education if they have choice.

Conclusions: The findings may imply that lack of professional preparation and training could be a factor that results in classroom teachers unwillingly to teach physical education. Both teacher education professionals and policy-makers need to work together to develop better teacher education policy and programs.

After School Physical Activity Programming: Locating and Increasing Participation

Elizabeth Wanless

Shannon Titus Dieringer, Lawrence W. Judge

James Johnson

([email protected]).

Ball State University

Background/Purpose: In an effort to increase physical activity (PA) for youth populations and as a response to dwindling PA in the school day, schools may choose to organize after school PA programming. Upon plans for implementation, it is important to keep strategies for locating and attracting participants a priority in order to increase impact. With input from parents and children, after school PA programs will be better equipped to attract children to the PA program, resulting in greater participation, enjoyment, and increased PA. Thus, the purpose of this study was to gain insight into parents' and children's decision-making processes as to why they participated and what might attract others.

Method: A qualitative survey and group interview constructivist grounded theory design (Charmaz, 2006) was used to gain insight from 38 youth and 38 parents involved in Step up for Health, an afterschool PA program geared toward families in East Central Indiana. In the first week of the program, parents received a survey along with the consent form for their child to participate and youth participants were interviewed in two large groups, 19 participants in each. Responses to the surveys and group interviews were coded into categories to form a resulting theory for the decision to participate.

Analysis/Results: The results of the study reflected the theory of reasoned action: youth and parents chose to participate based on their own attitudes towards the program and in consideration of others' attitudes. One hundred percent of participating parents referenced the utility of the program as a PA outlet and identified their own child as an influential figure in allowing their child to participate in the program. A majority of youth participants identified their physical education teacher as being influential in their decision to participate as well as perceiving the program to be fun and a great way to stay healthy.

Conclusions: When initiating afterschool programming with the desire to gain or increase participation, program leaders must be in tune with the current attitudes towards fitness programming; a strong element of why youth wanted to participate and why parents chose to let their child participate was the idea of after school programming as a health benefit. Program leaders must also identify influential figures that may affect the attitudes of youth and parents in order to promote the program.

Physical Education Websites: Are We Painting a Positive Self-Portrait?

Nicholas Scott Washburn

([email protected]).

University of Alabama

Background/Purpose: Physical education has long been stereotyped as being a pseudo profession lacking seriousness, substance, credibility and purpose; a discipline, inundated with programs of low quality, which remains at risk for continued inclusion (Griffey, 1987; Locke, 1992; Siedentop, 1987; Rink 2002). In the interest of establishing physical education as necessary and credible, it is crucial that professionals in the field advocate their charge with a clear, unified vision and market the positive contributions their programs are making to the education and lives of children across the country. In today's technologically advanced society, one highly effective means for accomplishing this task is through the creation and maintenance of informative, user-friendly and captivating websites. Undoubtedly, both the presence and quality of a website contribute to the public's perception of an organization. Thus the purpose of this study was to examine the prevalence and quality of physical education websites among public schools in the state of Alabama.

Method: In the interest of obtaining a comprehensive answer to this question, all public school websites in the state of Alabama (n = 1,264) were reviewed. Schools were identified using the Alabama School Connection. The quality of physical education webpages was assessed using the methodology and instrument described by Hill, Tucker & Hannon (2010).

Analysis/Results: The findings of the study revealed that only 157 out of 1,264 (12.4%) school websites had a webpage specifically dedicated to the subject of physical education. Furthermore, the majority of the 157 physical education webpages were, in many ways, low in quality, suggesting that they may actually be perpetuating the stigma of insignificance already pinned to the profession. It is conceded that a high-quality webpage may not translate to a high-quality program, however, a high-quality program, in the modern era, should include a high-quality webpage.

Conclusions: While more research is needed to be able to confidently generalize these findings as the status quo for physical education in America, the results do suggest that physical education teachers can do more to change public perception and strengthen the credibility of the discipline. Implications stemming from this work include recommendations for PETE programs and professional organizations such as SHAPE to emphasize the importance of publicizing physical education programs through professional websites as one of the avenues for physical education advocacy.

Virtual Physical Educators' Experiences in and Perspectives of Online Teaching

Leslie Williams

The University of Tampa

([email protected]).

Background/Purpose: The 21^stcentury has brought changes to education - changes that include greater distance learning options for middle and high school students. While distance learning has been around for a century, the progressive ways in which students are able to select and complete virtual courses through the internet in nearly every secondary content area are increasing. Physical education courses at the secondary level are among the courses offered online to students across the United States and Canada. One question that prevails in communities and particularly in physical education circles is, “How do you teach PE online?” In an effort to address that very question, this study sought to describe online secondary physical education instruction through the lived experiences of four teachers who were doing just that.

Method: This was a 12-week qualitative case study that included data from two interviews with each of the four online PE teachers, interviews with two distance education administrators, virtual classroom observations, field notes, and the researcher's reflections. The following research questions guided the study:

	1. What are the daily instructional practices of participating online high school PE teachers?
	2. What educational theories (implicit or explicit) guide these teachers' online teaching of PE?
	3. How do these online PE teachers enhance student learning, physical activity participation, and successful course completion?
	4. What student outcomes, in terms of learning and attitudes toward learning, do these teachers perceive or assess as a result of their practices and perspectives about teaching PE online?

Analysis/Results: NVivo was used to organize and analyze the data. Analysis of the data revealed the following themes: these online PE teachers had similar pathways to the online setting, they provided individualized instruction to their students, they offered students choices in the online PE classes, they facilitated student success in the online PE classes, and they each implicitly ascribed to constructivist educational theories and practices as online PE teachers.

Conclusions: The results of this study support the premise that online secondary-level PE instruction has been a viable option for some teachers in the U.S. and Canada. Further research about effective teaching and learning practices in the secondary online PE setting is warranted.

K-12 Classroom Teachers' Perceptions of Physical Education

SkipM. Williams

Kristin Carlson, Amanda Draeger, Jessica Andricopulos

Jeff Peterson

([email protected]).

Illinois State University

Background/Purpose: It is well established that quality physical education provides opportunities for youth to develop skills and knowledge to lead a physical active lifestyle (SHAPE, 2014). Although the benefits of physical education (PE) and physical activity are well documented, over the past few decades, the debate regarding the status of PE in the U.S. K-12 curriculum has intensified. Many schools are eliminating PE or reducing the amount of time or required credit hours due to the perceived lack of value and importance. Perceptions about the value or importance of PE are influential in determining the amount of time and resources allocated to one's program (Mitchell & Earls, 1987). Little research has been conducted on classroom teachers' perceptions of PE. Therefore the purpose of this study was to examine how PE is perceived by K-12 classroom teachers.

Method: K-12 classroom teachers (N = 230) with between one and forty four years of experience from the Midwestern U.S. completed an online survey that examined their perceptions of PE and personal experiences with PE. The survey, created by the investigators, consisted of demographic, Likert-scale, and an open-ended question. The open-ended question asked participants to describe their personal experiences with PE.

Analysis/Results: Descriptive statistics were used to analyze all demographic and Likert-scale data. Open coding and constant comparative techniques were used to identify themes and categories from the one open-ended question. Results indicated 93% of the participants believed that PE was an important component of the school curriculum, while 87% believed PE should be a required subject. Additionally, 70% of participants believed PE was just as important as other core academic subjects. However, only 50% of the participants believed PE should be a core subject. Seventy-seven percent of the participants perceived that their students' enjoy PE, while 97% believe students benefit from participating in PE. Although 93% of the participants felt PE should be taught by a certified PE teacher, 34% indicated they felt qualified to teach PE. Peer debriefing was used to verify themes and categories and develop the final categories. Findings are reported in three main themes, a) Positive PE experiences b) Neutral PE experiences and c) Negative PE experiences.

Conclusions: Results indicate K-12 classroom teachers have primarily positive perceptions of PE. This study indicates there is additional support from K-12 faculty for PE other than physical educators. Additionally, positive PE experiences have made an impact on the value and importance of PE.

Urban Physical Education (PE) Teachers' Perceptions of Quality Physical Education and Assessment

Skip M. Williams

Mary L. Henninger

Margaret M. Coleman

([email protected]).

Illinois State University

Background/Purpose: Quality physical education programs are a necessity to help students adopt healthy and physically active lifestyles. Assessment of student learning is the only way to demonstrate that students are meeting the goals and objectives of quality physical education yet this is an area where many physical education programs continue to struggle. Teacher perceptions have been studied before (McCullick, 2001), but views of urban teachers bring another perspective. In urban schools, oversized classes, lack of resources and professional development, and minimum time meeting with students add to this problem. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore the perceptions of urban physical education teachers regarding the characteristics of quality physical education and how assessment is conducted in urban schools.

Method: K-12 physical educators (N = 25) from a large urban school district in the Midwest were surveyed about quality physical education and assessment using Survey Monkey. The survey, created by the district's physical education administrators and a university professor, consisted of demographic and open-ended questions. The open-ended questions asked participants to describe the components of a quality physical education program and the role of assessment in physical education.

Analysis/Results: Participants' responses to open-ended questions regarding components of quality physical education and the role of assessment including how they personally assessed students were analyzed through the process of open coding and constant comparative techniques to identify initial themes and categories. Peer debriefing was used to verify themes and categories and develop final categories. Findings are reported in three main themes: a) Components of quality physical education programs, b) The role of assessment in physical education, and c) What and how urban physical educators assess. Results for the first theme closely matched NASPE components of opportunity to learn, meaningful content, appropriate instruction and assessment. Results of theme two included informing future instruction, providing credibility and monitoring students' development and achievement. Theme three results were use of the three domains plus fitness and included their use of a variety of assessment tools.

Conclusions: Results indicate urban physical educators identified quality physical education aspects similar to NASPE's components. Also, assessment is important in an urban setting but may be limited due to context. Results from this study suggest urban physical education teachers need professional development regarding how to implement practical assessments in any setting. Additionally, university teacher education programs need to prepare students to be able to assess in any given situation.

Pre-Service Teachers' Feedback Preferences

Christopher K. Wirth

Daniel K. Drost

John R. Todorovich

([email protected]).

The University of West Florida

Background/Purpose: Pre-service teachers are in need of support during their early lesson presentations. Providing beginning teachers with immediate feedback is an effective strategy for improving instructional teaching strategies. This study looked to determine pre-service teacher's attitudes about immediate feedback as compared with other feedback delivery strategies.

Method: Undergraduate pre-service teachers taught three, four-lesson units. The researcher provided teachers with three different types of feedback (no feedback, feedback immediately following a lesson, and feedback during a lesson). The delivery of the feedback was conducted via electronic mail and via mobile technology (two-way radio with in-ear headphones).

Analysis/Results: Semi-structured interviews were used to determine reactions to each feedback delivery and feedback timing. Students reported a higher preference to electronic feedback provided at the completion of each lesson. While the immediate feedback was found to be beneficial, the delivery via two-way radio was found to be distracting and complicated and w the least favorite form of feedback. The no-feedback frustrated students, but did lead to self-reflective strategies and development of peer feedback.

Conclusions: The results of this study indicate that pre-service teachers desire feedback. While feedback provided during the lesson was found to be helpful, the delivery of the feedback was distracting and disrupted the flow of the lesson. Further use of this technology may improve this form of delivery, possibly with the use of pre-determined cues and redirection that would require less cognitive distraction.

Relationships Between Three Types of Perceived Competence and Motivational Outcomes

Xiaoxia Su, Ping Xiang

Jiling Liu

Ron E. McBride

([email protected]).

Texas A&M University

Background/Purpose: How children evaluate their competence (referred to as perceived competence; PC) is essential to their participation, performance and learning. Children generally use task mastery, personal improvement, or superior performance over others to evaluate their competence in physical education/physical activity settings. Accordingly, perceived competence is multidimensional and includes: PC-mastery, PC-self and PC-other (e.g., Spray & Warburton, 2011). Little is known about differential roles of the three types of perceived competence in predicting children's motivational outcomes in physical activity settings. Thus, this study examined whether PC-mastery, PC-self and PC-other played different predictive roles on motivational outcomes, including the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER) test scores, self-efficacy and prosocial behaviors in a summer sports camp.

Method: The setting was a 3-week summer sports camp located at the Southwestern U.S. Participants were 79 boys aged 10–14 years (M age = 11.91, SD = 1.21) including 50.6% Hispanic-American, 25.3% Caucasian-American, 20.3% African-American and 3.8% others. They completed a battery of questionnaires adapted from research literatures (e.g., Guan, Xiang, McBride, & Bruene, 2006; Spray & Warburton, 2011) assessing their perceived competence, prosocial behaviors, and self-efficacy. They also finished the 20-meter PACER test.

Analysis/Results: Multiple regression analyses revealed that the three types of perceived competence collectively accounted for 17% of variance in PACER test (F(3, 76) = 5.36, p < .01), 31% in self-efficacy (F(3, 76) = 11.58, p < .001), and 13% in prosocial behaviors (F(3, 76) = 3.72, p < .05). PC-other (β = .38, t = 3.46, p < .01) positively predicted PACER test scores. PC- mastery (β = .34, t = 2.90, p < .01) positively predicted prosocial behaviors. PC-mastery (β = .21, t = 2.02, p < .05), PC-self (β = .31, t = 2.80, p < .01), and PC-other (β = .25, t = 2.47, p < .05) all significantly positively predicted self-efficacy.

Conclusions: That PC-other predicted PACER test score, PC-master predicted prosocial behaviors, but PC-self was the most important predictor of self-efficacy. This result indicate that each of these three perceived competences have unique predictive powers on different motivational outcomes. This study provides initial evidence that all three types of perceived competences predicted boys' motivational outcomes and played different roles respectively. Summer sports camp counselors should be aware of these findings and help boys developing the three types of perceived competences effectively.

Elementary School Teachers' Perception Toward Dance Education

Eun-Sim Yang

Yun-Hee Park

Su-Jung Cha

Mi-Kyung Kim

Kyung-Hee Ko

([email protected]).

Korea National Sport University

Background/Purpose: Teachers' perception about the value of dance in school is an important factor influencing the amount of time and resources allocated to dance education. Understanding the value and importance toward dance education might provide the underlying information necessary for teacher education and policy making for dance education. The purpose of the study was to examine the value and importance that elementary school teachers attach to dance education relative to other subjects in the school curriculum.

Method: The participants were 841 teachers of 45 elementary schools located in Seoul metropolitan area and Kyonggi province in Korea. The study sample reflects 1.17% of all elementary school teachers in the sampled areas. The importance of dance education was evaluated by making comparisons with other subjects in the school curriculum by teachers' gender, age level, and teaching grade of students. MANOVA was used to analyze the data with an alpha level set at .05.

Analysis/Results: The means of the importance ratings for the 11 elementary school subjects appeared statistically significant difference, F(10, 831) = 172.23, p <  .001, η_p² = .68. The means of the importance ratings for those appeared statistically significant difference between teachers' gender F(11, 829) = 4.43, p <  .001, η_p² = .06, between age level, F(11, 829) = 2.09, p = .019, η_p² = .03, and between upper and lower teaching grade of students, F(11, 829) = 2.43, p <  .006, η_p² = .03. Elementary school teachers had positive perception toward dance education, but they generally ranked Korean language, mathematics, and physical education in the top three and English, vocational arts, and dance education in the bottom three. This ranking, however, was very uniform across teachers' gender, age levels, and teaching grade. Teachers felt that dance education was important to improve and develop the students' physical (86.6%), socio-psychological (31.8%), and intellectual behaviors (94.4%).

Conclusions: The conclusions drawn from the result are 1) elementary school teachers perceive the importance of dance education to be very low compared with other subjects and 2) teachers who have high perceptions regarding the importance of dance education are more than 40 years of aged, female, and those who teach lower grade of students at present.

Keywords: elementary school teacher, perception toward school curriculum, dance education

A Case Study of Korean Undergraduate Student-Athletes' Academic Lives

Yongsuk Yim

Taeho Yu

Deockki Hong

([email protected]).

University of Northern Iowa

Background/Purpose: Recently, researchers have examined that there have been human rights violation issues in Korean student-athletes' lives in terms of academic lives. Even though Korean government has established educational policies to protect student-athletes' rights to participate in university courses, researchers argue that human rights violations of student-athletes are still frequently reported. The purpose of this research was to examine undergraduate student-athletes' academic lives and context to provide narratives that student-athletes encounter.

Method: Using ideal case selection method, a university located in Seoul, South Korea was chosen for this study. The university curriculum document was obtained. Observation data were collected through two semesters. Interviews were conducted from four critical student-athletes.

Analysis/Results: Data were analyzed using constant comparison. Triangulation was used using interviews, observations, and field notes. Total seven categories emerged from open coding procedure: 1) “My sports practice schedule is interfere with university course”, 2) “I'm excused because I'm a student-athlete”, 3) “I don't expect to prepare course”, 4) “I have no idea on university courses”, 5) “I'm afraid that I don't know much about course content”, 6) “I m sorry, Professor”, and 7) “I just need a diploma.” In addition to the open coding procedure, axial coding analyses generated three themes: 1) learned helplessness, 2) isolated culture, and 3) free from the university curriculum.

Conclusions: The results implies that Korean student-athletes' academic lives are interfered with their trainings. It causes a serious learned helplessness and isolated culture that may result in failure of non-athletic career. Student-athletes are student prior to athletes. Student-athletes should have a priority to study prior to practice sports. There is a need to establish povernmental policy to protect student-athletes' academic lives.

A Justification of Daily Physical Education in South Korea

Taeho Yu, Man-Seok Han

Ji-Eun Lee

Deockki Hong

([email protected]).

University of Northern Iowa

Background/Purpose: The obesity epidemic has become a global problem nowadays. Children and adolescent' obesity issues are especially problematic. Physical education researchers have argued that daily physical education can be a potential tool to combat obesity issues. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between daily moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and obesity among children and adolescents and develop a logical justification for a daily physical education in K-12 schools in South Korea.

Method: Extensive literature review was conducted on pathology, neuroscience, and pedagogy research fields using key words of ‘daily physical education’ and ‘daily physical activity’ both in English and Korean. Then, data were analyzed based on the categories of obesity, brain development, daily physical education program, the relationship between daily MVPA and academic achievement, and social and emotional developments through daily physical activity.

Analysis/Results:

Recent pathology research have evidenced that daily MVPA reduces cholesterols significantly that may prevent cardiovascular disease and diabetes among children and adolescents. Neuroscience research results also support a positive relationship between daily MVPA and cognitive capacity that increases BDNF and activates neurons. In addition, recent physical education pedagogy research results have shown the social and emotional benefits of daily physical education classes.

Conclusions: Currently, K-12 national physical education curriculum in South Korea provides physical education class two to three days a week with a limited time block due to the low academic status compared to other core subjects such as science and mathematics. However, an evidence-based justification of daily physical education from pathology, neuroscience, and pedagogy research results can be served as a medium to facilitate daily physical education movement in South Korea.

After School Physical Activity Programming: Locating and Increasing Participation

Elizabeth Wanless

Shannon Titus Dieringer, Lawrence W. Judge

James Johnson

([email protected]).

Ball State University

Background/Purpose: In an effort to increase physical activity (PA) for youth populations and as a response to dwindling PA in the school day, schools may choose to organize after school PA programming. Upon plans for implementation, it is important to keep strategies for locating and attracting participants a priority in order to increase impact. With input from parents and children, after school PA programs will be better equipped to attract children to the PA program, resulting in greater participation, enjoyment, and increased PA. Thus, the purpose of this study was to gain insight into parents' and children's decision-making processes as to why they participated and what might attract others.

Method: A qualitative survey and group interview constructivist grounded theory design (Charmaz, 2006) was used to gain insight from 38 youth and 38 parents involved in Step up for Health, an afterschool PA program geared toward families in East Central Indiana. In the first week of the program, parents received a survey along with the consent form for their child to participate and youth participants were interviewed in two large groups, 19 participants in each. Responses to the surveys and group interviews were coded into categories to form a resulting theory for the decision to participate.

Analysis/Results: The results of the study reflected the theory of reasoned action: youth and parents chose to participate based on their own attitudes towards the program and in consideration of others' attitudes. One hundred percent of participating parents referenced the utility of the program as a PA outlet and identified their own child as an influential figure in allowing their child to participate in the program. A majority of youth participants identified their physical education teacher as being influential in their decision to participate as well as perceiving the program to be fun and a great way to stay healthy.

Conclusions: When initiating afterschool programming with the desire to gain or increase participation, program leaders must be in tune with the current attitudes towards fitness programming; a strong element of why youth wanted to participate and why parents chose to let their child participate was the idea of after school programming as a health benefit. Program leaders must also identify influential figures that may affect the attitudes of youth and parents in order to promote the program.

Adolescent Interest and Physical Activity Fluctuation in Technology-Integrated Physical Education

Loren Dragon

Xihe Zhu

([email protected]).

Old Dominion University

Background/Purpose: Adolescents' physical activity and their interest in participating in sports decline in middle school. While research has indicated that adolescents favor technology usage in education and that technology could be used to promote physical activity and situational interest, few have reported technology integration to promote conceptual learning in physical education. This study examined adolescents' situational interest and physical activity fluctuation during five consecutive technology-integrated concept-based physical education lessons.

Method: Sixth grade students (N = 53) were placed into an experiment group that utilized technology-integrated resources (iPads and applications), or a comparison group that did not utilize technology during the five physical education lessons with content centering upon the conceptual understanding of relative physical activity intensity, heart rate, and energy expenditure. Physical activity was tracked throughout the lessons by ActiGraph accelerometers. Interest was assessed through the Situational Interest Scale (Chen et al., 1999) that students completed at the end of each lesson. The physical activity and situational interest data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, correlation analysis and multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) with repeated measure in both the technology-integrated physical education lessons and those of the comparison group.

Analysis/Results: Overall, the students participating in the technology-integrated physical education lessons reported significantly lower amounts of time participating in MVPA, took less steps during each lesson and had less physical activity related energy expenditure than their counterparts in the comparison group (λ = .65, F = 94.51, p <  .05, η² = .65). In addition, the students in the experiment group did not report higher situational interest with the introduction of technology-integrated resources into their physical education lessons (F = 5.81, p>.05, η² = .02). A group × lesson interaction suggested that adolescents' steps steadily increased through the five lessons in the technology group while they remained relative stable in the comparison group (F = 149.07, p < .05, η² = .37).

Conclusions: Contrary to findings of technology interventions for physical activity (Sun, 2012), this study suggested that utilizing technology-integration to increase a students' situational interest or physical activity level may not be the most effective method in a relatively short duration of physical education lessons. The application-based technologies (iPads) required little or no physical activity to engage, rather they required cognitive thinking and execution to complete the instructional tasks and fulfill the goal of increasing students' conceptual content knowledge which may have negatively affected the students' physical activity and interest levels.

Adolescents' Cognitive Processes and Physical Engagement in Physical Education

Xihe Zhu

Senlin Chen

([email protected]).

Iowa State University

Background/Purpose: Cognitive processes in education represent students' thoughts that influence engagement and learning, including their beliefs, attention, self-regulation, willing to engage, and use of strategies (Wittrock, 1986). However, rarely has research examined the students' cognitive processes in relation to physical activity and sedentary behavior in physical education classes. This research examined adolescents' cognitive processes and their physical engagement in physical education.

Method: The participants were 211 students from three middle schools, ranging from 11 to 13 years old. The Cognitive Processes Questionnaire in Physical Education (CPQPE, Solmon & Lee, 1997) measured students' cognitive process variables, including self-regulation, confidence-efficacy, concentration-attention, willingness to engage, and use of learning strategies. The ActiGraph GT3X accelerometers were used to gather physical activity variables including time spent on light activity, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), and number of steps. We conducted descriptive statistical analyses on cognitive processes and physical activity variables. Pearson product-moment correlation analyses were then conducted to examine the association between these variables. Lastly, we conduct multiple regression analyses using the cognitive process variables to predict MVPA and the number of steps recorded in physical education.

Analysis/Results: On average, the accelerometers recorded 12.79 minutes (SD = 6.21) MVPA, 23.34 minutes (SD = 9.52) light activity, and 11.21 minutes (SD = 5.54) sedentary time, and 1324.77 steps (SD = 415.87 in the targeted physical education class. Correlation analyses showed that the cognitive process variables were moderately correlated to each other (.62 ≥  r_s ≥ .38, p < .01), but they had small to moderate correlations with physical activity variables (.34 ≥  r_s ≥  .18, p < .05). Regression analyses showed that adolescents' willingness to engage was the only significant positive predictor for in-class MVPA (β = .31) and number of steps (β = .33). Overall, the cognitive process variables accounted for 10.7% of the variances in adolescent MVPA and 14.1% of the variances in number of steps in physical education.

Conclusions: The results demonstrated that adolescents had relatively small amount of time engaged in MVPA, while most of the class time were devoted to light physical activity. This finding points out the need to enhance the physical activity intensity level of the instructional tasks in physical education classes. Of the five cognitive process variables, it appeared that willingness to engage in physical education was the only significant predictor for adolescents' MVPA and steps. In order to promote adolescents' in-class physical activity, teachers should create amenable learning environments to increase students' willingness to participate in the physical activities.