Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport
CONTENTS
Volume 93 Number S1 Supplement 2022
2022 RESEARCH PROGRAM
PREFACE A-i
2022 RESEARCH PROGRAM SCHEDULE A-ii
REVIEW PANEL CHAIRS AND REVIEWERS A-xii
PEER-REVIEWED SYMPOSIA A-1
PEER-REVIEWED ABSTRACTS
Adapted Physical Education/Activity A-4
Measurement & Evaluation A-11
Motivation & Psychology A-18
Motor Behavior A-31
Physical Activity & Health Promotion A-32
Sociocultural & Social Justice A-72
Sport & Coaching A-78
Teaching & Learning A-83
PAST RESEARCH COUNCIL CHAIR AND 2022 PROGRAM CHAIR
Ali Brian, University of South Carolina, SC
REVIEW PANEL CHAIRS
Scott McNamara, University of New Hampshire Erin Centeio, University of Hawaii
Tao Zhang, University of North Texas Korey Boyd, Springfield College
Danielle Nesbitt, Fayetteville State University Lori Gano-Overway, James Madison University
Tristan Wallhead, University of Wyoming Paul Rukavina, Adelphi University
Ryan Sacko, The Citadel Dominique Banville, George Mason University
Cate Egan, University of Idaho Haichun Sun, University of South Florida
RESEARCH COUNCIL
Paul Rukavina (Chair), Adelphi University, NY
Ali Brian (Past-Chair), University of South Carolina, SC
Nancy Getchell, University of Delaware, DE
Paul Wright, Northern Illinois University, IL
Tao Zhang, University of North Texas, TX
Kevin Andrew R. Richards, University of Illinois, IL
Caitlin Olive (student), University of New Mexico, NM
Sarah Benes (BOD Liaison), Merrimack College, MA
STAFF
Thomas F. Lawson, Vice President of Marketing, Membership & Publishing
Chasity Burns Terry, Director of Professional Learning Events & Programs
Abstracted/indexed in: Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport is an SCI (Science Citation Information) and SSCI (Social Science Citation Information) journal. It is also abstracted/indexed in Biological Abstracts, Current Contents Social & Behavioral Sciences, Current Index to Journals in Education, Education Index, Ergonomic Abstracts, Exerpta Medica, Index Medicus, MEDLINE, Psychological Abstracts, SIRC, and Ben-Oak Publishing Company.
Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport (ISSN: 0270-1367) is published 4 times per year in March, June, September, and December by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC, 530 Walnut Street, Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Periodicals postage paid at Reston, VA, and additional mailing offices. US Postmaster: Please send address changes to Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, c/o The Sheridan Press, PO Box 465, Hanover, PA 17331.
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Given the incredible challenges we have faced across the past two years, I am delighted to present a face-to-face research program for the 2022 SHAPE America National Convention. Across the program, there are 160 total presentations conducted under eight research topics: Adapted Physical Activity/Education, Measurement and Evaluation, Motor Behavior, Motivation and Psychology, Physical Activity and Health Promotion, Sociocultural and Social Justice Issues, Sport and Coaching, and Teaching and Learning. The presentation formats include 13 oral sessions, 3 poster sessions, 2 round tables, and 3 symposia. The program also includes Student Works-in-Progress poster sessions and a symposium dedicated to the work of Daryl Siedentop.
A staple within the research program are the distinguished lecture series that are selected by the Research Council. The following scholars were selected as the 2022 Distinguished Scholars:
Dr. Weimo Zhu (University of Illinois-Urbana-Champaign) will present the McCloy Research Lecture
Dr. Thomas Templin (University of Michigan) will present the Raymond A. Weiss Research Lecture
Dr. Ang Chen (University of North Carolina-Greensboro) will present the SHAPE America Scholar Lecture
Dr. Stephen Silverman (Florida Atlantic University) will present the RQES Lecture
Dr. Jennifer Walton-Fisette (Kent State University) is the recipient of the Distinguished Service Award
Next, I would like to thank those who volunteered their support, time, and effort behind the scenes. First, thank you to those who reviewed abstracts for the research program. Thanks to your efforts, we have a robust research program. Second, much appreciation and thanks to the research program chairs who are the individuals that selected the reviewers and made initial decisions on the abstract submissions. These individuals are..
Scott McNamara (University of New Hampshire)—Adapted Physical Activity/Education
Tao Zhang (University of North Texas)—Measurement and Evaluation
Danielle Nesbitt (Fayetteville State University)—Motor Behavior
Tristan Wallhead (University of Wyoming)—Motivation and Psychology
Ryan Sacko (The Citadel) and Cate Egan (University of Idaho)—Physical Activity and Health Promotion
Erin Centeio (University of Hawaii) and Korey Boyd (Springfield College)—Sociocultural and Social Justice Issues
Lori Gano-Overway (James Madison University)—Sport and Coaching
Paul Rukavina (Adelphi University), Dominique Banville (George Mason University), and Haichun Sun (University of South Florida)—Teaching and Learning
Lastly, thank you to Chasity Burns Terry for incredible work ethic, professionalism, organization, and care. Organizing the research program would not be possible without you. Looking forward to a face-to-face research program in New Orleans, LA and seeing you all there.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Wednesday, April 27, 2022
10:45 a.m.–11:45 a.m
Physical Activity & Health Promotion Poster Session
Association of Adolescent Bullying Victimization With Meeting 24-Hour Movement Behaviors
You FuF1, University of Nevada, Reno; Ryan D. BurnsF, University of Utah; Peng ZhangF, East Stroudsburg University; Samantha Dyer, University of Nevada, Reno; Sanjun Yang, China University of Mining & Technology, Beijing; Nora Constantino, University of Nevada, Reno ([email protected])
Evaluating Physical Activity and Fitness Within Sport Education: A Systematic Review
Luis Gabriel Estrada1, University of Puerto Rico at Río Piedras; Zachary Wahl-AlexanderF, Northern Illinois University; Anthony Melendez, University of Puerto Rico at Río Piedras; Olvin O. Rosado, University of Puerto Rico ([email protected])
Recreation Centers’ Physical Activity Promotion: Differences by Socioeconomic Status
David KahanF1, San Diego State University ([email protected])
Adolescent Sexual Identity-Behavior Discordance and Prevalence of 24-Hour Movement Behaviors
Ryan D. BurnsF1, Wonwoo Byun, University of Utah; You FuF, University of Nevada, Reno; Nicole L Mihalopoulos, University of Utah Health ([email protected])
How Familiar Are Youth Sport Parents About State Concussion Legislation?
Sungwon Kim1, St. John’s University; Daniel ConnaughtonF, University of Florida ([email protected])
Physical Activity-Physical Education Enjoyment Discordance and Segmented Daily Physical Activity
Ryan D. BurnsF1, Yang Bai, University of Utah; Gregory J WelkF, Iowa State University; Wonwoo Byun, Timothy A. Brusseau Jr.F, University of Utah ([email protected])
Correlations Between Physical Activity Participation, the Environment, and COVID-19 in Children and Adolescents: A Comprehensive Meta-Analysis Using Ecological Frameworks
Longxi Li1, Michelle E. Moosbrugger, Springfield College ([email protected])
Assessing the Physical Literacy Environment of Early Childcare Centers: Findings From the Movement for Life Project
Nathan D. Hall1, Brock University; Melanie Gregg, University of Winnipeg ([email protected])
WV CARDIAC Project: Children’s Health Data and Family Health History
Emi Tsuda1, James D. Wyant, Eloise M. ElliottF, Christa Lilly, Erika D. Van Dyke, Emily Murphy, Olivia Jane Mackey, Lee Pyles, West Virginia University ([email protected])
The Impact of State Policies Governing Physical Education on Attendance Among High School Students in the U.S.
Jaehun Jung1, Collin Monaghan, Northwestern State University ([email protected])
Middle School Students’ Behaviors, Fitness, and Knowledge Related to Active Living Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Baofu Wang1, Stacy Imagbe, Louisiana State University; Jared Androzzi, Winthrop University; Yang Liu, Wuhan University of Technology; Xiangli GuF, University of Texas at Arlington; Amanda E Staiano, Gang Hu, Pennington Biomedical Research Center; Senlin ChenF, Louisiana State University ([email protected])
Systematic Literature Review on the TPSR Model Processes and Products
Yanhua Shen1, UNC Greensboro ([email protected])
Trends in Physical Activity During a 5-Week Outdoor Adventure Camp
Samantha Dyer1, University of Nevada, Reno; Ryan D. BurnsF, University of Utah; Nora Constantino, University of Nevada, Reno; Peng ZhangF, East Stroudsburg University; You FuF, University of Nevada, Reno ([email protected])
Comparison of Basic psychological Needs to Physical Activity Between College Students With and Without Intellectual/Developmental Disabilities
Myung Ha Sur1, Deborah Shapiro, Georgia State University; Jaehun Jung, Oregon State University ([email protected])
Teacher Perspectives of Daily Physical Activity Opportunities on Student Behavior
Jason Wilson, Christian County Schools; Heather E. ErwinF1, Joan Mazur, Alicia Fedewa, Gerry Swan, University of Kentucky ([email protected])
Examining the Impact of Intramural Sports on Social and Emotional Learning
Mark Urtel1, Indiana University Purdue University - Indianapolis ([email protected])
Physical Activity Trends of Incarcerated Youth in a Sport-Leadership Program
Jared Anderson1, Zachary Wahl-AlexanderF, Northern Illinois University ([email protected])
Movements in Virtual Reality: How Much Are We Using?
Stephanie Zinai Gonzalez1, Joonyoung Lee, Ana West, Tao ZhangF, University of North Texas ([email protected])
Effects of COVID-19 Mandates on Exercise Levels and Experiences Among College Students
Maria KosmaF1, Louisiana State University; MooSong Kim, Northeastern State University; Dalhyun H. Moon, California State University East Bay; Shelia Fritts, Northeastern State University ([email protected])
Cooking Meals at Home: The Perfect Recipe for General Anxiety
Rosanne Keathley1, Sam Houston State University; Judy R. Sandlin, Michael Sandlin, Texas A&M University ([email protected])
Behavioral Mechanism of Adolescents’ Cognitive Health: the ABCD Study
Xiangli GuF1, Jing Wang, University of Texas at Arlington ([email protected])
Drunkorexia, Alcoholemia, and Alcohol Protective Practices Among College Students
Michael Sandlin1, Judy R. Sandlin, Texas A&M University; Rosanne Keathley, Sam Houston State University ([email protected])
College Student Knowledge of Self and Peer Binge Drinking
Judy R. Sandlin1, Texas A&M University; Rosanne Keathley, Sam Houston State University; Michael Sandlin, Texas A&M University ([email protected])
E-Cigarette/Vape Usage: Thoughts, Feelings, and Knowledge Among College Students
Rosanne Keathley1, Sam Houston State University; Judy R. Sandlin, Michael Sandlin, Texas A&M University ([email protected])
Physical Activity Involvement and Processes of Change among University Students
Istvan Kovacs1, Wenhao LiuF, Slippery Rock University ([email protected])
Online Group Resistance Training Improves Beginners’ Muscular Fitness
Istvan Kovacs1, Timothy Houk, Brady Sileo, Slippery Rock University ([email protected])
The Impact of COVID-19 on Physical Activity and Grit in South Korea
Hyun-JuOh1, Ohio University-Athens; Ji-Eun Yeo, Yong In University; Julie Suhr, Sharon Perry, Ohio University ([email protected])
Gender Preference in Motivation and Knowledge Achievement in Physical Education
Chaojie Shang1, Anqi Deng, University of North Carolina at Greensboro; Alexander Clayton Moss, University of North Carolina at Greensboro; Ang ChenF, University of North Carolina at Greensboro ([email protected])
A Before-School Physical Activity Program on Students’ Social and Emotional Learning and Energy Levels
Tan Leng GohF1, Chee Hoi Leong, Central Connecticut State University; Bryan Jesse Plona, Catherine M. McGee Middle School; Carol Ciotto, Central Connecticut State University ([email protected])
The Application of Ecological Theory in Behavior Change: A Systematic Literature Review
Fan Zhang1, Heather E. ErwinF, University of Kentucky ([email protected])
Wellness Trends Among College Freshmen
Julene Ensign1, Nancy Daley-Moore, Abby Sauer, Truman State University; Jordan Lewis, Hixson Middle School ([email protected])
Influence of Education Majors’ Perceptions of High School Physical Education
Tara C. Putnam1, University of Wisconsin- Eau Claire; Saori Braun, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire; Tayler Mort, University of Wisconsin- Eau Claire; Cale Christianson, University of Wisconsin - Eau Claire ([email protected])
Structured Recreation During Online Recess to Boost Social and Emotional Health
Kylie Wilson1, Allison Ross, Kelly Ramella, Marissa Schulke, Arizona State University ([email protected])
Dose-Response Relationship of Physical Activity With Cognition and Classroom Behaviors
Samantha Moss1, University of Texas at Arlington; Xiaoxia Zhang, East Carolina University; Larry Nelson, Xiangli GuF, University of Texas at Arlington ([email protected])
The Impact of Virtual Physical Activity Interventions on Depression and Anxiety Among College Students: Randomized Controlled Trial
Michele Marenus1, Andy Murray, Ana Cahuas, Haley Ottensoser, Kathryn Friedman, Varun Kumaravel, Julia Sanowski, Weiyun ChenF, University of Michigan ([email protected])
Young Adults’ Enjoyment and Motivation in Exergaming and Aerobic Dance
Zan GaoF1, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities; Kun Tao, Huaihua University ([email protected])
Impact of Brain-Break Physical Activity Program on Selective Attention in School-Aged Children
Jiarong Zhong1, Xiaozan Wang, Chenjun Zong, East China Normal University ([email protected])
Physical Activity and Perceived Benefits and Barriers in School Teachers
Lingsong Kong1, University of Massachusetts Amherst; Xiaozan Wang, East China Normal University ([email protected])
Healthy@Home: Parental Perceptions of the Value and Effectiveness of Virtual Nutrition and Physical Activity Content
Laurel Whalen1, Cheryl Somers, Nathan McCaughtryF, Wayne State University ([email protected])
Disparities in Physical Activity, Tobacco Use, and Depression During COVID-19
Kimberly Vanhoose1, Samantha Moss, University of Texas at Arlington; Xiaoxia Zhang, East Carolina University; Ziyad Ben Taleb, Xiangli GuF, University of Texas at Arlington ([email protected])
Considering the Role of Adults in Shaping Black Girls’ School-Based Physical Activity
Nneka A Arinze1, The University of Connecticut ([email protected])
The Effects of Active Video Games on Adolescent’s Cardiovascular Fitness and in-School Physical Activity
Han Chen1, Valdosta State University; Jiling LiuF, Texas A&M University ([email protected])
Promoting Adolescent Girls’ Physical Literacy During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Haichun SunF1, University of South Florida ([email protected])
10:45 a.m.–11:45 a.m
Teaching & Learning Oral Session 1
U.S. PETE Faculty Stress and the Sociopolitics of Higher Education
K. Andrew R. RichardsF1, Shelby Ison, University of Illinois; Kim C. GraberF, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign; Amy Mays WoodsF, Chloe Walsh, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; Wesley J WilsonF, University of Utah ([email protected])
Preferences for and Receptiveness to Continuing Professional Development Among Physical Educators of Different Dispositions Toward Change
Ben D. Kern1, University of Wyoming; Wesley J WilsonF, University of Utah; Paul Malinowski, Tristan L. WallheadF, University of Wyoming ([email protected])
A University Physical Education Teacher Education Case Study—Preparing Preservice Physical Education Teachers for Induction
Collin Brooks1, ELIT Group; Jaime M. McMullenF, University of Northern Colorado ([email protected])
Principals’ Perceptions of and Support for Physical Education: A Socialization Perspective
Christopher John Kinder1, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign; K. Andrew R. RichardsF, Amelia Mays Woods, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign ([email protected])
2:00 p.m.–3:00 p.m
Current Research on Content Knowledge and Pedagogical Content Knowledge
In the past decade, considerable conceptual and empirical research has been conducted focusing on content knowledge in physical education and its impact on pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). In this symposium, our presentations will address a critical review of the literature to date, an examination of professional development policies and practices for content knowledge, and two studies that unpack content knowledge and PCK for teacher education.
A Critical Review of Content Knowledge Research in Physical Education: Accomplishments and Challenges
Philip WardF1, The Ohio State University ([email protected])
Analysis of Preservice Teachers’ Content Development for Teaching Individual Sports and Net/Wall Games
Peter Iserbyt, KU Leuvenven; Toon Dehandschutter1, KU Leuven ([email protected])
Preservice Teachers’ Content Knowledge Acquisition Between Two Different Instructional Foci
Fatih Dervent1, Marmara University Faculty of Sport Sciences; Erhan Devrilmez, karamanoğlu mehmetbey university; Mufide Cotuk, No ([email protected])
National Professional Development Policies and Practices for Content Knowledge
Insook KimF1, Kent State University; Bomna KoF, East Carolina University; Daekyun Oh, The Ohio State University ([email protected])
2:00 p.m.–3:00 p.m
Physical Activity & Health Promotion Oral Session 1
The Implementation of NJ’s Recess Law (S-847) in Elementary Schools
Edward B. Olsen1, Kean University; Emi Tsuda, James D. Wyant, West Virginia University; Zachary Gerken, Gabriella Smith, Ian Capp, Nestor Conforti, Kean University ([email protected])
The Importance of Active School Wellness Teams in Rural Schools
Joey A Lee1, Karisa Dreyer, University of Colorado Colorado Springs ([email protected])
Using Narrative Vignettes to Explore Physical Activity Experiences at School
Jaime M. McMullenF1, University of Northern Colorado; Collin Brooks, University of West Georgia; Cassandra Iannucci, Deakin University; Xiaoping Fan, University of Northern Colorado ([email protected])
Establishing a Rural Youth Fitness Surveillance System: A Pilot Study
Cate A. Egan1, Chris Merica, University of Idaho; Seth Rose, University of Idaho; College of Education, Health, and Human Sciences; Andrew K Martin, University of Idaho; Chantal A Vella, 9David R Paul, University of Idaho; College of Education, Health, and Human Sciences [email protected])
2:00 p.m.–3:00 p.m
Sociocultural & Social Justice Oral Session
Life History of an Exemplary African American PETE Faculty Member
Richard F. Jowers1, The University of Mississippi; Matthew D. Curtner-SmithF, The University of Alabama ([email protected])
Promoting Diversity and Inclusion With Social and Emotional Learning in Physical Education: International Investigation
Seunghyun Baek1, University of North Carolina at Greensboro; Ben DysonF, University of North Carolina, Greensboro; Donal Howley, University of North Carolina Greensboro; Yanhua Shen, UNC Greensboro ([email protected])
The Influence of Christian Faith on the Athletic Identity and Racial Identity of Black Male Adolescent Student-Athletes
Brandon Jamar Crooms1, Trinity University ([email protected])
3:15 p.m.–4:15 p.m
Adapted Physical Education/Activity Oral Session
Promoting Positive Trajectories of Health Among Children on the Autism Spectrum, as Well as Their Caregivers
Leah R. Ketcheson1, Wayne State University; E. Andrew A. Pitchford, Iowa State University; Franzi Loetzner, Wayne State University ([email protected])
Was Oliver, Right? Do University Instructors Support Physical Disability Inclusion?
Aubrey Hope Shaw1, Sharon Kay StollF, University of Idaho; Jennifer M Beller, Washington State University and St. Mary’s Parish School ([email protected])
Exploring Beliefs About Physical Activity Among Adults With Visual Impairments
T Nicole Kirk1, University of Georgia; Justin A. HaegeleF, Old Dominion University ([email protected])
School Administrators’ Role in the Marginalization of Adapted Physical Educators
Scott McNamara1, University of New Hampshire; K. Andrew R. RichardsF, Alyssa Trad, Sarena Abdallah, Lauren Hill, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign ([email protected])
3:15 p.m.–4:15 p.m
Teaching & Learning Roundtable Oral Session 1
Lessons From One PETE Program’s Online Transition During COVID-19
Brandon B. Foye1, Boston University ([email protected])
What Is Known About Bullying and Physical Education? A Scoping Review
Mengyi Wei1, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; Kim C. GraberF, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign ([email protected])
A Treatment Fidelity Checklist for School Physical Education Intervention Research
Weidong LiF1, The Ohio State University; Ping XiangF, Texas A&M University; Tang Yan, Shanghai University of Sport ([email protected])
A Phenomenological Inquiry Into High School Teachers’ Experience of Social and Emotional Learning
Janna Jobel1, University of Ottawa ([email protected])
PETE Student’s Perceptions of Nontraditional Teaching Experiences in Community Partnerships
Daniela M Susnara1, Jacob T. Peterson, Riley White, Ella Maggio, The University of Alabama ([email protected])
Thursday, April 28, 2022
10:45 a.m.–11:45 a.m
Across the Disciplines Poster Session 1
Effects of Alternating vs. Non-Alternating Dyad Practice on Skill Acquisition
Eddie HebertF1, Cameron Diez, Southeastern Louisiana University ([email protected])
Examining Motor Skill Competence and Cognitive Functioning Among Preschool Children
Ana West1, University of North Texas; Joonyoung Lee, University of North Texas - Denton, TX; Tao ZhangF, University of North Texas ([email protected])
Sensations of Fear: Virtual Reality Overriding Proprioception and Vestibular Integration
Robert J Kowalsky, Daniel Joseph Burt1, Texas A&M University-Kingsville ([email protected])
Pitfalls of a Comprehensive Sport School on Student Perceptions of School Climate
Jesse Mala1, University of Mary Hardin-Baylor; Nneka A Arinze, The University of Connecticut ([email protected])
Factors Influencing College Selection Process of NCAA Division I Student-Athletes
YuChun Chen1, Western Kentucky University; Amanda Clark, Louisiana Tech University ([email protected])
Voluntary Turnover of NCAA Division I Swimming Coaches
Kelsie Saxe, Lauren Beasley, Rob HardinF1, University of Tennessee; Elizabeth Taylor, Temple University ([email protected])
Coach Experiences During a Pandemic: Emotions, Labor, Exhaustion, and Coping
Todd E. Layne1, University of Memphis; Kelly L. Simonton, University of Wyoming; Boone Brown, Marko Pavlovic, University of Memphis ([email protected])
Coaching Environment and Coach Stress Among NCAA Division 2 Coaches
Dee Gerlach1, MooSong Kim, Northeastern State University ([email protected])
Preparation of African American Athletes for Life After College
Gabrielle Wells, Johnson C. Smith University; Robert Lindsey1, Johnson C Smith University ([email protected])
Youth Athlete’s Perceptions of Climate, Emotions, and Their Personal/Social Development
Marko Pavlovic1, University of Memphis; Kelly L. Simonton, University of Wyoming; Laura P Casey, University of Memphis ([email protected])
Stress Response in Performing Artists
Lawrence Judge1, Ball State University; David BellarF, University of North Carolina at Charlotte ([email protected])
An Analysis of Differences in Preservice Teachers’ Teacher Identity
Jingwen Liu1, California State University, Fullerton; Xiaofen D. KeatingF, The University of Texas at Austin ([email protected])
Development of Common Content Knowledge Tests and Future Directions
Emi Tsuda1, West Virginia University; Philip WardF, The Ohio State University; Yaohui He, East China Normal University; Obidiah Atkinson, Ohio State University; Suzan F. AyersF, Western Michigan University; Ali BrianF, University of South Carolina; Insook KimF, Kent State University; Junyoung Kim, Missouri State University; Bomna KoF, East Carolina University; Yilin Li, The Ohio State University; Jim Ressler, Northern Illinois University; Jose A Santiago, Sam Houston State University; Debra Sazama, University of Wisconsin La Crosse; James D. Wyant, West Virginia University; Xiuye Xie, Missouri State University ([email protected])
Exploring Secondary Physical Education Teachers’ Use of Research
Denis Pasco1, University of Bourgogne Franche-Comte; Anne Bonnard, Besançon School District; Cedric Roure, University of Teacher Education ([email protected])
Learning Biomechanics Through Physical Education: A Day of STEM Fun
Emily D. Clapham1, University of Rhode Island; Karie Lee Orendorff, Montana State University ([email protected])
Sustainable University-Public School Partnership to Improve Preservice Teachers’ Practicum Experience
Daehyoung Lee1, Lisa Paulson, Patricia Wendinger, University of Minnesota Duluth ([email protected])
Exploring Physical Education Teachers’ Knowledge and Experiences About Trauma-Informed Practices
Douglas W. Ellison1, Kent State University ([email protected])
Coaching and Physical Activity as a Function of Student-Coaches’ Skill Level in High School in a Basketball Sport Education Season
Toon Dehandschutter1, Peter Iserbyt, KU Leuven ([email protected])
Status of Health Education in Oregon: A Survey of Health Education Teachers
Kevin Lorson1, Wright State University; Jessica S Lawrence, Dove Self Esteem Project; Suzanne Hidde, Oregon Dept of Education ([email protected])
Blind Spots: K–12 Teachers Informing PETE Program Evaluation
Adam Keath1, Winthrop University; James D. Wyant, West Virginia University; Junhyung Baek, Gyeong-In National University of Education; Tom Watterson, Western Carolina University ([email protected])
A Functional Movement Warm-up’s Effect on 9th Graders’ Movement Quality
Lynda Butler-Storsved1, Elon University; Pam Brown, The Univ Of North Carolina At; Diane L. GillF, University of North Carolina, Greensboro; Christopher Rhea, University of North Carolina Greensboro ([email protected])
The Effect of Specialized Content Knowledge in Reciprocal Peer Learning
Tom Madou1, Fien Depaepe, KU Leuven; Philip WardF, The Ohio State University; Peter Iserbyt, KU Leuven ([email protected])
Navigating Uncertainties Together: A Collaborative Self-Study of First-Year Faculty Members
Mijoo Kim1, Towson University; Kelsey Higginson, Minot State University ([email protected])
Lessons Learned From an Online Sexual Health Education Program
Cathy McKayF1, Kim Hartzler-Weakley, Hayden Bartley, James Madison University ([email protected])
Influence of Quality High School Physical Education on Physical Activity
Xiaoxia Zhang1, Joonkoo Yun, East Carolina University ([email protected])
Physical Education Student Teaching Placements: Program Graduate Perceptions
LeAnn E. Olson1, Kason O’Neil, East Tennessee State University ([email protected])
Engaging Preschoolers in Structured Physical Activity Time: A Cross-Age Peer Tutoring Implementation
Carla VidoniF1, University of Louisville; Myung-Ah Lee, Indiana State University ([email protected])
Investigating Physical Educators’ Adoption of Models-Based Practices
Paul Malinowski1, Ben D. Kern, Tristan L. WallheadF, Andrea Burrows, University of Wyoming ([email protected])
4:30 p.m.–5:30 p.m
Conceptual Diversity of Inclusion: Surveying the Research
Inclusive physical education requires teachers to embrace diversity, value learning differences and design lessons for students’ success within the gymnasium. More often, teachers perceive inclusion as a “fitting in” rather than “being a part of” the learning environment. This symposium highlights the research on student experiences in PE, the learning environment, and concludes by offering both a tool (LIRSPE), and a potential model for considering the variables for inclusion to be meaningful for all students.
Inclusive Pedagogy in Physical Education
Michelle Grenier1, University of New Hampshire ([email protected])
Using the Inclusion Rating Scale to Implement Inclusive Practices
Lauren Lieberman1, SUNY Brockport ([email protected])
A Conceptual Model of an Inclusive Environment’s Spillover to the Whole School
Matthew Patey1, Bridgewater State University ([email protected])
4:30 p.m.–5:30 p.m
Motivation & Psychology Oral Session 1
Attitudes in Physical Activity and Physical Education: Moderated Mediation Analysis
Kelly L. Simonton1, University of Wyoming; Kevin J. MercierF, Adelphi University; Alex C. GarnF, Louisiana State University; Erin CenteioF, University of Hawaii at Manoa; Jeanne Barcelona, Wayne State University ([email protected])
Cognitive–Affective Attitudinal Structures and Their Influences on Intention–Behavior Relation
Yubing Wang1, University of Wisconsin-Whitewater; Pan Li, Yaogang Han, Binn Zhang, Shanghai University of Sport ([email protected])
Prevalence of Anxiety and Depression in Student-Athletes During COVID-19
Yongju Hwang1, University of Georgia; Yangyang Deng, Graduate Student; Taewoo Kim, Sam Yli-PiipariF, University of Georgia ([email protected])
Investigating Secondary School Physical Educators’ Emotions, Control, and Coping Mechanisms
Victoria (Tori) N. Shiver1, Northern Illinois University; Kelly L. Simonton, Angela Simonton, University of Wyoming ([email protected])
4:30 p.m.–5:30 p.m
Teaching & Learning Roundtable Oral Session 2
Preservice Physical Education Teacher Preparation for Health-Related Fitness Testing
Xiaolu Liu1, Eastern New Mexico University; Xiaofen D. KeatingF, The University of Texas at Austin ([email protected])
Preservice Physical Education Teacher’s Perceptions of Dance in Physical Education
Rachyl Jane Stephenson1, Unviersity of Wisconsin La Crosse; Jeffrey Allan Colburn, University of Texas- Austin ([email protected])
Impact of Secondary Organizational Socialization on Mid-Career Faculty Members’ PETE
Jamie J. Brunsdon1, The University of Memphis; Matthew D. Curtner-SmithF, The University of Alabama ([email protected])
Exploring Physical Education Teachers’ Acceptance and Use of Online Instruction
Chad Killian, Unaffiliated; David N. Daum1, San Jose State University; Tyler Goad, Emporia State University; Christopher Gentry, California State University- San Bernardino ([email protected])
Technology-Related Professional Development Opportunities for PETE Faculty
Jennifer M. Krause1, Taemin Ha, Brian D. Dauenhauer, University of Northern Colorado; Kason O’Neil, East Tennessee State University ([email protected])
Friday, April 29, 2022
10:45 a.m.–11:45 a.m
Across the Disciplines Poster Session 2
Physical Fitness and Adults With Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities: A Mixed Methods Analysis on the Effects of an Adapted Fitness Program
Andrew M. Colombo-DougovitoF1, Melissa Savage, Ana West, University of North Texas ([email protected])
Examining Adapted Physical Education Teachers’ Job Satisfaction
Minhyun Kim1, Jose A Santiago, Sam Houston State University; Chan Woong Park, California State University, Sacramento ([email protected])
Building Self-Efficacy for Inclusive Programing Through Online Training
Jill Webster Lassiter1, James Madison University; Amanda L. Campbell, Bridgewater College; Andrea Taliaferro, West Virginia University; Scott Pruett, The Universal Design Project; Danette Gibbs, Thomas Moran, James Madison University ([email protected])
College Students’ Perceptions Toward the Importance of Physical Activity for People With Disabilities
Scott McNamara1, University of New Hampshire; E. Andrew A. Pitchford, Iowa State University ([email protected])
Exploring Mothers’ Perception of An Inclusive Dance Program: A Case Study
Alyssa Spruill1, Autism Society of North Carolina; Jihoun An, Bomna KoF, East Carolina University ([email protected])
Preservice Teachers’ Experiences in Dance-Adapted Physical Education Practicum
Bomna KoF1, Boni Boswell, East Carolina University; Seok Yoon, Chowan University; Yun Soo Lee, Dankook University ([email protected])
Cross-Validation and Modifications of the Perceived Mattering Questionnaire—Physical Education in Chinese Inservice Physical Education Teachers
Xiaofen D. KeatingF1, The University of Texas at Austin; Shuhua Qu, Beijing Sport University; Xin Zhang, Nanjing university of aeronautics and astronautics; Dwan Bridges, Cal state LA; Xiaolu Liu, Eastern New Mexico University; Jingwen Liu, California State University, Fullerton ([email protected])
Development of the Career Decision Self-Efficacy Measurement Scale (CDSEMS) for Physical Education College Students
Sae-HyungKim1, Chungbuk National University; Dongwook Cho, Alcorn State University ([email protected])
Trend Analysis of Physical Activity Measurement Research Using Text Mining
Kwanghee Lee1, Minsoo KangF, The University of Mississippi ([email protected])
Trend Analysis of Scholarly Research in RQES Using Topic Modeling
SeungBak Lee1, University of Mississippi; Minsoo KangF, University of Mississippi; Jae Hyeon Park, korea national sports university ([email protected])
In-Service Physical Education Teacher Perceptions of Assessment Practices
Kason O’Neil1, LeAnn E. Olson, East Tennessee State University; Kristen Morgan, Southeastern Louisiana University; Robert John Doan, Charleston Southern University; Jennifer N. O’Neil, East Tennessee State University ([email protected])
Research on the Construction and Application of the Evaluation Index System of Chinese Physical Education Teachers’ Ethics and Style
Haohui Liu1, Zhihua Yin, Hengxing Tian, Xue Wan, East China Normal University ([email protected])
Association Between Competency and First-Year Employment: A Comparison Study
YuChun Chen1, Brian Myers, Keri A. Esslinger, Western Kentucky University ([email protected])
Predicting Body Mass for Lower Limb Amputee Women
Marcio Fernando Tasinafo, Leonardo Santos Lopes Silva, Pedro Pugliesi Abdalla, André Pereira dos Santos, Jessica Fernanda Corrêa Cordeiro, Ana Claudia Rossini Venturini, Universidade de São Paulo; Anderson dos Santos Carvalho, Universidade Paulista - UNIP; Nilo C. Ramos1, Coastal Carolina University; Dalmo Roberto Lopes Machado, Universidade de São Paulo ([email protected])
Exploring College Students’ Anxiety Sensitivity and Exercise-Related Self-Efficacy
Carly Williamson1, University of Tennesssee At Martin; Timothy Michael Dasinger, LSU ([email protected])
AGT, Fear of Failure, and Anxiety in Collegiate Soccer Players
Timothy Michael Dasinger1, University of Tennessee-Martin ([email protected])
Athletic Identity: How Do You Identify?
Derek W. Elton1, University of Nebraska-Kearney; James W Ball, Northeastern Illinois University; Matthew R. Bice, University of Nebraska Kearney; Rick Gage, Marshall University; Thomas Orr, University of Nebraska - Kearney ([email protected])
The Development of Preservice Teacher Motivation Inventory in Physical Education
Bo ShenF1, Wayne State University; Huanyu Li, Central China Normal University; Jin Bo, Eastern Michigan University ([email protected])
Expanding the Discrete Emotions in Physical Scale: Testing Outcome-Related Emotions and Moderation
Kelly L. Simonton1, University of Wyoming; Alex C. GarnF, Louisiana State University; Kevin J. MercierF, Adelphi University ([email protected])
Logistic Regression: Physical Activity-Promotion Strategies Used by Habitual and Regular Exercisers
Wenhao LiuF1, Istvan Kovacs, Slippery Rock University ([email protected])
Self-Efficacy of Exercise, Decisional Balance, and Exercise Participation
Wenhao LiuF1, Istvan Kovacs, Slippery Rock University ([email protected])
Effects of Ambivalent Attitude on Overall Attitude and Physical Activity
Yubing Wang1, Tyler Schmidt, Erin Lawler, University of Wisconsin-Whitewater ([email protected])
Effects of Attitude on Habit of Doing Moderate-to-Vigorous Physical Activity
Yubing Wang1, Erin Lawler, Tyler Schmidt, University of Wisconsin-Whitewater ([email protected])
Potential Predictors of Psychological Well-Being in Elementary School Students
Jun Chen1, Xiaozan Wang, Shijun Wu, Jiarong Zhong, East China Normal University; Weiyun ChenF, University of Michigan ([email protected])
Anxiety, Depression, and Sleep Quality Among College Students
Michele Marenus1, Andy Murray, Haley Ottensoser, Ana Cahuas, Kathryn Friedman, Varun Kumaravel, Weiyun ChenF, University of Michigan ([email protected])
Teacher Motivation, Self-Efficacy, and Burnout in a District Physical Education Program
Keven Prusak1, David Barney, Carol Wilkinson, Todd R. Pennington, Brigham Young University; Zack Beddoes, University of Wisconsin La Crosse; Nathan Kahaialii, Jami Ohran, Brigham Young University ([email protected])
PETE Alumni Perspectives of Culturally Responsive Teaching Self-Efficacy
Sara B. FloryF, Craigory Nieman1, Rebecca Wylie, University of South Florida ([email protected])
North American Rodeo: From Celebratory Roundup to Iconic Sport Form
Demetrius W Pearson1, University of Houston ([email protected])
Projection on Sports Management-Related Job Market Demands in the U.S.
Ran Wei1, Yuanlong LiuF, Western Michigan University ([email protected])
Effects of Ethnic Identity and Motivation to Be Physically Active in Schools in Hawaii
Nathan Kahaialii1, Keven Prusak, David Barney, Carol Wilkinson, Brigham Young University ([email protected])
Anti-Fat Attitudes Among Physical Educators: A Scoping Review
Luciana Zuest1, Towson University; Andrea Salazar, California State University, Chico ([email protected])
10:45 a.m.–11:45 a.m
Teaching & Learning Oral Session 2
Workplace Experiences of Physical Educators With and Without National Board Certification
Jeongkyu Kim1, Mengyi Wei, Amelia Mays Woods, K. Andrew R. RichardsF, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign ([email protected])
The Status of Physical Education in Colorado
Xiaoping Fan1, Texas A&M International University; Jaime M. McMullenF, Jennifer M. Krause, Brian D. Dauenhauer, University of Northern Colorado ([email protected])
The Influence of Workplace Stressors on Job Satisfaction of U.S. PETE Faculty
Alyssa Trad, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; Christopher John Kinder1, Kim C. GraberF, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign; K. Andrew R. RichardsF, Amelia Mays Woods, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign ([email protected])
12:00 p.m.–1:00 p.m
Physical Activity & Health Promotion Oral Session 2
Preservice Classroom Teachers Self-Efficacy Toward Physical Activity Implementation During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Hayley McKown1, University of Idaho; Erin E. CenteioF, University of Hawaii at Manoa ([email protected])
Disruptive Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Children’s Mental Health and Health Behaviors: Insights from Cooperative Extension Agents
Senlin ChenF1, Louisiana State University; Jessica Stroope, Denise Holston, LSU AgCenter; Ryan Hulteen, Fahui Wang, Beibei Guo, Louisiana State University; Gang Hu, Amanda E Staiano, Pennington Biomedical Research Center ([email protected])
Missed Opportunities for Expanded Physical Activity Program Supports
Shannon C. Mulhearn1, University of Nebraska-Kearney; Pamela Hodges KulinnaF, Arizona State University ([email protected])
The Effect of Teachers’ Physical Activity Promotion on Children’s Participation and Physical Activity in a Recess Program in Elementary Schools
Kian Vanluyten1, KULeuven; Shu Cheng, KU Leuven; Cedric Roure, University of Teacher Education; Philip WardF, The Ohio State University; Peter Iserbyt, KU Leuven ([email protected])
12:00 p.m.–1:00 p.m
Teaching & Learning Oral Session 3
Instructional Alignment in Preservice Teachers’ Unit Plans
Peter Iserbyt1, KU Leuven; Jacalyn LundF, Georgia State University; Fien Lux, KU Leuven ([email protected])
Physical Educators’ Longitudinal Reflections on Teaching Virtually Amidst a Pandemic
Brandon B. Foye1, Boston University ([email protected])
Physical Education Teachers Technology Self-Efficacy and Integration
Alex Adams1, Austin Peay State University; Don Belcher, Middle Tennessee State University ([email protected])
Teacher Effectiveness With Remote Physical Education Instruction 2020–2021
Erin E. CenteioF1, University of Hawaii at Manoa; Kevin J. MercierF, Adelphi University; Risto MarttinenF, George Mason University; Jeanne Barcelona, Wayne State Univrsity; Heather E. ErwinF, University of Kentucky; Alex C. GarnF, Louisiana State University; Alba Rodrigues, George Mason University; Karl Richard Hennebach, University of Hawaii at Manoa; Paige Arvidson, Christine Pedder, Wayne State University; John T. FoleyF, State Univ New York-Cortland ([email protected])
1:30 p.m.–2:30 p.m
Physical Activity & Health Promotion Oral Session 3
24-Hour Movement Behavior and Mental Health Among Depressed Female Students
Xiaoxia Zhang1, East Carolina University; Xiangli GuF, Jing Wang, University of Texas at Arlington ([email protected])
Time Trend and Demographic Disparities in Adolescents’ Obesity Prevalence, Sedentariness, and Physical Activity: Evidence From the 10-Year Longitudinal Data
Yangyang Deng1, Graduate Student; Sam Yli-PiipariF, University of Georgia ([email protected])
What Is the Impact of Physical Education on Students’ Feelings of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression?
Kacie Lanier1, Georgia State University; Chad Killian, Unaffiliated; Kathryn Wilson, Rebecca EllisF, Georgia State University ([email protected])
The Impact of Strength and Conditioning in Physical Education on Students’ Feelings of Anxiety and Stress
Kacie Lanier1, Georgia State University; Chad Killian, Unaffiliated ([email protected])
1:30 p.m.–2:30 p.m
Teaching & Learning Oral Session 4
Utilizing Personal Biographies to Promote Social and Emotional Learning
Donal Howley1, University of North Carolina Greensboro; Caitlin Olive, University of Georgia; Seunghyun Baek, University of North Carolina at Greensboro ([email protected])
Developing Resilience and Enhancing Appraisals of Mattering for Teachers
Shannon A Pennington1, K. Andrew R. RichardsF, Alyssa Trad, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; karen Lux GaudreaultF, University of New Mexico; Kim C. GraberF, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign ([email protected])
Challenges and Future Directions of Social and Emotional Learning in Physical Education: International Investigation
Seunghyun Baek1, University of North Carolina at Greensboro; Ben DysonF, University of North Carolina, Greensboro; Yanhua Shen, UNC Greensboro; Donal Howley, University of North Carolina Greensboro ([email protected])
Believe In You Social and Emotional Learning Journals: A Pilot Study
Erin E. CenteioF1, University of Hawaii at Manoa; Jeanne Barcelona, Wayne State University; Kevin J. MercierF, Adelphi University; Aaron Hart, OPEN; John T. FoleyF, State Univ New York-Cortland ([email protected])
Saturday, April 30, 2022
8:00 a.m.–9:00 a.m
Implementing Social and Emotional Learning Across Multiple Physical Education Contexts (Part 1)
The purpose of this research symposium is to present and report on the methods and experiences of Physical Education (PE) researchers and practitioners implementing Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) across pre-school, K–12, alternative education, community, and teacher-education contexts. Attendees will be provided with explanations and examples of research and pedagogical methods utilized. They will have the opportunity to consider, discuss, and formulate implications and future directions for these and additional approaches to implementing SEL.
Social and Emotional Learning During Outdoor Play Among Preschoolers in an Early Childhood Education Center
Marcia A Rosiek1, Coastal Carolina University; Ben DysonF, University of North Carolina, Greensboro ([email protected])
Elementary Physical Education Teachers Perspectives of Social and Emotional Learning
Ben DysonF1, University of North Carolina, Greensboro; Judy Fowler, University of North Carolina-Greensboro; Seunghyun Baek, University of North Carolina at Greensboro ([email protected])
Enacting Social and Emotional Learning in High School Physical Education
Donal Howley1, University of North Carolina Greensboro; Seunghyun Baek, University of North Carolina at Greensboro; Judy Fowler, University of North Carolina-Greensboro; Yanhua Shen, UNC Greensboro; Ben DysonF, University of North Carolina, Greensboro ([email protected])
Social and Emotional Learning in a Community-Based Soccer Program
Yanhua Shen1, UNC Greensboro; Ben DysonF, University of North Carolina, Greensboro; Sari Rose, NC Fusion and University of North Carolina at Greensboro ([email protected])
Challenges and Future Directions for Social and Emotional Learning in Physical Education: International Perspectives
Seunghyun Baek1, University of North Carolina at Greensboro; Ben DysonF, University of North Carolina, Greensboro ([email protected])
8:00 a.m.–9:00 a.m
Measurement & Evaluation Oral Session
Looking at the Whole Child Through Student Health Profiles: A Latent Class Analysis of CDC 2019 National Youth Risk Behavior Survey Data
Tiana Yom1, Northeastern University ([email protected])
Development of a Resistance Training Content Knowledge Assessment for Physical Educators
David BellarF1, University of North Carolina at Charlotte; Ben D. Kern, University of Wyoming; Larry JudgeF, Ball State University ([email protected])
Developing a Fitness Surveillance System: Teachers Experiences With Training and Implementation
Christopher Barton Merica1, Cate A. Egan, Seth Rose, Andy Martin, David R Paul, Chantal A Vella, University of Idaho; College of Education, Health, and Human Sciences ([email protected])
9:15 a.m.–10:15 a.m
Implementing Social and Emotional Learning Across Multiple Physical Education Contexts (Part 2)
The purpose of this research symposium is to present and report on the methods and experiences of Physical Education (PE) researchers and practitioners implementing Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) across pre-school, K–12, alternative education, community, and teacher-education contexts. Attendees will be provided with explanations and examples of research and pedagogical methods utilized. They will have the opportunity to consider, discuss, and formulate implications and future directions for these and additional approaches to implementing SEL.
Social and Emotional Learning During Outdoor Play Among Preschoolers in an Early Childhood Education Center (Part 2)
Marcia A Rosiek1, Coastal Carolina University; Ben DysonF, University of North Carolina, Greensboro ([email protected])
Elementary Physical Education Teachers Perspectives of Social and Emotional Learning (Part 2)
Ben DysonF1, University of North Carolina, Greensboro; Judy Fowler, University of North Carolina-Greensboro; Seunghyun Baek, University of North Carolina at Greensboro ([email protected])
Enacting Social and Emotional Learning in High School Physical Education (Part 2)
Donal Howley1, University of North Carolina Greensboro; Seunghyun Baek, University of North Carolina at Greensboro; Judy Fowler, University of North Carolina-Greensboro; Yanhua Shen, UNC Greensboro; Ben DysonF, University of North Carolina, Greensboro ([email protected])
Social and Emotional Learning in a Community-Based Soccer Program (Part 2)
Yanhua Shen1, UNC Greensboro; Ben DysonF, University of North Carolina, Greensboro; Sari Rose, University of North Carolina at Greensboro ([email protected])
Challenges and Future Directions for Social and Emotional Learning in Physical Education: International Perspectives (Part 2)
Seunghyun Baek1, University of North Carolina at Greensboro; Ben DysonF, University of North Carolina, Greensboro ([email protected])
9:15 a.m.–10:15 a.m
Motivation & Psychology Oral Session 2
An Emerging Social Status: Single-Serve Premium Juice Consumption
Rob HardinF1, Michelle Childs, University of Tennessee; Gi-Yong Koo, Kwangho Park, Troy University ([email protected])
Long-Term Predictions of Mastery- and Performance-Approach Goals in Physical Education/Athletics
Ping XiangF1, Jiling LiuF, Texas A&M University; Weidong LiF, The Ohio State University; Jianmin GuanF, University of Texas-San Antonio ([email protected])
Physical Education Teacher Support for Student Physical Activity Self-Efficacy
Kenneth Allen Murfay Jr.1, University of Kansas ([email protected])
10:30 a.m.–11:30 a.m
Physical Activity & Health Promotion Oral Session 4
A Fun Virtual Active Play Program Enhances Children’s Physical Fitness
Samira Rostami1, 1Department of Biological Sciences in Sport, Faculty of Sport Sciences and Health, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran; Amin Gholami, Behavioral Sciences in Sport, Sports Sciences Research Institute, Tehran, Iran ([email protected])
Classroom Physical Activity Breaks in Early Elementary Students
Jeanne Barcelona1, Wayne State Univrsity; Hannah Calvert, Boise State University; Paige Arvidson, Nathan McCaughtryF, Wayne State University ([email protected])
Generalization and Maintenance of Participation in Parkour in Elementary Schools
Kian Vanluyten1, KULeuven; Shu Cheng, KU Leuven; Cedric Roure, University of Teacher Education; Jan Seghers, KU Leuven; Philip WardF, The Ohio State University; Peter Iserbyt, KU Leuven ([email protected])
Generalization of Participation in Parkour From Physical Education to Recess: Analysis of Skill Trials
Shu Cheng1, KU Leuven; Kian Vanluyten, KULeuven; Jan Seghers, KU Leuven; Philip WardF, The Ohio State University; Peter Iserbyt, KU Leuven ([email protected])
Adapted Physical Education/Activity
Scott McNamara, University of New Hampshire
Jihoun An, East Carolina University
Melissa Bittner, CSU, Long Beach
Layne Case, University of South Carolina
Emily Clapman, University of Rhode Island
Andrew Colombo-DougovitoF, University of North Texas
Steven Holland, Norwegian University of Science and Technology
Jihyun LeeF, San Jose State University
Lauren Lieberman, SUNY Brockport
Cathy McKayF, James Madison University
Adam Pennell, Pepperdine University
E. Andrew Pitchford, Iowa State University
Deborah Shapiro, Georgia State University
Kim Smith, The Ohio State University
Myung Ha “Mason” Sur, Georgia State University
Andrew Taliaferro, West Virginia University
Joonkoo YunF, East Carolina University
Measurement & Evaluation
Tao ZhangF, University of North Texas
Yang Bai, University of Utah
Tiago BarreiraF, Syracuse University
Ryan BurnsF, University of Utah
Alan Chu, University of Wisconsin-Green Bay
James Farnsworth, Texas State University
You FuF, University of Nevada, Reno
Yong GaoF, Boise State University
Zan GaoF, University of Minnesota
Xiangli GuF, University of Texas at Arlington
Minsoo KangF, The University of Mississippi
Youngdeok KimF, Virginia Commonwealth University
Joonyoung Lee, University of North Texas
Zi YanF, Merrimack College
Xiaoxia Zhang, East Carolina University
Tao ZhangF, University of North Texas
Motivation & Psychology
Tristan WallheadF, University of Wyoming
Senlin ChenF, Louisiana State University
Rebecca EllisF, Georgia State University
Jianmin GuanF, University of Texas at San Antonio
Maria KosmaF, LSU
K. Andrew R. RichardsF, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Bo ShenF, Wayne State University
Kelly Simonton, University of Wyoming
Haichun SunF, University of South Florida
Yubing Wang, UW-Whitewater
Ping XiangF, Texas A&M University
Sam Yli-PiipariF, University of Georgia
Motor Behavior
Danielle NesbittF, Fayetteville State University
Cade Abrams, University of South Carolina
Ruri Famelia, Ohio State University
Emily Gilbert, SUNY-Cortland
Ryan Hulteen, LSU
Sally Miedema, University of South Carolina
Kara Palmer, University of Michigan
Adam Pennell, Pepperdine University
Melanie Perreault, SUNY – Brockport
Anthony Smith, Charleston Southern University
Alex Stribing, University of South Carolina
Emily Tsuda, West Virginia University
Kip Webster, Augusta University
Physical Activity & Health Promotion
Cate Egan, University of Idaho
Ryan Sacko, The Citadel
Suzan AyersF, Western Michigan University
Duke Biber, University of West Georgia
Jennifer Lynne Bossi, Winthrop University
Collin Brooks, University of West Georgia
Timothy BrusseauF, University of Utah
Brian Dauenhauer, University of Northern Colorado
An DeMeester, University of South Carolina
Danae Dinkel, University of Nebraska
Rob Doan, Charleston Southern University
Eloise ElliottF, West Virginia University
Julene Ensign, Truman State
Heather ErwinF, University of Kentucky
Ann Essay, University of Nebraska Medical Center
Jennifer Heidorn, University of West Georgia
Ryan Hulteen, LSU
Stacy Imagbe, LSU
Megan Irwin, College of Charleston
Adam Keath, Winthrop University
Chad Killian, Georgia State University
Pamela KulinnaF, Arizona State University
Kacie Lanier, Georgia State University
Joey Lee, University of Colorado (Colorado Springs)
Kent Lorenz, San Francisco State University
Christopher Merica, University of Idaho
Jongho (Charlie) Moon, University of South Carolina
Brian Mosier, University of West Georgia
Shannon Mulhearn, Arizona State University
Ken Murfay, KU
Nilo Ramos, Coastal Carolina
John Paul Rech, University of Nebraska
Hillary Robey, Western Washington University
Michaela Schenkelberg
Victoria Shiver, Northern Illinois University
David StoddenF, University of South Carolina
Peter Stoepker, University of West Georgia
Alex Stribing, University of South Carolina
Michalis Stylianou, University of Queensland
Larissa True, New Mexico State University
Hans Van Der MarsF, Arizona State University
Baofu Wang, LSU
Glenn Weaver, University of South Carolina
Collin Webster, University of South Carolina
Sam Yli-PiipariF, University of Georgia
Hyeonho Yu, Arizona State University
Sociocultural & Social Justice
Korey Boyd, Springfield College
Erin CenteioF, The University of Hawaii at Manoa
Tara Blackshear, Towson University
Langston ClarkF, The University of Texas at San Antonio
Brian Culp, Kennesaw State University
Kathy GillF, William Paterson University
Teasha Jackson, Towson University
Dillion Landi, University of Strathclyde
Jingwen Liu, California State University, Fullerton
Carla Luguetti, Victoria University (Melbourne, AUS)
Oscar Nunez Enriquez, Universidad Autonoma de Chihuahua (Autonomous University of Chihuahua)
Jared RussellF, Auburn University
Carrie Safron, Teachers College, Columbia University
Mara Simon, Springfield College
Sharon StollF, University of Idaho
Zi YanF, Merrimack College
James ZhangF, University of Georgia
Luciana Zuest, California State University - Chico
Sport & Coaching
Lori Gano-OverwayF, James Madison University
Sara Campbell, University of Georgia
Chris Croft, University of Southern Mississippi
Sean Dahlin, Central Washington University
Clayton Kuklick, University of Denver
Erin Martin, Boise State University
Bryan McCullickF, University of Georgia
Brian McGladrey, Central Washington University
Michael Mignano, Michigan State University
Melissa Thompson, U. of Southern Mississippi
Pete Van Mullem, Lewis-Clark State College
Teaching & Learning
Dominique BanvilleF, George Mason University
Paul RukavinaF, Adelphi University
Haichun SunF, University of South Florida
Suzan AyersF, Western Michigan University
Angela Beale-T, Rowan University
Aaron Beighle, University of Kentucky
Korey Boyd, Springfield College
Mark ByraF, University of Wyoming Laramie
Weiyun ChenF, University of Michigan
Donetta CothranF, Indiana University Bloomington
Brian Culp, Kennesaw State University
Matthew Curtner-SmithF, Alabama University
Ben DysonF, University of North Carolina, Greensboro
Doug Ellison, Kent State University
Karen GaudreaultF, University of New Mexico
Rachel GurvitchF, Georgia State University
Jean Helm-Allen, University of North Alabama
Jayne JenkinsF, University of Wyoming – Laramie
Insook KimF, Kent State University
Pamela KulinnaF, Arizona State University
Tanjian Liang, Central Washington University
Risto MartinnenF, George Mason University
Bryan McCullickF, University of Georgia
Kelsey McEntyre, Tarleton State University
Kevin MercierF, Adelphi University
Kason O’Neil, East Tennessee State University
Kevin PattonF, University of California Chico
Todd Pennington, Brigham Young University
Victor Ramsey, New York City Department of Education
Jim Ressler, Northern Illinois University
Karen Richardson, Bridgewater State College
Hillary Robey, Western Washington University
Jose Santiago, Sam Houston State University
Ben Schwamberger, Minnesota State University – Mankato
Jenna Starck, University of Wisconsin – La Crosse
Julia Valley, Northeastern Illinois University
Carla VidoniF, University of Louisville
Zack Wahl-AlexanderF, Northern Illinois University
Phillip WardF, The Ohio State University
Nick Washburn, Western Washington University
Paul WrightF, Northern Illinois University
Xihe ZhuF, Old Dominion University
Wednesday, April 27, 2022, 2:00 p.m.–3:00 p.m
Current Research on Content Knowledge and Pedagogical Content Knowledge
Category: Teaching & Learning
Symposium Description: In the past decade, considerable conceptual and empirical research has been conducted focusing on content knowledge in physical education and its impact on pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). In this symposium, our presentations will address a critical review of the literature to date, an examination of professional development policies and practices for content knowledge, and two studies that unpack content knowledge and PCK for teacher education.
Extended Description: In the past decade, considerable conceptual and empirical research has been conducted focusing on content knowledge in physical education and its impact on pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). In this symposium, our presentations will address a critical review of the literature to date, an examination of professional development policies and practices for content knowledge, and two studies that unpack content knowledge and PCK for teacher education.
Presenting Author: Insook KimF
A Critical Review of Content Knowledge Research in Physical Education: Accomplishments and Challenges
Philip WardF, The Ohio State University
Analysis of Preservice Teachers’ Content Development for Teaching Individual Sports and Net/Wall Games
Peter Iserbyt, KU Leuvenven; Toon Dehandschutter, KU Leuven
Preservice Teachers’ Content Knowledge Acquisition Between Two Different Instructional Foci
Fatih Dervent, Marmara University Faculty of Sport Sciences; Erhan Devrilmez, karamanoğlu mehmetbey university; Mufide Cotuk, No
National Professional Development Policies and Practices for Content Knowledge
Insook KimF, Kent State University; Bomna KoF, East Carolina University; Daekyun Oh, The Ohio State University
Thursday, April 28, 2022, 4:30 p.m.–5:30 p.m
Conceptual Diversity of Inclusion: Surveying the Research
Category: Sociocultural & Social Justice
Symposium Description: Inclusive physical education requires teachers to embrace diversity, value learning differences and design lessons for students’ success within the gymnasium. More often, teachers perceive inclusion as a “fitting in” rather than “being a part of” the learning environment. This symposium highlights the research on student experiences in PE, the learning environment, and concludes by offering both a tool (LIRSPE), and a potential model for considering the variables for inclusion to be meaningful for all students.
Extended Description: The purpose of this symposium is to analyze research within inclusive education. Prior reviews of inclusive practices and the outcomes of recent work will be analyzed with regard to how inclusion is defined and operationalized. Our point of emphasis is that we regard inclusion as an educational philosophy on how schools and classrooms can strive towards an expression of inclusion as a translational philosophy. Several representations of inclusive education will be presented. We will summarize by identifying factors that can impact the inclusive process. We welcome audience input on professional experiences with inclusion with an eye towards appreciative inquiry in discussing what schools and educators should strive to accomplish.
Presenting Author: Michelle Grenier
Inclusive Pedagogy in Physical Education
Michelle Grenier, University of New Hampshire
Using the Inclusion Rating Scale to Implement Inclusive Practices
Lauren Lieberman, SUNY Brockport
A Conceptual Model of an Inclusive Environment’s Spillover to the Whole School
Matthew Patey, Bridgewater State University
Saturday, April 30, 2022, 8:00 a.m.–9:00 a.m
Implementing Social and Emotional Learning Across Multiple Physical Education Contexts (Part 1)
Category: Teaching & Learning
Symposium Description: The purpose of this research symposium is to present and report on the methods and experiences of Physical Education (PE) researchers and practitioners implementing Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) across pre-school, K-12, alternative education, community, and teacher-education contexts. Attendees will be provided with explanations and examples of research and pedagogical methods utilized. They will have the opportunity to consider, discuss, and formulate implications and future directions for these and additional approaches to implementing SEL.
Extended Description: Increased focus in Physical Education (PE) research has been given to how Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) theory and practices are understood and implemented in school, community, and higher education settings (Wright & Richards, 2021). Despite this focus, uncertainty still exists around exactly how SEL competencies and skills can be successfully accomplished by practitioners using instructional or pedagogical approaches representing best practice for teaching and learning in the field (Pfledderer & Brusseau, 2021; Wright, Gray, & Richards, 2021). The purpose of this research symposium is to present and report on the methods and experiences of researchers and practitioners implementing SEL across pre-school, K-12, alternative education, community, and teacher-education settings. Over the course of this symposium, attendees will be presented with contemporary examples and experiences of SEL implementation, highlighting the constraints and opportunities surrounding the growing discourse and focus on SEL in PE. They will be provided with explanations and contemporary examples of research and pedagogical methods utilized in and across these settings and potential future directions. They will have the opportunity to consider, discuss, and formulate implications for these and additional approaches to implementing SEL in a number of PE contexts. Beginning with early years, presenters will first explore and describe the relationship between preschoolers patterns of outdoor play and SEL competencies, demonstrating how key SEL competencies that are taught and modelled to children in the general classroom are practiced, developed, and even advanced through substantial unstructured outdoor play time. Next, presenters will reveal elementary PE teachers’ perspectives of teaching SEL and how the implementation of creative play and innovative pedagogical models have the potential to impact the development of positive classroom climates, schools, and communities. Moving onto high school and alternative education settings, presenters will describe how teachers and students experienced enacting pedagogies promoting SEL in PE when returning face to face for the first time during the COVID-19 pandemic, demonstrating how the enactment of democratic, reflective, and affective pedagogies allows teachers and students develop more uniform understandings and applications of SEL competencies and skills. Going beyond schools and into community settings, presenters will next explore underserved youth’s from for low-income families with multiple-race backgrounds experiences of SEL in a community-based soccer program, demonstrating how Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility (TPSR) can be a practical pedagogical model through which to promote youth SEL. Finally, teacher educators’ views of challenges and future directions of SEL in PE will be presented from an international perspective, with implications and recommendations drawn from higher education on how to enhance SEL implementation in teacher-education and school PE programs now and in the future. In considering how SEL research and pedagogy is implemented in and across these different contexts, presenters will actively engage with attendees throughout, responding to their input and collectively drawing on these combined knowledges and experiences with a view to establishing more collective and collaborative understandings and common language around approaches to SEL research and practice going forward.
Presenting Author: Ben DysonF
Social and Emotional Learning During Outdoor Play Among Preschoolers in an Early Childhood Education Center
Marcia A Rosiek, Coastal Carolina University; Ben DysonF, University of North Carolina, Greensboro
Elementary Physical Education Teachers Perspectives of Social and Emotional Learning
Ben DysonF, University of North Carolina, Greensboro; Judy Fowler, University of North Carolina-Greensboro; Seunghyun Baek, University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Enacting Social and Emotional Learning in High School Physical Education
Donal Howley, University of North Carolina Greensboro; Seunghyun Baek, University of North Carolina at Greensboro; Judy Fowler, University of North Carolina-Greensboro; Yanhua Shen, UNC Greensboro; Ben DysonF, University of North Carolina, Greensboro
Social and Emotional Learning in a Community-Based Soccer Program
Yanhua Shen, UNC Greensboro; Ben DysonF, University of North Carolina, Greensboro; Sari Rose, NC Fusion and University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Challenges and Future Directions for Social and Emotional Learning in Physical Education: International Perspectives
Seunghyun Baek, University of North Carolina at Greensboro; Ben DysonF, University of North Carolina, Greensboro
Saturday, April 30, 2022, 9:15 a.m.–10:15 a.m
Implementing Social and Emotional Learning Across Multiple Physical Education Contexts (Part 2)
Category: Teaching & Learning
Symposium Description: The purpose of this research symposium is to present and report on the methods and experiences of Physical Education (PE) researchers and practitioners implementing Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) across pre-school, K-12, alternative education, community, and teacher-education contexts. Attendees will be provided with explanations and examples of research and pedagogical methods utilized. They will have the opportunity to consider, discuss, and formulate implications and future directions for these and additional approaches to implementing SEL.
Extended Description: Increased focus in Physical Education (PE) research has been given to how Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) theory and practices are understood and implemented in school, community, and higher education settings (Wright & Richards, 2021). Despite this focus, uncertainty still exists around exactly how SEL competencies and skills can be successfully accomplished by practitioners using instructional or pedagogical approaches representing best practice for teaching and learning in the field (Pfledderer & Brusseau, 2021; Wright, Gray, & Richards, 2021). The purpose of this research symposium is to present and report on the methods and experiences of researchers and practitioners implementing SEL across pre-school, K-12, alternative education, community, and teacher-education settings. Over the course of this symposium, attendees will be presented with contemporary examples and experiences of SEL implementation, highlighting the constraints and opportunities surrounding the growing discourse and focus on SEL in PE. They will be provided with explanations and contemporary examples of research and pedagogical methods utilized in and across these settings and potential future directions. They will have the opportunity to consider, discuss, and formulate implications for these and additional approaches to implementing SEL in a number of PE contexts. Beginning with early years, presenters will first explore and describe the relationship between preschoolers patterns of outdoor play and SEL competencies, demonstrating how key SEL competencies that are taught and modelled to children in the general classroom are practiced, developed, and even advanced through substantial unstructured outdoor play time. Next, presenters will reveal elementary PE teachers’ perspectives of teaching SEL and how the implementation of creative play and innovative pedagogical models have the potential to impact the development of positive classroom climates, schools, and communities. Moving onto high school and alternative education settings, presenters will describe how teachers and students experienced enacting pedagogies promoting SEL in PE when returning face to face for the first time during the COVID-19 pandemic, demonstrating how the enactment of democratic, reflective, and affective pedagogies allows teachers and students develop more uniform understandings and applications of SEL competencies and skills. Going beyond schools and into community settings, presenters will next explore underserved youth’s from for low-income families with multiple-race backgrounds experiences of SEL in a community-based soccer program, demonstrating how Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility (TPSR) can be a practical pedagogical model through which to promote youth SEL. Finally, teacher educators’ views of challenges and future directions of SEL in PE will be presented from an international perspective, with implications and recommendations drawn from higher education on how to enhance SEL implementation in teacher-education and school PE programs now and in the future. In considering how SEL research and pedagogy is implemented in and across these different contexts, presenters will actively engage with attendees throughout, responding to their input and collectively drawing on these combined knowledges and experiences with a view to establishing more collective and collaborative understandings and common language around approaches to SEL research and practice going forward.
Presenting Author: Ben DysonF
Social and Emotional Learning During Outdoor Play Among Preschoolers in an Early Childhood Education Center (Part 2)
Marcia A Rosiek, Coastal Carolina University; Ben DysonF, University of North Carolina, Greensboro
Elementary Physical Education Teachers Perspectives of Social and Emotional Learning (Part 2)
Ben DysonF, University of North Carolina, Greensboro; Judy Fowler, University of North Carolina-Greensboro; Seunghyun Baek, University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Enacting Social and Emotional Learning in High School Physical Education (Part 2)
Donal Howley, University of North Carolina Greensboro; Seunghyun Baek, University of North Carolina at Greensboro; Judy Fowler, University of North Carolina-Greensboro; Yanhua Shen, UNC Greensboro; Ben DysonF, University of North Carolina, Greensboro
Social and Emotional Learning in a Community-Based Soccer Program (Part 2)
Yanhua Shen, UNC Greensboro; Ben DysonF, University of North Carolina, Greensboro; Sari Rose, University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Challenges and Future Directions for Social and Emotional Learning in Physical Education: International Perspectives (Part 2)
Seunghyun Baek, University of North Carolina at Greensboro; Ben DysonF, University of North Carolina, Greensboro
Information is final as of March 30, 2022. An F denotes Fellow status in SHAPE America as of December 2021.
Adapted Physical Education/Activity
Building Self-Efficacy for Inclusive Programing Through Online Training
Jill Webster Lassiter, James Madison University; Amanda L. Campbell, Bridgewater College; Andrea Taliaferro, West Virginia University; Scott Pruett, The Universal Design Project; Danette Gibbs, Thomas Moran, James Madison University
Background/Purpose: Researchers have consistently reported that instructors, staff, administrators, and leaders within physical activity programs lack knowledge and training on how to maximize participation, motivation, and safety of individuals with disabilities (Moran & Block, 2010; Moran et al., 2014; Temple & Walkley, 2007). This lack of training may contribute to low self-efficacy when working with a participant with a disability (Moran & Block, 2010; Moran, Gibbs, & Mernin, 2017), which may further compound barriers that limit participation in community-based physical activity for individuals with disabilities. The purpose of this study was to conduct a quantitative analysis of self-efficacy change after completing online training modules. The modules were designed to prepare staff and instructors in community-based PA programs to successfully work with participants with disabilities.
Method: Four online training modules were developed by the research team to provide self-paced, user-friendly instruction to community based physical activity providers and preservice physical education teachers in the following areas: addressing challenging behaviors, planning inclusive programs, modifying instruction for inclusiveness, and accessibility considerations. Participants were recruited through snowball sampling of community based physical activity providers in communities in the southeastern US, as well as through invitations from instructors of health and physical education-related majors at three colleges in the region. All participants provided consent and the project was approved by an ethics review board. Each module was designed to take approximately 45 minutes to complete and included interactive components and checks for understanding throughout. Participants completed a modified version of the Physical Educators Self-efficacy Toward Including Students with Disabilities instrument (Taliaferro, 2010) designed to measure self-efficacy toward including individuals with disabilities in community-based programs prior to starting the on-line training and at the completion of each training module.
Analysis/Results: One hundred fifty individuals took the pre-self-efficacy assessment and completed at least one module from September 2019 to December 2020. Participants’ ages (M=25, SD=8) ranged from 18-74 and years of experience working in community-based programs (M=3.91, SD=5.31) ranged from 0-27. Of these, 5% completed all four modules, 8% completed three modules, 41% completed two modules, and 46% completed one module. Preliminary results indicate that self-efficacy significantly increased from pre-training (M=76.88, SD=17.49) to post-completion of the most common module: “Modifying Instruction for Inclusion” (M=90.90, SD=9.453; t(95)=7.380, p<.001). Similar results are indicated for the other modules. Additional tests will examine differences based on number of modules completed and demographic factors that may influence self-efficacy toward including individuals with disabilities in community-based physical activity programs.
Conclusions: There is a need for accessible training for community-based wellness providers, teachers, coaches, and fitness professionals to improve their competence and confidence working with individuals with disabilities. This study examines the effectiveness of online based training. The findings will provide valuable insights into this form of training, which holds potential for extending the reach of information and self-efficacy building into many different geographic locations. Improved self-efficacy for working with individuals with disabilities will help to increase opportunities for community based physical activity and inclusive physical education programs for all individuals.
College Students’ Perceptions Toward the Importance of Physical Activity for People with Disabilities
Scott McNamara, University of New Hampshire; E. Andrew A. Pitchford, Iowa State University
Background/Purpose: It is important that individuals with disabilities engage in regular physical activity (PA) for an array of health benefits. However, there is often a lack of opportunities for this population to be physically active. Given the power that large cohorts of the population can provide to social movements and national policies, it is imperative research is conducted on the subsets of general population’s perceptions towards the importance of this issue. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine undergraduate college students’ perceptions towards the importance towards PA for people with disabilities.
Method: Undergraduate college students (n = 995) completed an online survey. Likert-type items were used to capture perceptions towards the importance of PA for people with disabilities. Respondents completed the scale twice, once with a focus on people with intellectual disabilities (ID) and then again with a focus on people with physical disabilities (PD). Both scales had acceptable internal consistency (α > 0.80). Two additional Likert-type items focused on comfortability with people with disabilities. Again, respondents completed those items twice with focus on people with ID and PD, respectively.
Analysis/Results: Descriptive statistics were analyzed for individual Likert-type items and composite scale scores. Pair-wise t-tests were used to determine the differences in college students’ perceptions towards the importance of PA and level of comfort, between persons with ID and PD. Items on importance toward PA and comfort with people with disabilities were all ranked high among college students (M>4.00). However, statistically significant differences were observed between responses related to people with ID and PD. Composite scores for the importance of PA were significantly higher for people with PD compared to people with ID (p=.006). On individual items, respondents were more likely to agree that there “should be physical activity opportunities that are exclusively for people with PD” (p<.001) and “children with PD can be successful in a physical education setting with able-bodied children” (p=.023) compared to those statements for ID. Additional items related to the “importance of PA”, “involvement in extracurricular activities”, and “success engaging in physical activities with their able-bodied peers” were not significantly different between PD and ID (p>.18). College students also reported significantly greater comfort being around people with PD compared to people with ID (p < .001).
Conclusions: It is important to understand college students’ perceptions towards the importance of PA for people with disabilities, as this population represents future professionals that may be able to advocate for the resources needed to remove the barriers often encountered for people with disabilities. Although PA perceptions and comfort with people with disabilities were ranked relatively high, additional research is needed to understand why college students generally perceive PA for individuals with ID to be less important compared to their PD peers.
Examining Adapted Physical Education Teachers’ Job Satisfaction
Minhyun Kim, Jose A Santiago, Sam Houston State University; Chan Woong Park, California State University, Sacramento
Background/Purpose: Little is known about adapted physical education (APE) teachers’ job satisfaction. Ješinová, Spurná, Kudláček, and Sklenaříková (2014) found that approximately 39% of certified APE teachers were seriously considering another job outside of APE and 26% were actively searching for another job outside APE in the last 2 years. Multiple facets, such as social agents, environment, job responsibilities, and roles, can influence the disposition of feelings, values, and perceptions of APE teachers (Park & Curtner-Smith, 2018). Additionally, the APE teacher is responsible for individualizing instruction to many students who have a wide range of disabilities. Evidence indicates that APE teachers have an average weekly caseload of 50.5 students (Obrusnikova & Kelly, 2009). Given these differences in the expectations and workplace experiences, it is important to understand how APE teachers feel and derive satisfaction from their job.
Method: The participants in the present study consisted of three male and nine female APE teachers from the south region of the United States Years of teaching experience ranged from 3 to 43 years (M = 18 years, SD = 13.3). All of the participants taught in both inclusive and self-contained environment settings, and all but two of the participants taught kindergarten through 12th grade.
Analysis/Results: Eleven of the participants were formally interviewed over the telephone, and one participant was interviewed face-to-face. Demographic data, including gender, age, and years of teaching experience, were collected at the beginning of the interview. The interviews ranged from 42 to 70 min. A semistructured interview guide was employed. Thematic analysis was employed to analyze the interview data (Braun & Clark, 2006; Nowell, Norris, White, & Moules, 2017). Thematic analysis is a method of identifying, organizing, describing, and reporting themes found within a data set (Nowell et al., 2017). Trustworthiness of the data was established by member check. Upon transcription, each individual transcript was sent to each participant for review. The participants were asked to ensure the accuracy of the interview content and provide additional thoughts or information (Guba & Lincoln, 1989).
The results of the present study reported that the participants of this study expressed job satisfaction as an APE teacher. The following four major themes emerged from the data analysis: (a) support from administrators, PE teachers, and colleagues; (b) relevant and meaningful professional development; (c) itinerant working condition; and (d) seeing students’ progress and achievement.
Conclusions: The findings of the current study revealed that most of the participants were satisfied while teaching APE programs and working with students with disabilities. The results of this study provide several implications for school administrators and GPE teachers. Directors of special education and principals should create desirable working conditions to enhance APE teachers’ job satisfaction by providing better scheduling, access to facilities, and financial support. A collaborative environment should be created between APE teacher and GPE teachers. Both need opportunities to meet regularly and to share ideas and resources to instruct students with disabilities effectively.
Exploring Beliefs About Physical Activity Among Adults With Visual Impairments
T Nicole Kirk, University of Georgia; Justin A. HaegeleF, Old Dominion University
Background/Purpose: The current body of literature indicates that individuals with visual impairments tend not to engage in sufficient amounts of habitual physical activity. While some scholars have studied psychosocial factors related to physical activity for this population, research aimed at exploring the relationship between beliefs about physical activity and ongoing physical activity engagement. Situated within the theory of planned behavior, the purpose of this study was to examine beliefs about physical activity, intentions to be physically active, and physical activity engagement among individuals with visual impairments.
Method: Using theory of planned behavior as a theoretical foundation, this study employed a qualitative descriptive methodological approach. Eleven adults (aged 19-49; six men and five women) participated in this study. Prior to completing semi-structured phone interviews and post-interview written reflections, participants self-reported their physical activity using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ-SF) to determine whether they met physical activity recommendations. Of those selected for inclusion in the study, six participants (four men and two women) reported engaging in physical activity that met or exceeded CDC recommendations. The interview guide was composed of questions designed to explore constructs of theory of planned behavior including intentions to be active, attitudes toward physical activity, perceived behavioral control over activity, and subjective normative beliefs (i.e., social support) regarding physical activity engagement.
Analysis/Results: Transcribed interviews, post-interview reflections, and associated interview notes were analyzed by the first author using a five-step thematic analysis process. Following initial data analysis, the first author and second author met to discuss and refine the emergent themes. Once consensus was reached, the final themes were presented as findings.
Thematic analysis yielded three interrelated themes. The first theme, “My life is about planning,” pertained to the importance of scheduling opportunities for physical activity. The second theme, “You don’t have to be in a gym to be active” related to feelings of control over physical activity. The final theme, “If I didn’t have support from my family with being physically active, I think it would be okay,” referred to participants’ complex feelings about the role of social support on their physical activity choices.
Conclusions: The findings of this study offer some support for the use of theory of planned behavior as a means of understanding decisions to engage in physical activity among adults with visual impairments. However, participants’ beliefs about physical activity were nuanced and may not be entirely understood using the model. Therefore, additional research is needed to better investigate the suitability of theory of planned behavior to understand the physical activity engagement of adults with visual impairments.
Exploring Mothers’ Perceptions of an Inclusive Dance Program: A Case Study
Alyssa Spruill, Autism Society of North Carolina; Jihoun An, Bomna KoF, East Carolina University
Background/Purpose: Dance affords many benefits to children. It allows children to explore the environment through movement (Koff, 2012), to develop skills in flexibility, strength, and coordination (Tunur et al., 2017), to provide opportunities to participate in physical activity and a means for self-expression (Dow, 2010). Furthermore, adapted or inclusive dance programs (e.g., wheelchair dance) may reduce societal prejudice toward people with disabilities (Hall, 2018). This qualitative case study explored the influence of an inclusive dance program [‘Dance-Ability’] on children with disabilities from the mothers’ perspectives. Specifically, we focused on describing the benefits to their children, the challenges the mothers encountered, and the roles mothers played for their children. DanceAbility is a dance method found by Alito Alessi and Karen Nelson in 1987, employing “improvisational dance to promote artistic expression and exploration between people with and without disabilities” (DanceAbility International, 2021). The socio-ecological model (Stokols, 1995) provided a conceptual framework to interpret the findings of this inquiry.
Method: Using a qualitative case study inquiry (Baxter & Jack, 2008), multiple data sources (interview, field notes, and photos) were gathered to explore the perceptions of three mothers of children with disabilities (age 7 to 10) who participated in the Dance-Ability program for the past three years. Children’s diagnoses were Baraitser-Winters Syndrome, Down syndrome and Leukemia, and Lymphatic malformation. The first author conducted a semi-structured, one-on-one interview (50-70 min.) virtually using Zoom due to the COVID-19 pandemic. All mothers filled out the consent form and demographic questionnaire electronically before the interview. She also recorded field notes after each interview and weekly dance session and collected photos taken during their participation. The criteria we applied to judge the quality of research were credibility (triangulation, member checking, and prolong engagement), reflexivity (field notes), and resonance (thick description)(Tracy, 2010; Zitomer & Goodwin, 2014).
Analysis/Results: An inductive thematic analysis was used to make sense of the collected data (Braun & Clarke, 2006). The initial codes are classified into categories and then searching for the preliminary themes through sorting the categories with the mothers’ narratives (Boyatzis, 1998; Stake, 2010). Preliminary themes are increased socialization and self-confidence, opportunity to feel normal, bring awareness to the community, being out of balance due to COVID-19, being a supporter, and ensuring my child’s engagement.
Conclusions: Overall, the mothers positively perceived their experiences in the Dance-Ability program. It enabled their children to participate in the recreational activity and improve development physically, socially, and emotionally. In addition, because the program was provided in an inclusive nature, it allowed them to be accepted as who they were and treated as normal. Mothers also felt the community supported them.
Physical Fitness and Adults With Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities: A Mixed Methods Analysis on the Effects of an Adapted Fitness Program
Andrew M. Colombo-DougovitoF, Melissa Savage, Ana West, University of North Texas
Background/Purpose: While physical fitness is an important part of a healthy lifestyle, adults with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD) often do not engage in recommended levels of physical fitness compared to adults without IDD. Given demonstrated health concerns, individuals with IDD require equal opportunity to take part in fitness programs within their communities. Yet, for this to happen, fitness professionals need to be prepared and comfortable working with diverse clients, including those with disabilities. However, little is known about their competency. Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine a fitness program for individuals with IDD to understand the programmatic impact on physical fitness, and to explore the affective influence of the program and the role of the instructor.
Method: Using a sequential explanatory mixed methods design, this study was complete in two distinct phases. During the first phase, authors retrospectively analyzed a longitudinal quantitative dataset of fitness performance data from 50 adults with IDD that was collected over an 18 month period. Every three months the, (a) gait test, (b) stork balance test, (c) push up test, (d) sit up test, and (e) 1-mile run were measured. Additionally, the follow anthropomorphic data were collected: (a) body mass index (BMI); (b) visceral adipose tissue; and (c) muscle mass. A repeated measures analysis was used to understand group differences over time. In the second phase, two congruent qualitative data strands were used to “explain” the quantitative findings: (1) a case-study of a fitness instructor for adults with IDD; and (2) field observations of fitness classes for adults with IDD. All qualitative data were transcribed and coded thematically.
Analysis/Results: Quantitatively, significant changes were not found for any of the included fitness or anthropomorphic variables over an 18-month span. Qualitative data show the fitness instructor used a myriad of foundational pedagogical strategies to engage with clients, including motivational techniques, adapting activities for individual needs, and developing a sense of community among the participants.
Conclusions: Contrary to earlier findings linking physical activity to improvements in balance and muscle strength, this analysis found no significant quantitative changes as a result of participating in a regular fitness program for a year or more. Though not preferable, the lack of change may prove a net positive considering that, though individuals did not improve in strength or BMI, they also did not regress (i.e., lose strength or increase body fatness). Keeping one’s health as individuals get older is vital to combat many of the negative side effects of aging. More so, the observed fitness classes were found to share commonly an engaging, communal setting and were structured to provide as many opportunities for success as possible. These findings suggest that fitness classes with a quality instructor that can provide a positive environment for adults with IDD that may prove beneficial to the maintenance of the present standard of health.
Preservice Teachers’ Experiences in Dance-Adapted Physical Education Practicum
Bomna KoF, Boni Boswell, East Carolina University; Seok Yoon, Chowan University; Yun Soo Lee, Dankook University
Background/Purpose: Adapted physical education (APE) practicum opportunities and experiences in physical education teacher education (PETE) programs are essential to prepare teachers for teaching students with disabilities (Standal & Rugseth, 2014; Taliaferro & Bulger, 2020). Given the common requirement of one 3-credit APE course during PETE programs, researchers proposed diverse recommendations for the practicum experiences including multiple practicum opportunities throughout PETE program (Hodge et al., 2002; Sato et al., 2015) and direct hands-on experiences working with students with disabilities (Sato et al., 2015). However, limited research has focused on the impact of dance practicum experiences with students with disabilities in early stages of PETE programs. Therefore, this study explored preservice teachers’ experiences and learning from off-campus dance practicums.
Method: This qualitative study was designed to “describe the meaning for several individuals of their lived experiences of” (Creswell, 2007, p. 57). Participant preservice teachers (N=31) enrolled in dance content course within early stages of a PETE program engaged in a 6 weeks off-campus dance practicum with middle school students with disabilities. Practicum content consisted of pattern dances (e.g., social dances, line dances, folk dances) and creative educational dance that were aligned with coursework of the dance course. Semi-structure group interviews were collected prior to and after the practicum, audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. Data were analyzed using the content analysis and constant comparative analysis. Credibility and trustworthiness were examined through triangulation and peer review and debriefing.
Analysis/Results: The majority of participants addressed their limited knowledge of disabilities and lack of experiences of teaching students with disabilities and dance prior to the practicum experiences. From data collected prior to and after the dance practicum, four themes emerged which highlighted shifts in perceptions: 1) opening-minds to students with disabilities, 2) adapting teaching for individual student with disabilities, 3) challenging but fun to dance, and 4) building rapport.
Conclusions: In the dance practicums with students with disabilities, participants’ experiences were challenging but positive, overall. Participants expressed positive shift in their perception toward students with disabilities and teaching them in schools through interacting and building friendship with them. They learned how to adapt teaching strategies based on characteristics of individual students with disabilities. The conclusion of the study was that school-based practicum experiences with students with disabilities and diverse content are necessary in the early stages of PETE programs. In addition, this study strongly supports the infusion curricular approach to reinforce integration of pedagogy for teaching students with disabilities throughout PETE program (Hodge, Davis, Woodard, and Sherrill, 2002).
Promoting Positive Trajectories of Health Among Children on the Autism Spectrum, as Well as Their Caregivers
Leah R. Ketcheson, Wayne State University; E. Andrew A. Pitchford, Iowa State University; Franzi Loetzner, Wayne State University
Background/Purpose: Over the past two decades, rates of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have increased 150%. While developmental deficits typically present in social engagement, evidence now suggests that children with ASD also experience significant health disparities. By early childhood, children with ASD are 40% more likely than their neurotypical peers to be overweight or obese. A key contributor to the presence of this health disparity is the lack of accessible health promotion programs. One potential solution is to increase the accessibility of health promotion programming through a telehealth platform. Virtual and remote programs are cost-effective and reduce burdens of participant time, need for facility space, and lack of trained professionals. Therefore, the current objective of PLANE (Physical Literacy and Nutrition Education), a virtual health promotion intervention, is to determine the fidelity of participation in a long-term telehealth intervention for children on the autism spectrum and their caregivers. The fidelity of intervention delivery was evaluation with attendance and engagement in PLANE activities each week.
Method: The PLANE intervention is a 12-month longitudinal study; however, the data presented here are preliminary feasibility from the first 30-weeks of the program.. 38 families, including children on the autism spectrum aged 2 – 18 (79% male, Mage = 8.36) and their primary caregivers (97% female, Mage = 40.11) met with coaches two times per week for live synchronous physical activity and nutrition education programming, including grocery pick up. Additionally, all families participated in goal setting and goal reporting survey each week.
Analysis/Results: Participation in the three components of PLANE were coded dichotomously each week and summarized with descriptive statistics (M, SD, range). Chi-square analyses were used to examine the relationship between weekly attendance and meeting weekly goals. Engagement in PLANE over the first 30-weeks of the intervention was high. Children on the autism spectrum participated in 80.81% (SD = 9.39%) of virtual physical activity and nutrition sessions, with weekly totals ranging from 65.78% to 100%. Families also attended 82.19% (SD = 9.91%; range = 65.78%-100%) of grocery pick-ups. Meeting weekly goals was lower with a success rate of 69.03% (SD = 15.66%) and ranged widely from 26.32% to 90.63% across weeks. Interestingly, families that were absent from weekly virtual programming were significantly more likely to meet their weekly goal (78.52%) compared to families that attended (68.73%; odds ratio = 0.60 [95% confidence interval = 0.39-0.93], p = .022). This relationship could indicate that the goal setting component of PLANE is providing independent opportunity and motivation to engage in physical activity outside of the programming. An alternative explanation is that families struggling to attend weekly sessions also had easier weekly goals to meet.
Conclusions: Understanding the feasibility of program implementation provides important evidence of the scalability of the intervention for public dissemination. In the first 30-weeks of PLANE, engagement has been high. Longitudinal analyses of both program outcome and feasibility data are needed for a deeper understanding of potential barriers and facilitators to virtual telehealth interventions for families who have a child on the autism spectrum.
School Administrators’ Role in the Marginalization of Adapted Physical Educators
Scott McNamara, University of New Hampshire; K. Andrew R. RichardsF, Alyssa Trad, Sarena Abdallah, Lauren Hill, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Background/Purpose: The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (2004) specifies that students with disabilities are entitled to specially designed physical education, also known as adapted physical education (APE), when appropriate to meet the student’s unique needs. APE teachers are tasked with helping to develop individualized education plans and tailoring instruction to meet students with disabilities’ unique needs to successfully access the physical education curriculum (Winnick & Porretta, 2016). While preliminary research has indicated that APE teachers often encounter barriers and feelings of being marginalized by their peers and administrators (e.g., Bittner et al., 2020; Lieberman & Houston-Wilson, 2011), little research has examined how specific obstacles and relationships may factor into these barriers. While traditional focused on the experiences of general physical educators, occupational socialization theory (Lawson, 1983a, 1983b) has been used more recently to understand the influence of prior and current socialization on APE teachers sense of identity and experiences in the workplace (Holland & Haegele, 2020; Wilson & Richards, 2020). Given the role that school administrators play in setting the tone for how physical education is viewed in school environments (Richards, 2015), they believed to be a particularly important agent of socialization (McNamara et al., 2020). Accordingly, the purpose of this study was to examine the role that school principals play in framing APE teachers work life experiences.
Method: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 24 APE teachers from California about their relationship with their school principal(s). The majority of these teachers identified as female (70.8%), white (70.8%), and had attained their Master’s degree (66.7%). The interview guide was guided by the occupational socialization theory.
Analysis/Results: A collaborative approach to qualitative data analysis (Richards & Hemphill, 2018) was used and indicated that school administrators play important roles in shaping the socialization experiences of APE teachers. Specific themes included: (a) APE teachers are socialized to be marginal and expected to settle for inconsistent support, (b) negative impressions of general physical education lead to a similar outlook on APE, (c) school principals focus on compliance with mandates over quality practice in APE, and (d) APE support is dependent on principal effort, and many do not feel comfortable in the gym.
Conclusions: The results of this study highlight the role that school administrators play in the ongoing socialization of in-service APE teachers. For many APE teachers, an unfortunate part of their professional journey is expecting and preparing to be marginalized (Wilson & Richards, 2020). Indeed, the findings from this study suggest that this marginalization can be directed and reinforced by school principals and includes the lack of importance placed on physical education, lack of interactions between APE teachers and school principals, and school principals often caring primarily about meeting the minimum requirements of special education laws with regards to APE. Although these findings shed light on the complex, and often absent, relationship between APE teachers and their administrators, to fully understand the dynamics of these relationships additional research should focus on school principals’ interactions and perceptions towards APE teachers.
Was Oliver Right? Do University Instructors Support Physical Disability Inclusion?
Aubrey Hope Shaw, Sharon Kay StollF, University of Idaho; Jennifer M Beller, Washington State University and St. Mary’s Parish School
Background/Purpose: The United States has three laws meant to push for inclusion of people with physical disabilities in society. Forty-eight years later, to what extent have inclusion practices really improved for persons with physical disabilities in sport, recreation, and physical education? Some, such as researchers Michael Oliver and Anne-Mette Bredahl, argue that an inherent bias may exist against persons with physical disabilities and therefore question whether able-bodied people should teach and research in disability studies.
Given Oliver and Bredahl’s concerns, the purpose of this study was to examine the impact of a disabilities’ awareness intervention program on preservice teachers’ perspectives about people with physical disabilities being included in the physical education, recreation, and sport settings.
Method: Five teachers in three different institutions agreed to incorporate the “perspective-taking” online lessons into their courses. All enthusiastically agreed to encourage participation by their preservice teachers/professionals and to monitor and encourage the participants to complete the pre-test, online lessons, and posttest or the control posttest. The lead researcher (a person with a physical disability) contacted each teacher multiple times to help encourage the teacher-class participation. The intervention was six different perspective taking lessons focused on improving preservice teachers’ judgments about including students with physical disabilities. The lessons were developed using a valid/ reliable, established higher order reasoning protocol. Preliminary face validity was established with three experts in moral reasoning. Correlation validity was established against other intervention pedagogy that had been found to be reliable. The assessment used for pre, and posttest was the “Physical educators’ judgments about inclusion: A new instrument for preservice teachers’ judgments about inclusion” which shows reliability/validity: Cronbach alpha .84 -.86. Between the instructors there were 250 preservice teachers/professionals (215 intervention; 35 controls).
Analysis/Results: Of the 250 possible participants, a total of 41 (16.4%) preservice teachers/professionals participated across the five instructors. The total number of participants completing the lessons and the pre and posttests, from the five instructors were: control n=0; Instructor 1: n=28; Instructor 2 n=5; Instructor 3 n=8; Instructor 4 n=0. Because zero controls and a low number completing intervention, analysis could not be conducted.
Conclusions: Even with consistent and constant monitoring by the lead researcher plus curriculum and pedagogical ideas to encourage participation by preservice teachers/professionals, the instructors (all able-bodied) did not follow their own commitment and failed to respond to emails and phone messages about their students’ participation. Neither did the instructors monitor their own students’ progress. Oliver stated that individuals who teach and research in physical disability areas are predominately able-bodied, and much of that research is biased because of the bodied-ness of the researchers. This study seems to confirm Oliver’s research – little effort and thus value was given towards the preservice student participation in the reliable, valid program towards improving perspective-taking and inclusion of students with physical disabilities. Perhaps abled bodied university instructors lack commitment to inclusion and, as Bredahl stated, appear uninspired to involve their own students in an inclusion intervention.
Measurement & Evaluation
Association Between Competency and First-Year Employment: A Comparison Study
YuChun Chen, Brian Myers, Keri A. Esslinger, Western Kentucky University
Background/Purpose: According to SHAPE America (2017), preservice teachers (PTs) are expected to obtain the minimal competencies in six areas; five of these areas are closely related to the content knowledge (CK) and pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). The purpose of the study was to (a) compare PTs’ CK, PCK, and first-year employment between two PETE programs, and (b) examine the association between competency and first-year employment as PE teachers at K–12 school settings.
Method: The sample included 111 PTs who completed their undergraduate degrees between 2015 and 2020. Sixty-eight PTs graduated from PETE Program A at a southeastern university, while the other 43 grdauted from PETE Program B at a southern university in the United States. CK in Kinesiology subdisciplines was evaluated by the GPA in six Kinesiology content area courses. CK and skillfulness in sports/physical acticities were evaluated by the GPA in two teacher-education activity classes. PCK was evaluated by the GPA in 10 teacher-edu courses and student-teaching. Lastly, their first-year employment was collected via emails and phone calls.
Analysis/Results: GPAs were calculated by dividing the total amount of grade points earned (A = 4, B = 3, C = 2, D = 1) by the total amount of credit hours attempted. Whether or not obtaining a PE teaching position as their first-year employment was marked as “yes” or “no.” Descriptive statistics were conducted to report the means, standard deviations, frequencies and percentages. A multiple logistic regression was calculated to predict particpants’ job attainment in PE based on the three GPAs. Overall, the participants had the highest GPA in PCK (3.63 ± .31), followed by CK and skillfulness in sports/physical activities (3.61 ± .50) and CK in Kinesiology subdisciplines (3.26 ± .45). Individually, participants from Program B had significantly higher GPAs in CK and skillfulness in sports/physical activities (3.79 ± .37) and PCK (3.73 ± .26) than those from Program A (3.49 ± .54 and 3.57 ± .32, respectively). As for job attainment, 36 (83.7% within the program) of the participants from Program B were hired as PE teachers at K–12 settings, while only 26 (38.2%) from Program A attained a PE teaching position upon graduation. Lastly, the participants’ CK in Kinesiology subdisciplines (β= .37, p < .05) appeared to have a significant effect on their first-year employment as PE teachers. However, none of the variables showed statistical significance in the resulting models when anlyzing the numbers between the two PETE programs.
Conclusions: It is beneficial for PETE faculty to know how well their PTs are trained comparing to others from different PETE programs. The results can help PETE faulcty communicate with each other and better prepare beginning teachers. One direction for future research would be a qualitative study conducted with school administrators on the hiring process; this line of research could help explain the job attainment in PE between states and explore what school personnel are looking for when seeking new teachers. Another direction would be to expand the sample size by including multiple PETE programs from different regions of the country.
Cross-Validation and Modifications of the Perceived Mattering Questionnaire—Physical Education in Chinese Inservice Physical Education Teachers
Xiaofen D. KeatingF, The University of Texas at Austin; Shuhua Qu, Beijing Sport University; Xin Zhang, Nanjing university of aeronautics and astronautics; Dwan Bridges, Cal state LA; Xiaolu Liu, Eastern New Mexico University; Jingwen Liu, California State University, Fullerton
Background/Purpose: Although marginalization and perceived mattering in the field of physical education (PE) have been an important research topic, no significant progress has been made until valid and reliable instruments became available due to the lack of measurable data. The Perceived Mattering Questionnaire - Physical Education (PMQ-PE) developed by Richards et al. (2017) provided us with a means for quantitatively measure perceived mattering. The PMQ-PE consisted of two domains (i.e., PE matter and PE teacher matter) with four items in each domain, measuring four dimensions (attention, importance, dependence, and ego-extension). This study aimed to provide evidence of validity and reliability for the Perceived Mattering Questionnaire- Physical Education (PMQ-PE) developed by Richards et al. (2017) in the Chinese population (PMQ-PEC).
Method: Full-time K–12 PE teachers (N = 1278) from all provinces, autonomous regions, and municipalities except Taiwan in China participated in the study. The sample was randomly divided into two sub-samples with one for exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and the other for confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), respectively. Each sample had 58.8-59.2% of secondary PE teachers and 68-72% of males. The mean age was 35.5 (SD=8.4). The PMQ-PE was translated into Chinese and five China-born American professors in the department of Kinesiology validated the translation.
Analysis/Results: CFA was first performed using 1278 participants and model fit was not acceptable. Then EFA was run to test the structure of the PMQ-PEC using one sub-sample. CFA was then employed to investigate the construct validity. The commonly used CFA indices such as the comparative fit index (CFI), the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI), the goodness of fit index (GFI), standardized root mean square residual (SRMR), and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) were used to assess the fit of the data to the model. The EFA results indicated there was only one factor in PMQ-PEC while the CFA results suggested that the data from the study did not fit the original model proposed by Richards et al. (2017), resulting in the elimination of two items in the domain of PE matter. As a result, the respecified PMQ-PEC achieved a good model fit for the data (CFI = .97; TLI = .95; GFI = .98; SRMR = .03; RMSEA = .08). G-C alphas was then computed to test the reliability. The value of alpha was acceptable (alpha = .89).
Conclusions: The final version of PMQ-PEC included six items loading on a single factor. The fitness of the data to the measurement model was improved and deemed acceptable among Chinese PE teachers after the above modifications were made. More studies on the reliability and validity of the PMQ-PE in different countries are needed in order to use the scale with more confidence in the future.
Developing a Fitness Surveillance System: Teachers Experiences With Training and Implementation
Christopher Barton Merica, Cate A. Egan, Seth Rose, Andy Martin, David R Paul, Chantal A Vella, University of Idaho; College of Education, Health, and Human Sciences
Background/Purpose: Nationally, 19% of school-aged youth are classified as obese and Idaho has the 35th highest obesity rate for youth aged 10 to 17 years. Achieving high levels of fitness reduces the risk of obesity and related underlying health conditions. To better understand youth obesity trends and fitness levels, annual fitness testing (i.e., surveillance) is recommended. In Idaho, 80% of K–12 schools report conducting some form of fitness testing. However, there is no standardized fitness testing used, nor a reporting system in place across the state. This study is part of a larger study to train physical education teachers via distance technology to conduct standardized fitness testing (i.e., FitnessGram), establish a fitness surveillance system, and determine the prevalence of obesity and fitness levels of northern Idaho youth. In this study, physical education teachers’ perceptions of the FitnessGram training, implementation, and thoughts about moving forward with fitness surveillance are shared.
Method: A convenience sample of physical education teachers (N=13; n=4 male) were recruited from 11 schools. Teachers were trained via distance technology to conduct FitnessGram, completed a content knowledge exam, and were checked for reliability prior to collecting student fitness data. Teachers were also provided the equipment necessary to conduct fitness testing (e.g., blue tooth speaker, cones, scale). Data collection for this study included two semi-structured interviews with each teacher. The first interview (N=13; M=12 minutes) occurred post FitnessGram training and pre-implementation to understand the teachers’ training experiences. The second interview (N=13; M=16 minutes) was conducted after FitnessGram implementation to investigate teacher experiences with fitness testing and thoughts moving forward with annual surveillance.
Analysis/Results: Interviews were transcribed verbatim, pseudonyms were assigned, and inductive analysis using axial and open coding was used to determine: (a) physical education teachers’ prior experiences with fitness testing and the current study’s FitnessGram training, and (b) physical education teachers’ experiences implementing the FitnessGram during this study. During data analysis, initial codes were revealed, which lead to categories and eventually three themes emerged: (a) Prior Experiences, (b) Grant Training, and (c) Implementation. Our data indicate most teachers had no formal fitness testing training prior to this study. The teachers had previously conducted fitness testing; however, testing was limited due to available time, equipment, and/or prior training received. Teachers believed the FitnessGram training they received from this study prepared them to collect reliable and valid student fitness data. In addition, teachers reported several successes during implementation (e.g., feelings of accomplishment, reporting accurate data), and communicated several benefits to fitness testing for their students and physical education programs (e.g., student and program growth). Ultimately, every teacher expressed interest in reporting student data for annual fitness surveillance based upon their experiences with the FitnessGram training, equipment provided, and success from implementation.
Conclusions: Our data suggest physical education teachers have an interest in fitness testing but lack the requisite training and equipment needed to implement annually. Efforts to train physical educators for fitness testing via distance technology may be a viable option to establish a unified youth fitness surveillance system.
Development of a Resistance Training Content Knowledge Assessment for Physical Educators
David BellarF, University of North Carolina at Charlotte; Ben D. Kern, University of Wyoming; Larry JudgeF, Ball State University
Background/Purpose: Physical education teachers are often required or encouraged to work with students and/or athletes using resistance exercise. However, most physical education teacher education (PETE) programs offer limited instruction in resistance exercise techniques, and their safe performance/implementation as part of a program of exercise. As a result, many physical educators lack adequate content knowledge for effective instruction in this area, and currently there are no acceptable content knowledge assessments that have been statistically validated and exist in brief format. The purpose of this study, therefore, was to develop a valid and reliable short instrument that would assess physical education teachers’ knowledge about resistance exercise.
Method: The survey was initially developed using a combination of exam practice questions provided by a national association for strength and conditioning professionals and questions with a history of significant usage in college courses. Following this initial construction, the survey was sent for review to a panel of experts that included certified strength and conditioning professionals, higher education faculty members with experience teaching resistance training courses, and physical education teachers familiar with sport conditioning. After revisions, the survey consisted of 30 multiple choice items that were then entered into an online survey platform and distributed via anonymous link to undergraduate and graduate students in a University Department of Kinesiology using an advising email list. Subsequently, the overall survey and items were examined for internal consistency as well as factor structure.
Analysis/Results: In total 88 complete responses were recorded. The average score on the unmodified survey was 54.8% correct. Items were then examined using JASP (version 13.1) to examine internal consistency and factor structure. Initial analysis using maximum likelihood estimation and varimax rotation resulted in a significant model (chi squared2(106)=458.4, p=0.034) with one factor (eigenvalue = 3.59) that explained 12 percent of variance and included 11 of the 30 items. Overall MSA was 0.521 with KMO statistics for the items ranged from 0.274 to 0.739. A second analysis was performed with all items removed that lacked adequate sampling adequacy (KMO<0.5) and had a point biserial correlation of less than 0.2. This analysis included 24 of the original 30 items and again resulted in a significant model (chi squared2 (90)=521.7, p<0.001) with one factor (eigenvalue = 10.94) that explained 46 percent of the variance. Overall MSA was 0.706 with KMO statistics for items in this model ranged from 0.838 to 0.953. Internal consistency reliability for this set of items was evaluated through Cronbach’s alpha and a high values were noted (a= 0.951). Average performance on the 24-item assessment was 63.8% correct.
Conclusions: It is important to have a valid measure of physical education teachers’ content knowledge regarding resistance exercise techniques and safe/effective instructional practices in order to provide guidance to PETE program curriculum design. As a result of this research, a valid 24 item assessment of resistance training knowledge for physical education teachers is now available, and because of validity and reliability testing is appropriate for use in both research and practice.
Development of the Career Decision Self-Efficacy Measurement Scale (CDSEMS) for Physical Education College Students
Sae-Hyung Kim, Chungbuk National University; Dongwook Cho, Alcorn State University
Background/Purpose: Many college students are worried about their uncertain future and how future career decision can affect their life after graduation. More specifically, college students majoring in physical education are more serious on career decision. In Korea, many PE college students’ desired job is K–12 teacher but there are limited number of appoints for employment. Also, it takes a lot of time and efforts to prepare the examination for the license of PE teacher. As such, it can be the most important choice of a lifetime for PE college students. However, there has been no instrument to measure self-efficacy on PE college students’ career decision. Furthermore, the purpose of this study was to develop the career decision self-efficacy measurement scale (CDSEMS) for PE college students by using Rasch rating scale model (RSM). The Rasch RSM calibration was applied to examine following: (1) rating scale fit, (2) unidimensionality, (3) differential item functioning (DIF), and (4) item fit.
Method: Based on the literature review and consultation of content and measurement experts, the 20 items with 4-point rating scale CDSEMS was generated. The CDSEMS was administered to 495 Korean college students majoring in physical education. Rasch measurement computer program, Winsteps 5.0.1 was used to analyze the data. (1) The rating scale fit was determined by Andrich threshold index that increased step by step. (2) The unidimensionality of scale was determined by item separation index (≥2.00) and item reliability index (≥0.80). (3) The DIF was applied to examine the variation between gender by using DIF size index fit statistics (≥0.43). (4) Item fit was determined by Infit and Outfit index fit statistics (≥0.60 and ≤1.40).
Analysis/Results: The results indicated that the 4-point rating scale was appropriated to utilize for the CDSEMS by verifying that Andrich threshold index was increased step by step (-0.44<-0.28<0.72). The result of unidimensionality test revealed that item separation index was 11.35 and item reliability index was 0.99 which provided evidence of unidimensionality. Also, the finding from this study examined four items (item5, item16, item17, item20) were selected as the DIF between gender, and four items (item4, item7, item13, item17) had over standard item fit. Therefore, the seven items (item4, item5, item7, item13, item16, item17, item20) were eliminated from final estimation. Thus, 13 items were finally selected as the CDSEMS for PE college students.
Conclusions: Based on the results of Rasch RSM calibration, this study suggests 13 item and 4-point rating scale of the CDSEMS for college students majoring in physical education. This CDSEMS can be utilized to assess the career confidence and provide psychological health information to PE college students. In addition, the newly constructed the CDSEMS for college students majoring in physical education should be validated to another sample to increase external validity.
In-Service Physical Education Teacher Perceptions of Assessment Practices
Kason O’Neil, LeAnn E. Olson, East Tennessee State University; Kristen Morgan, Southeastern Louisiana University; Robert John Doan, Charleston Southern University; Jennifer N. O’Neil, East Tennessee State University
Background/Purpose: Hay and Penney (2013) define teacher assessment literacy as “the development of knowledge and capacities to implement assessment and interpret the outcomes of assessment in a manner that is critically aware and that optimizes the value of assessment for all students” (p. 74). Knowing that quality assessment of and for learning in physical education has rapidly become a major emphasis in the field (e.g., assessment literacy), the purpose of this study was to evaluate in-service teacher’s perspectives on assessment in physical education. We were particularly interested in physical educators’ perspectives on assessment techniques and how they currently integrate formal and informal assessment in their physical education classroom.
Method: The study staff contacted the Executive Directors for each of the 50 states in the US and requested that they distribute an invitation to participate (recruitment email and survey link) to their current state members. Participants for this study were adults who were currently teaching K–12 physical educators in the US. The survey content consisted of demographic data (number of years teaching, level of teaching, teacher prep program state, etc.) and data on current assessment practices in the fitness, psychomotor, cognitive, affective domains, and what methods are used for assessment (e.g., criterion-referenced tests, rubrics, checklists, portfolios, tests, quizes, etc.). The last part of the survey asked participants about their perceived barriers to conducting assessments in physical education.
Analysis/Results: A total of 223 in-service physical educators participated in the study (65% female-35% male, 24.0 average years of teaching) representing 20 US states. For fitness, 31.3% of teachers reported using FITNESSGRAM, while 21.8% of teachers only had students self-assess for fitness. Teachers reported that for the psychomotor domain 26.5% used visual observation, 19.1% used rubrics, and 16.5% use in-game tactical assessments. The cognitive and affective domains showed inconsistent assessment practices with the highest cognitive assessment being verbal checking for understanding (22.4%), and the highest affective assessment being visual observation of behavior (30.4%). Interestingly, teachers rated that they are quite confident in their abilities to assess students in physical education, yet they overwhelming reported that lack of time and large class sizes being major barriers to quality assessment.
Conclusions: The physical educators in this study reported a high rate of confidence in their assessment abilities, but struggle to perform quality assessment due to numerous barriers, such as large class size and lack of time. Unfortunately, even at the highest percentages, only 30-35% of instructors are using assessment practices that is linked to student learning and development.
Looking at the Whole Child Through Student Health Profiles: A Latent Class Analysis of CDC 2019 National Youth Risk Behavior Survey Data
Tiana Yom, Northeastern University
Background/Purpose: The purpose of this research is to discover the extent to which there is a typology of students’ health risk behaviors and to what extent are those typologies associated with academic achievement using the 2019 national Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS) dataset. This is a secondary data analysis study using a national representative sample (n=11,410) of high school students, grades 9 to 12, in the United States. YRBS is a national school-based, paper-based 99- item survey used to assess 121 health-related behaviors among all high school students in the United States and is biennially conducted by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2020).
Method: While research efforts on health and academic achievement is vastly growing, there is a limited number of studies that are analyzing multiple health-risk behaviors concurrently as well as exploring their potential impacts on educational outcomes. Furthermore, previous studies have utilized cluster and/ or factor analyses. However, this statistical approach will show how students are clustered into groups and does not provide information such as the probability that a given student is bullied or suicidal. A 3-step Latent Class Analysis (LCA) was conducted to identify and understand the various profiles of students who experienced and/ or were exposed to certain health-risk behaviors. The health-risk behaviors of interest, the latent variables, were school-related violence, physical activity, screen time, and sleep.
Analysis/Results: Using LCA, results show that there are four significantly different typologies, or profiles, of student health-risk behaviors: Level 1 The Most Support Needed (TMSN), Level 2 Suicide Prevention Needed (SPN), Level 3 Coping Mechanism for Bullying Needed (CMBN), Level 4 Least Support Needed (LSN). In tandem, contextual factors such as age, sex, grade level, race and ethnicity were significantly associated with the odds of belonging to some of the groups.
Conclusions: This study is connected to longer-term work. Implications of these groupings on school policies, student health outcomes, and building a school-based coordinated health system will be discussed.
Predicting Body Mass for Lower Limb Amputee Women
Marcio Fernando Tasinafo, Leonardo Santos Lopes Silva, Pedro Pugliesi Abdalla, André Pereira dos Santos, Jessica Fernanda Corrêa Cordeiro, Ana Claudia Rossini Venturini, Universidade de São Paulo; Anderson dos Santos Carvalho, Universidade Paulista - UNIP; Nilo C. Ramos, Coastal Carolina University; Dalmo Roberto Lopes Machado, Universidade de São Paulo
Background/Purpose: Body mass (BM) is clinical measurement use to determine nutritional status (Mozumdar and Roy, 2004) and drug administration. While BM can be easily and accurately measured in able-bodied subjects, it requires specific strategies for measuring BM of people with lower limb amputation (Mozumdar and Roy, 2004). For example, special scales can be expensive, making their applicability unfeasible (Lefebvre and Chevan, 2011). Anthropometric equations are a reliable alternative, however, only models for obese, specific populations (i.e., Thai) and older adults were found (Crandal, Gardner and Braude, 2009; Chittawatanarat et al., 2012). Thus, the aim of this study was to propose anthropometric models to predict BM in Brazilian women with different levels of lower limb amputation.
Method: In this study, 279 women (ages 6-85 years) were classified by the level of amputation/disarticulation (n=9), from the Osterkamp’s (1995) reference: unilateral hip disarticulation (HD); unilateral knee disarticulation (KD), unilateral ankle disarticulation (AD); unilateral HD with KD; unilateral HD with AD; unilateral KD with AD, bilateral HD; bilateral KD; and bilateral AD. Each BM-level-dependent amputation was predicted (response variable) by stepwise linear regression, while body circumferences (BC) and age (years) were considered as predictor variables.
Analysis/Results: The most accurate models (r2), with fewer prediction errors (SEE) for each amputation-level were: unilateral HD (-39.98 + 0.614 * Hip BC + 0.314 * Waist BC + -0.068 * Age + 0.396 * Right Arm BC; r2=0.92, SEE=3.5); unilateral KD (-44.77 + 0.688 * Hip BC + 0.352 * Waist BC + -0.076 * Age + 0.442 * Right Arm BC; r2=0.92, SEE=4.0); unilateral AD (-46.87 + 0.720 * Hip BC + 0.368 * Waist BC + -0.079 * Age + 0.465 * Right Arm BC; r2=0.92, SEE=4.1); unilateral HD with unilateral KD (-37.20 + 0.571 * Hip BC + 0.292 * Waist BC + -0.063 * Age + 0.368 * Right Arm BC; r2=0.92, SEE=3.3); unilateral HD with unilateral AD (-39.23 + 0.602 * Hip BC + 0.308 * Waist BC + -0.066 * Age + 0.390 * Right Arm BC; r2=0.92, SEE=3.5); unilateral KD with unilateral AD (-44.06 + 0.677 * Hip BC + 0.345 * Waist BC + -0.074 * Age + 0.438 * Right Arm BC; r2=0.92, SEE=3.9); bilateral HD (-32.35 + 0.497 * Hip BC + 0.254 * Waist BC + -0.055 * Age + 0.319 * Right Arm BC; r2=0.92, SEE=2.9); bilateral KD (-42.00 + 0.645 * Hip BC + 0.330 * Waist BC + -0.071 * Age + 0.416 * Right Arm BC; r2=0.92, SEE=3.7); and bilateral AD (-46.18 +0.709 * Hip BC + 0.363 * Waist BC + -0.078 * Age +0.458 * Right Arm BC; r2=0.92, SEE= 4.1).
Conclusions: The models generated to predict BM of amputee women are diversified, accurate and easy to apply clinically. They can be feasible, low-cost alternatives to help health professionals to predict BM when a special scale is not available.
Research on the Construction and Application of the Evaluation Index System of Chinese Physical Education Teachers’ Ethics and Style
Haohui Liu, Zhihua Yin, Hengxing Tian, Xue Wan, East China Normal University
Background/Purpose: In recent years, China has promulgated a number of important documents, emphasizing ethics and style as the first standard for evaluating physical education teachers. This study reviews the research results of the construction of teachers’ ethics and style in China, and points out that there is a big gap in the research of Chinese physical education teachers’ ethics and style(CPETES). The purpose of this study is to construct the evaluation index system of CPETES, and put forward application suggestions, so as to provide theoretical support for the evaluation of CPETES.
Method: By analyzing the important documents issued by the state through the method of literature, the ‘evaluation index framework of CPETES’ was preliminarily constructed. 15 experts from education development center, colleges and universities, primary and secondary schools were investigated by Delphi method for two rounds and expert ranking method for one round. Using the method of logical analysis, this paper puts forward some suggestions on the four levels of government, school, physical education teachers and students.
Analysis/Results: Eight first-level indicators were constructed, including ‘political direction, patriotism and law-abiding, caring for students, words and deeds, teaching and educating people, scientific research, integrity and self-discipline, and serving the society’. 42 second-level indicators were constructed, including ‘violating the core values of socialism with Chinese characteristics and the party’s political principles and basic line’, ‘colluding with foreign forces to obtain relevant information of Chinese school sports in violation of regulations’, ‘abusive criticism in case of mistakes and failures in student sports’, ‘having improper relations with students or molesting and sexually harassing students’, ‘taking a perfunctory and coping attitude towards the school physical education work undertaken’, ‘plagiarizing physical education scientific research papers or counterfeiting and other phenomena contrary to academic ethics’. The weights of each first-level indicator are 18.1%, 19.1%, 16.2%, 11.1%, 16.3%, 7.2% and 9.1%.
Conclusions: The research shows that there are obvious differences in the weight of each index in the evaluation index system of CPETES, which can be divided into three echelons: teachers’ belief, teaching practice and value output. It is proposed that the government should improve the framework of physical education teacher education standards; Schools should pay attention to the diversified characteristics of physical education teachers’ ethics and style; Physical education teachers should consciously improve their personal cultivation, teachers’ moral level and code of conduct in teaching practice; Students should give full play to their right of supervision.
Trend Analysis of Physical Activity Measurement Research Using Text Mining
Kwanghee Lee, Minsoo KangF, The University of Mississippi
Background/Purpose: Physical activity measurement research has evolved over the last several decades with advances in technology. Text mining is linguistics, AI, and statistics-based application, which enables researchers to discover, organize, and anticipate patterns and relationships from textual information. This technique can be utilized to identify the change in research trends. The purpose of this study was to comprehend the trend of physical activity measurement research by using text mining.
Method: PubMed was used to obtain research information on title, keyword, and publication year. A total of 3647 publications from 1946 to 2020 were collected with the following search terms: physical activity, measurement, assessment, accelerometer, Actigraph, questionnaire, report, validity, validation, reliability, and monitoring. These search terms were selected after the frequency analysis of keywords from 960 studies that had physical activity assessment and measurement in their titles. Among the 50 most frequent keywords, words were included in the search terms when they were related to the physical activity assessment and measurement. After unifying similar words, removing unnecessary words, and extracting nouns, a frequency analysis of the words from titles and keywords was performed. To examine the research trends over time, the raw frequency of each word was calculated for the entire sample. The relative frequency percentage of each word was also calculated by the publication year (four 10-year intervals: 1981-1990, 1991-2000, 2001-2010, and 2011-2020). TF-IDF (Term Frequency - Inverse Document Frequency) of words were calculated by 10-year intervals to measure the importance of a given keyword to each interval. All analyses were performed using R software (version: 4.0.5).
Analysis/Results: A total of 866 nouns were extracted and used for the analysis. From 1946 to 2020, the words with the highest frequency were physical activity (1161), validity (582), assessment (368), report (246), and reliability (219). Physical activity, assessment, and validity were the most frequent words across all 10-year intervals. The relative frequency percentage of accelerometer has continuously increased in the recent 10-year intervals (1981-1990: 1.12%, 1991-2000: 0.97%, 2001-2010: 1.79%, 2011-2020: 2.61%), the relative frequency percentage of questionnaire has decreased over time (1981-1990: 1.68%, 1991-2000: 2.73%, 2001-2010: 1.86%, 2011-2020: 1.16%). Energy and expenditure showed a decreasing trend similar to questionnaire. Pedometer was found in the top 10 most frequent words from 2001-2010 to 2011-2020. TF-IDF analysis showed that pedometer had the highest values in 2001-2010 (0.018) and 2011-2020 (0.009). Technology-related words such as smartphone (0.003), Fitbit (0.003), and web (0.003) have appeared to show relatively higher TF-IDF in the 2011-2020 interval.
Conclusions: Text mining can be useful for evaluating physical activity measurement research trends. There has been a gradual increase in physical activity measurement research related to objective measurement tools (pedometer and accelerometer), yet the physical activity measurement research dealing with subjective measurement tools, such as questionnaire, has been a decline. Physical activity measurement research is expected to change with the advances in technology.
Trend Analysis of Scholarly Research in RQES Using Topic Modeling
SeungBak Lee, THE UNIVERSITY OF MISSISSIPPI; Minsoo KangF, The University of Mississippi; Jae Hyeon Park, korea national sports university
Background/Purpose: An analysis of research trends is useful for evaluating the research topics over a period of time, identifying research gaps, and detecting potentially promising research areas. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport (RQES) is a prominent journal that has been published since 1930 and focuses on scientific research related to exercise and sport. Little is known, however, about research trends using the published studies in RQES since 1930. Therefore, the purpose of this study was, applying topic modeling, to explore the research topics of RQES using the article titles from 1930 to 2021.
Method: To analyze RQES research trends, 13,277 titles and years were collected from Taylor and Francis Online from 1930 to Vol.92(2) in 2021. First, article titles with Preface, Correction, Editors Viewpoint, etc. (n = 83) were excluded from the data set, and a total of 13,194 articles were selected for the analysis. To increase the accuracy of analysis, text data were preprocessed with tokenization and stop-words. Tokenization was performed to extract nouns and stop-words was utilized to exclude unnecessary words. In addition, different words with the same meanings were converted into the same words. The analysis methods included text frequency analysis, LDA topic modeling, and correlation analysis (Spearman rho) based on a significance level of .05. Data collection and analysis were conducted using Python (version 3.8) and SPSS (version 25.0).
Analysis/Results: First, frequency analysis was conducted to verify keywords for the entire data. The total number of words and unique words derived from the studies were identified as 51,341 and 5,147, respectively. The top five keywords were physical activity (1,733), sport (1,338), student (1,329), school (1,329), and youth (1,027). Second, the result of LDA topic modeling indicated 10 topics; ‘Sport Performance’, ‘Motor Behavior’, ‘Exercise and Fitness’, ‘Measurement and Evaluation’, ‘Student Academic Performance’, ‘Physical Activity’, ‘Psychology’, ‘Health Promotion’, and ‘Community Health Promotion.’ Finally, each topic ratio was calculated by year. After which, the correlation analysis between years and topic ratios was conducted. The following correlations were considered statistically significant: Exercise and Fitness (rho=-.667, p=.049), Student Academic Performance (rho=.750, p=.020), and Psychology (rho=-.833, p=.005). In addition, years were divided into nine phases (i.e., 10-year interval), and the topic ratios were calculated by each phase. Exercise and Fitness’s share per period was 13.5%, 18.3%, 11.9%, 10.1%, 8.5%, 9.7%, 8.9%, 10.7%, 9.1%. Student Academic Performance’s share per period was 5.9%, 4.8%, 5.1%, 7.3%, 9.4%, 5.9%, 7.4%, 8.0%, 8.9%. Psychology’s share per period was 9.9%, 12.1%, 13.9%, 10.8%, 7.1%, 6.4%, 7.7%, 5.8%, 5.2%.
Conclusions: Topics related to Exercise and Fitness and Psychology decreased over time while topics of Student Academic Performance increased over the years. The analysis of research trends, using topic modeling, can be a useful way to overcome the limitations of content analysis especially in when using large amounts of data.
Motivation & Psychology
AGT, Fear of Failure, and Anxiety in Collegiate Soccer Players
Timothy Michael Dasinger, University of Tennessee-Martin
Background/Purpose: For athletic success, it is vital that athletes not only possess the physical skills but also the mental belief of attainment. One way to conceptualize athletes’ objectives is through Achievement Goal Theory (AGT; Nicholls, 1984). Adopting various goals typically results in varying outcomes. For example, embracing avoidance-framed goals have been found to result in higher levels of anxiety (Elliot, 2005). Coaches can also influence anxiety levels in athletes; based on Ames’s (1992) framework, perceiving a performance climate is associated with higher prevalence of anxiety (Harwood et al., 2015). Anxiety is common in sport and can lead to performance deteriorations at elevated levels. One known source of anxiety is a lack of perceived competence (Dasinger & Solmon, 2021). This low level of perceived ability can usually be attributed to a fear of failure. The purpose of this study was to investigate goal orientations, perceived climate, anxiety levels and corresponding fear of failure in collegiate female soccer players.
Method: Twenty-four (Mage= 20.83 ± 1.11) female varsity soccer players from a university in rural Southeastern United States were recruited for this study. The participants completed the Sport Anxiety Scale-2, the 2x2 Achievement Goals Questionnaire-Sport, the Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire-2, the Performance Failure Appraisal Inventory, and Intrinsic Motivation Inventory halfway through the season, after a motivational climate was implemented.
Analysis/Results: Bivariate correlations revealed significant relationships between anxiety and mastery-avoidance goals (r=.67), competence and anxiety prevalence (r=-.49) as well as competence and concentration disruption (r=-.50) and competence and somatic anxiety (r=-.51). Fear of failure was also significantly related to anxiety at a significant level (r=.61). The avoidance-framed goal orientations, competence, and fear of failure were used to predict anxiety in a regression analysis. The results of this evaluation (R2= .83; F (4,20) =8.74, p<.01) showed that mastery-avoidance goals (ß=.53, p=.01) and fear of failure (ß=.42, p=.02) were significant predictors of anxiety.
Conclusions: The purpose of this study was to examine tenets of AGT, anxiety, and fear of failure in varsity soccer players. Based on the results of the statistics, players adopting mastery-avoidance goals were most likely to experience low competence and high levels of anxiety; this is similar to previous findings (Dasinger & Solmon, 2021). These goals may be due to self-handicapping and can increase worry, distraction, and muscle tension and lead to worsened performance. To help alleviate this, coaches should promote individually-referenced goals that are focused on self-improvement and tailor feedback based on previous performance and not normative comparisons. Additionally, mimicking game-like scenarios in practice can help athletes become more comfortable with high pressure situations. Future research should emphasize qualitative methods and interventions focused on alleviating self-doubt and increasing competence.
An Emerging Social Status: Single-Serve Premium Juice Consumption
Rob HardinF, Michelle Childs, University of Tennessee; Gi-Yong Koo, Kwangho Park, Troy University
Background/Purpose: Food consumption choices can be driven by the perceived social status items possess. A Starbucks coffee may be perceived as communicating social status, and single-serve premium juices have emerged as a status symbol as well. Consumers may be motivated to consume single-serve premium juices for health-related factors, but it is plausible that the premium price and juice trend may encourage its consumption due to its status-laden symbolism.
The drive to enhance one’s social standing is perhaps one of the strongest motivations that shapes consumers’ behavior. Grounded in Veblen’s theory of conspicuous consumption, consumers attempt to signal their status and prestige through purchasing and displaying products that are associated with social status. Consumers are willing to pay a higher price for status-laden items, beyond equivalence in product function due to their signaling value. Signaling theory posits consumers’ use their behavior and status-laden items to signal to others and achieve a higher social status. Both Veblen’s theory of conspicuous consumption and signaling theory describe that consumers may alter their fundamental behavior and purchasing practices in order to showcase their social standing.
Impulse buying is associated with symbolic or status-laden products that express meaning of one’s self-identity. Impulse buying is the sudden and immediate unplanned purchase of a product. Expressions such as “retail therapy” describe the action of purchasing products to relieve stress and make oneself feel happier. Negative moods, such as stress related to college endeavors, are associated with retail therapy and impulsive shopping. College students are susceptible to impulsive buying behaviors as a way to regulate their mood.
Thus, this study examined the motivational factors for premium single-serve juice consumption among college students with a particular focus on the role of social status. The impact of impulsive buying behavior in relation to those motivations was also explored.
Method: Data were collected at a large university in the Southeastern United States using an online questionnaire. The questionnaire measured motivations for consumption and impulsive buying habits. E-mails requesting participation was sent to several instructors across the university asking them to distribute the invitation to their students. The result was 242 usable responses.
Analysis/Results: Four motivations for premium single-serve juice consumption emerged from the data analysis: (a) peer influence, (b) personal preference, (c) social status, and (d) health benefits. Low impulsive buyers were also more motivated by social status than high impulsive buyers.
Conclusions: A key finding to this study is emergence of social status as a motivational factor of consumption of premium single-served juices. The influence of social status on consumption has mainly focused on luxury items rather than consumable products. Findings from this study contribute to Veblen’s theory of conspicuous consumption, demonstrating that consumer motivation for status consumption occurs even for relatively lower cost and consumable products. Peer influence and social status do play in the consumption habits of college students. Health educators should be aware of this and the role impulse buying behavior plays in consumption choices. Messages can appeal to these motivations and assist in educating this population on heathy food choices.
Anxiety, Depression, and Sleep Quality Among College Students
Michele Marenus, Andy Murray, Haley Ottensoser, Ana Cahuas, Kathryn Friedman, Varun Kumaravel, Weiyun ChenF, University of Michigan
Background/Purpose: This study aimed to determine the extent to which anxiety and depression were associated with sleep quality in college students, and if there were gender differences in the three variables among college student during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Method: The participants were 1292 undergraduate and graduate students (Meanage=21.5 years, SD=2.6 years); 67.4% female, 30.9% male, 1.7% gender not specified). Participants anonymously completed a Qualtrics survey including the Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale (GAD-7), the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), and the Sleep Assessment Questionnaire.
Analysis/Results: The results of multiple linear regression models indicated that higher anxiety and depression significantly predicted lower sleep quality (F=161.23, p=.000), accounting for 35.3% of the total variance. Further, the results of ANCOVA revealed that the poor sleep quality group scored significantly higher than the high sleep quality group in anxiety (F=117.59, p=.000) and depression (F=188.72, p=.000) while controlling for gender. Concerning gender differences, the Welch’s t-tests indicated that the female participants scored significantly higher than the male participants in anxiety (t=-8.57, df= 787.83, p=.000), depression (t=-6.78, df=784.9, p=.000) and poor sleep quality (t=-7.23, df= 775.92, p=.000).
Conclusions: College students with higher levels of anxiety and depression symptoms had lower levels of sleep quality compared to students with lower levels of anxiety and depression symptoms. Females showed significantly higher levels of depression and anxiety, and lower quality of sleep than males. This study is one of the first to explore US college student depression, anxiety, and sleep quality relationships in a mid-pandemic environment.
Athletic Identity: How Do You Identify?
Derek W. Elton, University of Nebraska-Kearney; James W Ball, Northeastern Illinois University; Matthew R. Bice, University of Nebraska Kearney; Rick Gage, Marshall University; Thomas Orr, University of Nebraska – Kearney
Background/Purpose: Even though partaking in regular physical activity (PA) can result in health benefits, many individuals fail to meet the minimum recommendations to improve health. Still, many gaps exist explaining potential influencing factors of adulthood PA. The term athlete can be confusing and loaded with stereotypes; however, the term has become increasingly popular as adults attempt to rekindle physical fitness. Identifying oneself as an athlete can play an important role in how you see yourself and not a mentality reserved for elite competitors. The purpose of this study was to examine athletic identity and perceived need satisfaction (motivation) among a convenience sample of college students at a public university in the Midwest to identify contributing factors to adulthood PA behaviors.
Method: A total of 343 undergraduate students at a midsized Midwest university completed an online survey including past sport participation and primary physical activities in both high school and during college. A cross-sectional census research design was used examing the variables: (a) the International Physical Activity Questionnaire, (b) The Motives for Physical Activities Measures, and (c) The Athletic Identification Questionnaire. Self-determination theory guided the selection of the research questions and measured variables. All measured scales have been validated and found to be a reliable source in similar populations. Correlations and ANOVA/MANOVA analyses were used to assess associations and variable differences. Data were analyzed using SPSS v22 and deemed significant at p < 0.05 (IRB #011720).
Analysis/Results: An exploratory approach was used to examine Athletic Identity (Appearance, Importance, Competence, Encouragement) and Motivation (Competence, Autonomy, Relatedness) among participants and participant demographics. A significant relationship was found between total Athletic Identity rating and total Motivation ratings (r = 0.831, p = 0.001) among participants when grouped together. Moreover, participants who had high ratings in athletic identity competence yielded high rating of motivation competency (r = 0.779, p = 0.001). Comparing gender differences, males (n = 118) rated motivation competency (PNS) significantly higher (µ = 28.55) compared to females (n = 225; µ = 27.18) suggesting differences in perceived need satisfaction (motivation) and further potential implications to adult PA behaviors. Participants who competed in collegiate sports reported to have significantly higher ratings of athletic identity (F = 8.18, p= 0.004), which is not surprising; however, the presentation will further explore how these differences connect with and contribute to physical activity behaviors.
Conclusions: Both physical education teachers and coaches play a vital role in how people identify and could play an important role in adulthood health behaviors. Athlete identification can be used as a crucial tool in understanding how young adults identify. Leveraging identity to impact health behaviors could have a direct impact in predicting future health behaviors. College campuses accommodate young adults through the offerings of intramurals, but more needs to be done as the terminology of athlete has broadened (i.e. types of activity opportunities). Information from this study will provide insight to how students identify, and strategies high school and college/university physical education teachers can deploy to help build lifelong health-promoting behaviors.
Attitudes in Physical Activity and Physical Education: Moderated Mediation Analysis
Kelly L. Simonton, University of Wyoming; Kevin J. MercierF, Adelphi University; Alex C. GarnF, Louisiana State University; Erin CenteioF, University of Hawaii at Manoa; Jeanne Barcelona, Wayne State University
Background/Purpose: In recent years, schools have taken on greater responsibility to combat inadequate physical activity (PA) behaviors. Therefore, school contexts including Physical Education (PE) play a greater role in shaping PA attitudes, intentions, and behaviors. PA attitudes are important given the array of choices and opportunities youth have to be active. The onset of Comprehensive School Physical Activity Programs (CSPAP) has prompted researchers to investigate the contributions of attitudes toward PA that are not specific to PE, sport, or exercise/fitness. Grounded in the Theory of Planned Behavior, the purpose of this study was to investigate the mediated relationship between PA (positive/negative) and PE attitudes to PA behaviors via intention, while testing gender as a moderator.
Method: Middle school students (N= 948; 53% Male) from the US (6th= 27%; 7th= 38%; 8th= 34%) completed the survey assessing their PA attitudes (positive/negative; Simonton et al., 2021), PE attitudes (Mercier et al., 2017), PA intention (Hagger et al., 2005), and self-reported PA using the youth risk behavior survey item (CDC, 2012).
Analysis/Results: Path analysis mediation (model 1) and multi-group moderated mediation (model 2= freely estimated; model 3= restricted comparison) were used to test relations between PA and PE attitudes (IVs) to intention (mediator), to PA behavior (DVs), by gender (moderator in multi-group models). Results for path model 1 showed good fit (χ2 (3) = 43.928, CFI=.986, RMSEA=.120, SRMR= .054). Both positive PA attitude (β= .417) and PE attitude (β= .119) were significant predictors of intention, while intention was a predictor of PA behavior (β= .503). Indirect relations suggested mediation from positive PA attitudes to PA behavior via intention (β= .210). Approximately, 26% and 25% of variance accounted for in intention and behavior. In comparing multi-group model 1 (freely estimated) and multi-group model 2 (equality constraints) for moderation, model 1 (χ2 (6) = 32.834, CFI=.954, RMSEA=.098, SRMR= .054) was a better statistical fit then model 2 (χ2 (10) = 42.534, CFI=.944, RMSEA=.084, SRMR= .060), suggesting gender as moderator. Both male (β= .503) and female (β= .148) models showed significant findings for positive PA to intention, whereas the female model showed PE attitude predicting intention (β= .160). Indirect relations were found for positive PA attitude to behavior in male (β= .246) and female (β= .164) models. Significant indirect relations from PE attitude to PA behavior via intention found for females (β= .075). R-square estimates by gender for intention (male = 26%, female = 29%) and PA behavior (male= 25%, female = 22%) suggested meaningful variance was explained in the models.
Conclusions: Results suggest that while positive PA attitude, negative PA attitude, and PE attitude are related, they are also distinct. Acknowledging these three attitudes are separate components is essential when evaluating the impact of PE and CSPAPs contribution for PA intention and behavior. Positive PA attitudes (not tied to PE, sport, or fitness) was the biggest contributor. However, it appears that PE attitudes may be more important, especially for females. Interventions in PE and CSPAP need to target attitudes of females in a meaningful way.
Cognitive-Affective Attitudinal Structures and Their Influences on Intention-Behavior Relation
Yubing Wang, University of Wisconsin-Whitewater; Pan Li, Yaogang Han, Binn Zhang, Shanghai University of Sport
Background/Purpose: Most previous studies investigating people’s attitude toward physical activity (PA) focused on the affective and cognitive attitude individually. Few studies examined people’s attitudinal structure toward PA. Studies have shown that people tend to have different feelings (affective attitude) and beliefs (cognitive attitude) on doing PA, especially on moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA, Wang & Hollett, 2021). Many people may hold mixed/ambivalent feelings and beliefs on doing PA. For example, some people may think that doing PA is beneficial for health (positive cognitive attitude), but at the same time feel that doing PA is boring and painful (negative affective attitude). The first purpose of this study was to determine people’s cognitive-affective attitudinal structures. Specifically, this question was addressed: How many students were holding each of the different cognitive-affective attitudinal structures?
The intention-behavior gap is an important theoretical concern in theory of planned behavior. Many scholars have made efforts from many different perspectives to fill the gap. Sheeran and Conner (2017) propose that motivational coherence moderates the intention-behavior relationship. They defined motivational coherence as the degree to which the factors that determine a person’s action all favor the same course of action. The more coherent of these factors, the larger the relationship between intention and behavior. Based on this theory, it is reasonable to hypothesize that people with ambivalent affective-cognitive attitude (e.g., people simultaneously holding positive cognitive attitude and negative affective attitude) would have lower intention-behavior relation than people with univalent affective-cognitive attitude (e.g., people simultaneously holding positive cognitive and positive affective attitude). The second purpose of this study was to examine this hypothesis.
Method: A total of 2100 colleges students participated in this study. Their cognitive and affective attitude were measured using validated 7-point semantic differential scales. Their intention and leisure-time MVPA were measured using validated self-report instruments. To address first research question, affective and cognitive attitude scores that were lower than 3.999 was categorized as negative, higher than 4.001 as positive, between 3.999 and 4.001 as neutral. Cross tabulation was used to determine the percentage of people in different affective-cognitive attitude structures. For the second question, regression analyses with intention as independent variable and MVPA as dependent variable were conducted for each structure group which had a size of larger than 26 (because of power analysis).
Analysis/Results: Results showed that 1.38% (n=29) students held Negative Cognitive (NC)-Negative Affective (NA) structure, .10% (n=2) NC-Positive Affective (PA), 12.76% (n=268) Positive Cognitive (PC)-NA, 79.71% (n=1674) PC-PA, .29% (N=6) NC-Neutral Affective (NeA), 3.76% (n=79) PC-NeA, .95% (n=20) Neutral Cognitive (NeC)-NA, .29% (N=6) NeC-PA, and .76% (n=16) NeC-NeA. Regression analyses showed that students with the highest ambivalent structure (i.e., PC-NA) had the lowest intention-behavior relation (β= .35, p<.01); students with univalent structure (i.e., NC-NA, PC-PA) had the highest intention-behavior relations (β= .57 and .45, respectively, p<.01).
Conclusions: About 80% undergraduate students hold univalent PC-PA structure. About 13% students hold ambivalent affective and cognitive attitudes toward MVPA. The motivational coherence theory about the intention-behavior relationship is supported by the findings.
Effects of Ambivalent Attitude on Overall Attitude and Physical Activity
Yubing Wang, Tyler Schmidt, Erin Lawler, University of Wisconsin-Whitewater
Background/Purpose: People tend to have different feelings and beliefs on doing physical activity (PA), especially on doing moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA, Wang & Hollett, 2021). Many people hold mixed/ambivalent feelings and beliefs on doing PA. For example, some people may think that doing PA is beneficial for their health, but at the same time feel that doing PA is boring and painful. Some other people may believe that doing PA helps prevent many diseases, but also think it costs too much time and effort. Some scholars suggest that people with ambivalent attitude toward an object tend to have lower attitude strength for than object. The first purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which people’s ambivalent attitude toward MVPA influence their overall attitude toward MVPA. Since the theory of planned behavior propose that attitude impacts on behavior through influencing the intention. We propose that ambivalent attitude would influence behavior and its influence would be mediated by overall attitude strength and intention. Therefore, the second purpose of this study was to confirm this mediated pathway of people’ ambivalent attitude toward MVPA on their MVPA behavior. In summary, the following research questions were examined in this study (a) to what extent did high-school students’ ambivalent attitude toward leisure-time MVPA influence their overall attitude toward leisure-time MVPA? (b) To what extent did high-school students’ ambivalent attitude influence their leisure-time MVPA behavior? (c) To what extent did high-school students’ ambivalent attitude impact on their leisure-time MVPA behavior through influencing overall attitude and intention?
Method: A total of 81 high-school students participated in this study. Consistent with prior studies their ambivalent attitude, overall attitude, intention, and leisure-time MVPA were measured using validated self-report instruments. Two regression analyses and one serial mediation analysis using Haye’s PROCESS program were conducted to answer the three research questions.
Analysis/Results: The regression analyses showed that students’ ambivalence attitude significantly predicted their overall attitude toward leisure-time MVPA (F=7.15, p<.01, R2=.08, β= -.29, p<.01) and their leisure-time MVPA behavior (F=4.05, p=.048, R2=.05, β= -.22, p=.048), which suggests that the lower students hold mixed feelings on MVPA, the more positive their overall attitude toward MVPA and the higher their leisure-time MVPA level. The mediation analysis showed that only this mediated pathway, ambivalent attitude–>overall attitude–>intention–>MVPA, was significant (indirect effect= -.09, BootLLCI= -.18, BootULCI= -.02). The direct effect and other mediated pathways were all non-significant.
Conclusions: High-school students’ mixed feelings/beliefs on doing MVPA during leisure time influenced their overall attitude toward leisure-time MVPA and their leisure-time MVPA behavior. The higher they hold mixed feelings/beliefs, the lower their overall attitude and behavior. The effects of this ambivalent attitude on leisure-time MVPA were mediated by their overall attitude and intention to do MVPA during leisure time. These findings imply that to change students’ PA behavior, instead of only focusing on cognitive and affective attitude individually, the structure of students’ attitude toward PA should also be considered.
Effects of Attitude on Habit of Doing Moderate-to-Vigorous Physical Activity
Yubing Wang, Erin Lawler, Tyler Schmidt, University of Wisconsin-Whitewater
Background/Purpose: One primary goal of physical education (PE) is to help students develop physically active lifestyle (SHAPE America, 2014), which, in essence, is to help students develop a lifelong habit of doing physical activity (PA). The habit of doing PA is not just about the frequency or amount of PA that people do, but, more important, about the automaticity and unconsciousness of doing PA regularly. Traditionally, most studies about the determinants of PA and PA behavior change were focused on the frequency or amount of PA, not the automaticity the automaticity and unconsciousness of doing PA regularly (i.e., PA Habit). To achieve the above goal of PE, it is important to understand the determinants of PA habit. This study was focusing on the relationship between attitude and habit. Specifically, we first examined the effects of affective and cognitive attitude on MVPA habit. Secondly, people tend to have different feelings and beliefs on doing physical activity (PA), especially on doing MVPA. Many people hold mixed/ambivalent feelings and beliefs on doing PA. For example, some people may think that doing PA is beneficial for their health, but at the same time also feel that doing PA is boring and painful. Studies have shown that ambivalent attitude influences PA behavior. It is still unclear about its effect on PA habit. The second purpose of this study was to examine the effects of high-school students’ ambivalent attitude on their MVPA habit. In summary, the following research questions were addressed: (a)To what extent did high-school students’ affective and cognitive attitude influence their MVPA habit? (b) To what extent did high-school students’ ambivalent attitude influence their MVPA habit?
Method: A total of 79 high-school students participated in this study. Their affective and cognitive attitude were measured using 7-point semantic differential scales. Ambivalent attitude was measured using three validated items. MVPA habit was measured using the Self-Report Behavioral Automaticity Index scale. Two regression analyses were conducted to answer the research questions.
Analysis/Results: The regression analyses showed that students’ affective and cognitive attitude toward MVPA accounted for 27.8% variance of their MVPA habit (F=14.25, p<.01, R2=.278), with affective attitude significantly influencing MVPA habit (β= -.56, p<.01) and cognitive attitude didn’t (β= -.06, p=.60). Students’ ambivalent attitude toward MVPA explained 5.1% variance of MVPA habit (F=4.16, p=.045, β= -.23, p=.045).
Conclusions: High-school students’ affective attitude significantly predicted MVPA habit, while cognitive attitude didn’t. This suggest that to help students develop MVPA habit, we should pay more attention to students’ affective attitude toward MVPA comparing to cognitive attitude. In addition, high-school students’ ambivalent attitude also significantly predicted their MVPA habit. The higher students held mixed feeling/ambivalent attitude toward MVPA, the lower level of their automaticity of their MVPA behavior. This finding suggests that to help students develop PA habit, in addition to paying attention to the strength of individual attitudinal components (affective and cognitive attitude) we should also consider the structure of their attitude (e.g., are the valence of students’ cognitive and affective attitude consistent with each other?).
Expanding the Discrete Emotions in Physical Scale: Testing Outcome-Related Emotions and Moderation
Kelly L. Simonton, University of Wyoming; Alex C. GarnF, Louisiana State University; Kevin J. MercierF, Adelphi University
Background/Purpose: Students’ affective experiences in Physical Education (PE) represent a vital domain to understanding student motivation and achievement. Specifically, research on discrete emotions of students has evolved as a helpful tool for distinguishing individual student experiences tied to learning and behavior. Overall, however, measurement and empirical evidence of these emotions has been limited, specifically in recognizing the extrinsically driven emotions that influence actions. The purpose of the current study was to expand the Discrete Emotions in Physical Scale (DEPES; Simonton et al., 2018) to test three extrinsically driven outcome-related emotions (pride, shame, relief). Emotions were regressed on one behavior and one learning goal to test validity. Multi-group models were employed to test for moderation.
Method: Middle school students (N= 495; 53% Male) from the US (6th= 41%; 7th= 34%; 8th= 25%) completed the survey on: a) the expanded DEPES (pride, shame, relief), b) disruptive behavior (Midgley et al., 2000), and c) a basic skill knowledge variable using the declarative knowledge subcomponent of the metacognitive knowledge in PE tool (Theodosiou & Papaioannou, 2006). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), structural equation modeling (SEM) and multi-group analysis were used to evaluate factor structure and variable relationships.
Analysis/Results: CFA model fit was acceptable (χ2 (51) = 169.937, CFI=.947, RMSEA=.069, SRMR= .055) and confirmed the factor structure of the six emotions. SEM model with outcome variables showed good fit (χ2 (220) = 592.464, CFI=.998, RMSEA=.058, SRMR= .045). Of the newly added outcome emotions only relief (β= .079) predicted disruptive behavior whereas pride (β= .570) and relief (β= -.102) predicted declarative knowledge. Shame was not predictive of either. Approximately, 11% and 36% of variance was accounted for in behavior and knowledge, respectively. In comparing multi-group model 1 (freely estimated) and multi-group model 2 (equality constraints) for moderation, model 1 (χ2 458) = 903.416, CFI=.964, RMSEA=.063, SRMR= .055) was a better fit 2 (χ2 (468) = 1171.354, CFI=.943, RMSEA=.078, SRMR= .150), suggesting gender as a moderator. Both male (β= -.426) and female (β= -.426) models found pride as a significant predictor of declarative knowledge. The male model showed no additional significant relationships. The female model also showed relief as both a predictor of declarative knowledge (β= -.117) and disruptive behavior (β= .154). R-square estimates by gender for disruptive behavior (male = 10%, female = 17%) and declarative knowledge (male= 43%, female = 35%).
Conclusions: Expanding our ability to measure several discrete emotions is needed for nuance and diversity in understanding motivation further. Specifically, acknowledging that several outcome-related (extrinsic) emotions are tied to PE learning experiences will expand the ability to describe future actions, especially since most learning achievement is extrinsically focused in schools. Pride seems to be important for both genders while relief impacts female students differently. Although shame has been a common predictor for female students’ shortcomings, relief may also be a culprit suggesting that female students may feel less skilled and have more fear trying to reach outcomes. Although success or task completion can be achieved, the long-term effects of avoidance levels of motivation are problematic.
Exploring College Students’ Anxiety Sensitivity and Exercise-Related Self-Efficacy
Carly Williamson, University of Tennesssee At Martin; Timothy Michael Dasinger, LSU
Background/Purpose: It is well known that exercise has a number of benefits, including enhanced mental health. Despite this, many people still do not meet the recommended physical activity guidelines (World Health Organization, 2020). Anxiety sensitivity (AS), defined as an individual’s sensitivity to anxiety related symptoms such as shortness of breath, fast heart rate, sweating, etc. (Smits et al., 2008), could be one potential reason why; as people who are more prone to anxiety may have lower exercise-related self-efficacy (ESE). Smits and colleagues (2008) found that exercise intervention positively impacted individuals with AS. Although exercise can help to improve anxiety symptoms, anxiety can also deter individuals from feeling comfortable while exercising, indicative of low ESE. This can be a barrier preventing individuals from being active. The purpose of this study is to examine the effects of AS on ESE in college students.
Method: One hundred and thirty-nine college students (69.1% female; Mage=20.96+/-1.91) were recruited to complete an online survey with questions from the Anxiety Sensitivity Index-3, the Exercise Self-Efficacy Scale, the Barriers to self-efficacy for exercise, and the Global Physical Activity Questionnaire.
Analysis/Results: Bivariate correlations between variables demonstrated positive, significant relationships between barrier self-efficacy (BSE) and ESE (r=.62) at a moderate level, BSE and vigorous physical activity (VPA) (r=.31) at a small level, ESE and VPA (r=.41) at a moderate level, respectively. There were also small, negative relationships between AS and VPA (r=-.27), AS and ESE (r=.-22), and AS and meeting the recommended physical activity guidelines (MVPA) (r=-.21). Based on the significant relationships, a regression analysis was also run to predict AS from VPA, MVPA, and ESE. This analysis showed 10% of the variance explained by the predictor variables (R^2=.10, F3, 135= 4.88, p=.003). In this analysis, only VPA remained significant (B=.01, p=.04).
Conclusions: The purpose of this study is to examine the effects of AS on exercise-related self-efficacy in college students. The results indicate that those with higher AS are less likely to engage in MVPA. Additionally, higher AS was also related to lower ESE. Conversely, those with elevated levels of ESE engaged in more physical activity. This is similar to results from Christopher and colleagues (2020) where they used the Anxiety Sensitivity Index-3 and the Lifestyles Questionnaire to analyze anxiety sensitivity in males versus females. They also concluded that anxiety sensitivity is a barrier when it comes to exercise. Future research that is interventional in nature is warranted. For example, research on various exercise intensities could be helpful to understand what a person needs to do to get the most benefits from exercise. Best practice would be to explain the many benefits of exercise, and how it can help treat anxiety. Allow for control of exercise sessions and teach the normal bodily reactions to exercise, including sweating, fast heartbeat and heavy breathing.
Investigating Secondary School Physical Educators’ Emotions, Control, and Coping Mechanisms
Victoria (Tori) N. Shiver, Northern Illinois University; Kelly L. Simonton, Angela Simonton, University of Wyoming
Background/Purpose: Research on teachers’ experiences in the profession has gained attention as it provides information linked to teacher motivation, effectiveness, student experiences, and teacher training (Gonzalez-Calvo et al., 2020). Specifically, teacher emotions have been identified as critically central to teacher well-being and effectiveness in other educational fields, but less is known regarding physical educators. Emotions are unique in that they are tied to specific teaching environment appraisals and have specific resulting actions/behaviors (Frenzel, 2014; Frenzel et al., 2015). This may be particularly important to understand in physical education as a traditionally marginalized and less supported field in education (Simonton, et al., 2021). The purpose of this study was to investigate how secondary physical educators interpret their emotions while teaching and what internal and external factors impact their perceived ability to control and cope when experiencing positive or negative emotions.
Method: Secondary school physical educators (N= 10; 50% male) from the Northeastern United States served as participants in this qualitative study. Half of the teachers were considered middle school and the other half as high school. All teachers volunteered via email to participate in a onetime semi-structured interview (Roulston, 2010). Each interview lasted approximately 30-60 minutes.
Analysis/Results: Following inductive qualitative analysis (Corbin & Strauss, 2008), two overarching general themes were developed, positive emotions and negative emotions. These had a sequence of associated cause and effects. Under the umbrella of positive emotions, enjoyment was associated with student learning outcomes and relationships, and pride was associated with program development and maintenance. Teachers were motivated to continue to improve their pedagogy based on their interpretation of the associated positive extrinsic outcomes. Under the umbrella of negative emotions, anxiety and anger were associated largely with the marginalization of physical education and/or administrative regulations. Teachers lacked motivation to enhance their pedagogical practice because they felt they lacked autonomy within the school and their subject. At times, the lack of autonomy resulted in a change of setting or lack of interest in teaching. Shame was also categorized under negative emotions but was largely associated with specific negative reaction to a student. This often resulted in a focused effort towards positive change to minimize the potential of reoccurrence.
Conclusions: The results of this study indicate that the participants had positive coping mechanisms in response to positive emotions (Frenzel, et al., 2009), teachers were driven to continue setting and pursuing new goals and were open to new ideas. Meanwhile, most negative emotions resulted in a lack of coping mechanisms and no effort towards change. Both positive and negative emotions were motivated by extrinsic factors in that they were based on interactions or expectations of others. The exception to this was shame, as teachers took responsibility for their negative reactions and utilized a positive coping reaction, potentially due to an intrinsic desire to maintain control in a teaching setting. Focused efforts should be made to develop and equip teachers with strategies for coping with negative emotions along with continued research into the factors that influence emotions and associated reactions.
Logistic Regression: Physical Activity-Promotion Strategies Used by Habitual and Regular Exercisers
Wenhao LiuF, Istvan Kovacs, Slippery Rock University
Background/Purpose: According to the Transtheoretical Model, exercise stages are associated with processes of change (POC), which are physical activity (PA)-promotion strategies that individuals use to change and improve their exercise level. This study was intended to further investigate this association by examining (a) what POC (i.e., PA-promotion strategies) would significantly contribute to becoming habitual and regular exercisers (HRE) and (b) how accurately the POC that people used would classify HRE and non-HRE.
Method: Exercise Stages of Change survey and POC survey (Marcus & Forsyth, 2009) were administered to 278 university students (mean age: 20.99±1.51; 113 females) in the US. The former survey classified the participants into two groups of exercisers: 162 students (59 females) were in a HRE group, performing regular exercise as a habit and meeting Federal PA Guidelines (FPAG) for at least six months; and 116 (54 females) in a non-HRE group, including those having no exercise, those having some exercise, and those having regular exercise but meeting FPAG for fewer than six months. The POC survey produced 10 PA-promotion variables (strategies): increasing knowledge, being aware of risks, caring about consequences to others, comprehending benefits of PA, increasing healthy opportunities, substituting alternatives, enlisting social support, rewarding oneself, committing oneself, and reminding oneself. Each variable had a score ranging from 1 to 5, a high score indicating a high frequency in the use of the PA-promotion strategy. A logistic regression was run with the 10 PA-promotion variables and sex as predictors, and HRE as the predicted event.
Analysis/Results: The results showed that the predictors, as a whole, were significantly associated with the HRE with -2 log likelihood = 265.25, omnibus χ2(10) = 112.50, p < .001; and Nagelkerke R2 = .448, explaining 44.8% of variance of the outcome. The following thee predictors (or PA-promotion strategies) contributed significantly to becoming HRE: “Substituting alternatives” (i.e., using some PA to replace sedentary time) with B = 1.31, Wald χ2(1) = 33.94, p < .001, and odds ratio = 3.72; “committing oneself” with B = .90, Wald χ2(1) = 7.77, p < .005, and odds ratio = 2.46; and “Enlisting social support” with B = .39, Wald χ2(1) = 4.48, p < .05, and odds ratio = 1.48. In addition, the correct classification rate was 83.3% for the HRE, 62.9% for the non-HRE, and 74.8% for the overall.
Conclusions: While the predictors can explain 44.8% of variance of the outcome, only three predictors or PA-promotion strategies are significant in contributing people to becoming HRE while holding the other predictors constant. More specifically, one-point increase in “substituting alternatives”, “committing oneself”, and “enlisting social support” will increase the likelihood in becoming HRE by 2.72 (3.72 – 1) times, 1.46 (2.46 – 1) times, and 48% (1.48 – 1), respectively. In addition, the predictors demonstrate a relatively high classification accuracy (74.8%) in HRE and non-HRE. All the results, however, are limited to university students.
Long-Term Predictions of Mastery- and Performance-Approach Goals in Physical Education/Athletics
Ping XiangF, Jiling LiuF, Texas A&M University; Weidong LiF, The Ohio State University; Jianmin GuanF, University of Texas-San Antonio
Background/Purpose: Achievement goal theory (AGT) has been widely used to understand students’ motivation and resulting affective, cognitive, and behavioral outcomes in school settings, including physical education (PE) and athletics. Research on AGT has revealed mastery-approach (MAp) and performance-approach (PAp) goals are more likely to be motivationally beneficial to students than other achievement goals, such as mastery-avoidance goals and performance-avoidance goals. MAp aims to develop one’s ability through learning, task mastery, putting forth effort, and personal improvement, while PAp focuses on demonstrating one’s ability through performing better than others. The motivational benefits for MAp and PAp, however, are primarily documented in cross-sectional or short-term longitudinal studies. Consequently, little information is available concerning long-term motivational effects of these two goals. To address this gap in the achievement goal literature, in the present study we examined if students’ MAp and PAp assessed near the end of the fifth grade would predict their effort and intention for future running participation (IFFRP) assessed near the end of the eighth grade.
Method: This study is part of a larger project that longitudinally examined students’ motivation and outcomes in running activities offered during regularly scheduled PE/athletics classes. Participants consisted of 340 students (mean age = 10.90, SD = 0.47; boys = 169, girls = 171; White = 217, Black = 35, Hispanic = 40, Asian = 21, Other = 27) from a school district located in Southwest Texas. MAp and PAp were each assessed with six items near the end of the fifth grade, whereas effort was assessed with five items and IFFRP assessed with two items near the end of the eighth grade. These items were adapted from published research work and on a 5-point Likert scale. All data were collected during regularly scheduled PE or athletics classes.
Analysis/Results: Data analyses included computation of scale reliability, descriptive statistics, bivariate correlations, and path analysis. Results revealed the MAp, PAp, effort, and IFFRP measures all demonstrated good scale reliability (alpha = .71-.85). Their mean scores ranged from 2.98-3.93. MAp was significantly correlated with effort (r = .20, p <. 01) and IFFRP (r = .19, p <. 01), and the latter two significantly corrected (r = .48, p <. 01). Path analysis revealed only MAp emerged as a significant predictor for effort (β = .20, p <. 01) and IFFRP (β = .19, p <. 01).
Conclusions: One important finding of the present study revealed long-term beneficial effects of MAp. That is, students who were more disposed to MAp near the end of grade 5 demonstrated a higher level of desire to put forth effort and intention to participate in future running near the end of grade eight than their counterpart students who were less inclined to MAp. The significance of this finding is that MAp could have a long-lasting effect on students’ motivational outcomes in PE/athletics classes. Based on this finding and previous research that documented motivational benefits of MAp, we strongly recommend that teachers and coaches promote this type of achievement goal in practice.
Physical Education Teacher Support for Student Physical Activity Self-Efficacy
Kenneth Allen Murfay Jr., University of Kansas
Background/Purpose: Physical activity (PA) self-efficacy is a person’s confidence to be physically active despite common barriers (Voskuil & Robbins, 2015). Increasing high school students’ confidence to be physically active within physical education (PE) is important because of the many known benefits of PA (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2020) and the consistent decline in students’ PA levels as they age (Metcalf et al., 2015). Furthermore, several studies have found that PA self-efficacy is positively associated with PA (Annesi, 2006; Van der Horst et al., 2007) and at times has been found to predict PA levels (Burke et al., 2015; Gao et al., 2008). These findings validate the importance of examining practices within PE to support students’ PA self-efficacy.
Method: The study participants were 14 (8 female/6 male) current high school PE teachers with three years teaching experience who have taught both in-person and online high school PE in the United States. The PE teachers participated in individual semi-structured interviews online that lasted around an hour each. Interview questions asked teachers to describe what their normal class routines were based on the sources of self-efficacy, how they attempt to support students’ PA self-efficacy, and their rationale for those decisions. Interviews were analyzed using a deductive thematic analysis based on the sources of self-efficacy.
Analysis/Results: Online PE was a challenge for the teachers in the study and resulted in them reshaping the implemented PA experiences (theme 1), the social persuasion provided to students (theme 2), and PA modeling experiences (theme 3). A successful PA experience for students changed from more performance-based to participation-based. This resulted in more teachers allowing students to choose what PA to participate in and what intensity to move at. This change to the parameter of student success with PA also influenced the feedback that the teachers provided to students. Feedback was less about student performance with PA and more about praising students for participating in PA. During online instruction, student observations of PA also changed. Teachers relied more on videos online to demonstrate PA and had fewer students participating in PA in front of peers. This, combined with no competition online, limited social comparison amongst the students. According to the participants, the changes to instruction have influenced students’ experiences with PA in PE.
Conclusions: This study examined the similarities and differences between in-person (before pandemic) and online practices (during pandemic) to support students’ PA self-efficacy. All participants in the study had to change the PA experiences, PA observations, and social persuasion that they provided to students when instruction moved online, which most teachers believed influenced students in positive and negative ways. Certain PA experiences to support PA self-efficacy were used sparingly in-person and online. It is recommended that more emphasis be placed on assisting students in the transfer of PA experiences/learning within PE, to outside of PE. This analysis can guide future practice and research on effective ways to support PA self-efficacy within PE.
Potential Predictors of Psychological Well-Being in Elementary School Students
Jun Chen, Xiaozan Wang, Shijun Wu, Jiarong Zhong, East China Normal University; Weiyun ChenF, University of Michigan
Background/Purpose: This study aimed to investigate the association of elementary school students’ manipulative skill competency, cardiorespiratory fitness, and cognitive function with psychological well-being (PWB), as well as whether the association had gender differences.
Method: Participants were 291 4th grade students (166 boys vs. 125 girls; Mean age = 9.7 years old; SD = 0.58) at two elementary schools from the province of Henan in China. The students’ soccer skills in manipulative skill competency were assessed with PE Metric Assessment Rubric, cardiorespiratory fitness was assessed by means of PACER 15m test, cognitive function and PWB were assessed using D2 test of attention and Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale (WEMWBS), respectively. Data were analyzed with descriptive statistics and multiple linear regression models.
Analysis/Results: The result of linear regression models showed that soccer skills, cardiorespiratory fitness, and cognitive function were collectively associated with PWB for total sample (F (5, 285) = 3.097, p < 0.01), boys (F (5, 160) = 1.355, p < 0.01), and girls (F (5, 119) = 2.132, p < 0.01). Further, the standardized regression coefficients (β) indicated that cardiorespiratory fitness was the only significant contributor to PWB for the total sample (β = 0.119, t = 2.021, p < 0.05), but not for the boys group and girls group, respectively. Soccer skills and cognitive function were not individual significant contributors to PWB for the total sample, boys, and girls.
Conclusions: Cardiorespiratory fitness was significantly associated with PWB, and there are no gender differences in the relationship of manipulative skill competency, cardiorespiratory fitness, and cognitive function with PWB in elementary school students. This study suggests that improving cardiorespiratory fitness should be the one of the priority tasks for elementary school students to achieve for better PWB.
Prevalence of Anxiety and Depression in Student-Athletes During COVID-19
Yongju Hwang, University of Georgia; Yangyang Deng, Graduate Student; Taewoo Kim, Sam Yli-PiipariF, University of Georgia
Background/Purpose: Despite the benefits of being a student-athlete, this cohort faces many unique challenges during their tenure. In addition to the stressors common to all students, student-athletes are also exposed to added pressures relating to their athletic performance and significant time demands their sport requires. Considering these pressures, it is not surprising that the prevalence of psychological ill-being in student-athletes is greater compared to their non-athlete peers or the general public. Research has shown that approximately 85% of student-athletes suffer from anxiety disorder annually. Recently, COVID-19 pandemic has added additional pressures on students-athletes, such as online classes, cancellation of training and competitions, which have most likely impacted student-athletes’ mental health. Thus, the aim of this study was to explore the prevalence of anxiety and depression among student-athletes.
Method: This study was a prospective cohort study with 117 (approx. 20% of the entire student-athlete population; 84 females and 33 males; Mage = 20.22±1.34) participants from one university in Southeastern United States provided a complete data set. Data were collected after the second wave of the pandemic in November 2020, and student-athletes from 12 sports participated in the survey. 82.9% of the respondents were White, while 8.5% were Black, 4.3% were Asian, and .9% Hispanics. The sample consisted of 14.5% of Freshmen, 27.4% Sophomores, 21.4% Juniors, 32.5% Seniors, and 4.3% were either 5th year undergraduate students or first-year graduate students. Student-athletes responded to the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale assessing their clinically measured anxiety and depression.
Analysis/Results: Our data showed that 96 (82.1%) student-athletes who responded to our study had clinical levels of anxiety, whereas 13 (11.1%) had symptoms of borderline anxiety. Similar patterns were evident in depression, as our data showed that 21 student-athletes (19.3%) had depressive symptoms of the level that can be diagnosed as depression, whereas 66 student-athletes (60.6%) had symptoms of borderline anxiety. There were no statistically significant differences based on gender, sport, playing role, or experience.
Conclusions: These findings suggest that a large portion of the student-athletes are struggling with their mental health. Almost all respondents suffered from either borderline or clinical levels of anxiety. Similarly, approx. 80% of student-athletes suffered from depression. These findings suggest the elevated prevalence of mental health issues compared to the previous data sets published before the COVID-19. Future studies should be conducted to examine the external validity of these results and whether these changes in students-athletes’ anxiety and depression are permanent.
Self-Efficacy of Exercise, Decisional Balance, and Exercise Participation
Wenhao LiuF, Istvan Kovacs, Slippery Rock University
Background/Purpose: The Transtheoretical Model (Prochaska & Marcus, 1994) suggests that exercise engagement is related to self-efficacy of exercise (SEE) and decisional balance about pros vs. cons of exercise. Thus, this study was intended to examine how SEE, pros, and cons were different among university students with different exercise levels.
Method: Three surveys, Exercise Stage of Change (for classifying exercise levels), Self-Efficacy Exercise (for assessing SEE), and Decisional Balance Questionnaire (for assessing pros and cons of exercises) were administered to 204 university students in the US (mean age: 21.10±1.58, 93 females). Participants were classified to three exercise levels: 54 participants (26 females) were in an insufficiently active group (IAG), performing no exercise or insufficient exercise; 62 (28 females) in a currently active group (CAG), performing regular exercise and meeting Federal Physical Activity Guidelines (FPAG) currently but for less than six months; and 88 (39 females) in a habitually active group (HAG), performing regular exercise as a habit and meeting FPAG for six months or more. Scores for SEE, pros, and cons ranged from 1 to 25, 1 to 5, and 1 to 5, respectively, with a high score indicating high SEE, high pros, or high cons. One-way MONOVA was run to examine how exercise level was related to SEE, pros, and cons. To control familywise type 1 error, each follow-up univariate ANOVA was tested at .05/3 = .017 level, and each pairwise comparison was tested at .017/3 = .0056 level.
Analysis/Results: The omnibus MANOVA test was significant, with Wilks’ Lambda = .665, F(6, 398) = 15.00, p < .001, and ƞ2 = .18. The follow-up pairwise comparisons showed significant differences (p < .005) in the following pairwise comparisons in favor of higher exercise levels. SEE: HAG 17.74±3.99 vs. IAG 12.39±3.82, and HAG vs. CAG 14.53±3.04; pros: HAG 4.23±.74 vs. IAG 3.77±.71, and CAG 4.20±.59 vs. IAG; and cons: HAG 1.92±.78 vs. IAG 2.49±.70.
Conclusions: It is reasonable that the HAG has the most positive status and the IAG has the least positive status in all the three exercise-related constructs. The differences between the HAG and CAG, however, is worth noting. The CAG is not significantly more positive than the IAG in SEE and cons scores, and is significantly weaker than the HAG in SEE. While both HAG and CAG perform regular exercise and meet FPAG, the former has done such for six months or more, but the latter has reached FPAG less than six months. It seems that longer time of commitment in exercise is associated with more positive status in SEE and cons.
Teacher Motivation, Self-Efficacy, and Burnout in a District Physical Education Program
Keven Prusak, David Barney, Carol Wilkinson, Todd R. Pennington, Brigham Young University; Zack Beddoes, University of Wisconsin La Crosse; Nathan Kahaialii, Jami Ohran, Brigham Young University
Background/Purpose: While there are many fine examples of maverick individual PE teachers, large-scale success stories are rare and of immense interest and, when found, are worthy of study. This study is the final in a series of examinations into the form, function, and outcomes of one such program in the Western US. Previous works have identified (a) the key components—how it works, (b) the history, (c) student perceptions and impact, and (d) parent perceptions—a study in advocacy and now (e) the nature, dispositions, and efforts of those that make it all work—the teachers. This paper, in concert with its previous examinations provide a holistic view of what large-scale physical education looks like in this district. In particular, we wished to examine the psychological notions of motivation, self-efficacy, and burnout in a district with high expectations and support for its teachers.
Method: This study used a mixed methods approach to (a) measure three complimentary motivational constructs via participant surveys, followed by (b) a qualitative examination via a purposeful and representative sampling of teachers and district supervisor for observation and follow-up interviews. Survey data was compiled and examined using SPSS V25. Descriptive, categorical, and theoretical variables were examined via correlational analysis, between gender analysis, between year-groupings, etc., to understand any underlying relationships and effects. Those results were also used to inform our purposeful and representative sampling for the qualitative analysis. Qualitative data was content analyzed to identify emerging themes and sub-themes.
Analysis/Results: District PE teachers report high levels of motivation and low levels of burnout. Self-efficacy scores for ability to make influential contributions in the workplace were high but less so at the district level. Despite substantial district oversight, teachers report only low levels of externally originating controls. In other words, the reasons they do their job are largely internalized or are completely under their control.
Emerging themes included performing their jobs for (a) passion for teaching PE, love for the students (the ‘kiddos’), and (c) developing coping mechanisms to sustain high levels of motivation.
Conclusions: This study validates the previous studies in this line of research in which systemic success can exist for students, parents, district and school administrators, university PETE programs, and the teachers at the center of it all. It confirms the seminal work of Siedentop and Locke’s (1997), Ward’s et al., (1999) and Mackenzie’s (2006) collective proposition that systemic success is possible. It also supports movements such as PLCs to support quality physical education beyond the individual teacher.
The Development of Preservice Teacher Motivation Inventory in Physical Education
Bo ShenF, Wayne State University; Huanyu Li, Central China Normal University; Jin Bo, Eastern Michigan University
Background/Purpose: Teachers’ motivation is directly associated with students’ motivation, effort, and learning achievement. While researchers have explored teacher motivation and its effects, there exists far less work from preservice teacher perspective. Given the uniqueness and domain specificity in physical education (PE), a wide range of factors may bring about the decision to become a teacher. Using Spittle et al.’s (2014) conceptual framework, we designed this study to develop and valid a preservice teacher motivation inventory in PE (PTMI-PE), a measure of preservice teachers’ direct reasons for choosing physical education teaching.
Method: Date were collected in two waves. In wave one, 339 undergraduate students majored in physical education teacher education (PETE) program in two universities in Hubei, China completed a 52-item inventory measuring 11 factors (i.e., interpersonal reasons, service reasons, desire to coach, desire to be physically active, continuity, material benefits, time compatibility, identification, family continuity, subjective warrant, and blocked aspirations). The content validity and language usage were examined by a panel of nine professionals. Due to the existence of a clearly defined model, a hypothesis-testing approach was adopted. Particularly, detailed examination of the fit of the 11 factors was conducted separately in order to detect and eliminate poor indicators. Then each factor was paired with every other factor in order to detect and eliminate ambiguous items. In wave two, new 289 students in another PETE program completed a finalized inventory. Confirmatory factor analytic (CFA) procedures were employed to test the hypothesized factor structure and the invariance across gender.
Analysis/Results: Item elimination in wave one led to the development of a set of internally consistent factors with strong indicators and good discriminant validity. there were 14 items excluded due to low or cross-loading. We performed a CFA with the remaining 38 items and yielded satisfied fit indices: CFI = .95, SRMR = .04, and RMSEA = .05. Then, we used data in wave two to replicate the former CFA to examine the underlying factor structure with revised and refined items. Results revealed that the data fit in the model adequately, CFI = .95, SRMR = .05, and RMSEA = .05, providing further evidence for the convergent and discriminant validity of the items and factors. Also, the invariance of the factor structure across gender were supported.
Conclusions: The PTMI-PE is a factorially valid means of assessing a broad range of motives of teaching PE for preservice teachers in China. The investigation of choices and motivation behind teaching can enhance teacher education programs and help design effective curriculum to meet students’ needs, expectations, and motives. Also, these understandings will help set strategies to enhance teacher education recruitment and nurture intrinsic and positive motivation of preservice teachers during their study in college.
Motor Behavior
Effects of Alternating vs. Non-Alternating Dyad Practice on Skill Acquisition
Eddie HebertF, Cameron Diez, Southeastern Louisiana University
Background/Purpose: Dyad practice involves practicing a motor skill in pairs during which each learner has the opportunity to physically practice the task and observe a partner’s practice. Previous research indicates that dyad practice can enhance learning compared to practicing individually. The purposes of this study were to examine the effects of the schedule and order of dyad practice on learning a cup-stacking task, and on learner perceptions of the cognitive strategies underlying observational learning and dyad practice.
Method: Undergraduate college students (N=126) with no previous experience in cup stacking were randomly assigned to dyads. Within each dyad, participants were assigned to Position 1 (performed the task 1st) or Position 2 (performed the task 2nd). Dyads practiced a 3x6x3 cup-stacking task in either an alternating schedule (ALT: switching roles frequently–after every 5 trials) or a non-alternating schedule (NONALT: switching roles once). Following a brief explanation and demonstration of the task, participants completed 20 acquisition trials with KR, followed by 5 retention trials without KR. The dependent measure of performance was length of time to complete each trial. Following practice and retention, participants completed a survey where they rated the extent to which they engaged in specific cognitive processes (evaluating the partner’s strategies/actions, mimicking/copying the partner’s strategies/actions, engaging in mental practice/rehearsal, and competition).
Analysis/Results: Scores were averaged for blocks of 5 trials, and skill performance analyzed using a 2 (Schedule) x 2 (Position) x 4 (Trial Blocks) ANOVA for acquisition scores, and a 2 (Schedule) x 2 (Position) ANOVA for retention. For acquisition, the Position main effect and interactions of Position x Trial Blocks and Schedule x Trial Blocks were significant. Faster scores were achieved by participants assigned to ALT practice and by those in Position 2. Retention scores varied similarly, with the poorest scores among Position 1 learners who practiced in the NONALT schedule. Mean survey responses indicated participants provided strongest agreement for “evaluating the partner’s strategies” and “engaging in mental practice,” and lower ratings for “mimicking/copying the partner’s actions” and “competing with my partner.” Comparisons of ratings using 2 (Schedule) x 2 (Position) ANOVAs indicated Position 2 learners indicated mimicking/copying the partner significantly more than Position 1 learners, and those who practiced in the NONALT schedule engaged in mental practice to a greater extent than those in the ALT schedule.
Conclusions: The results of this study support the conclusion that the effectiveness of dyad practice may be enhanced by having learners switch roles often, and provides further evidence for the benefits of having the opportunity to observe a model before beginning physical practice. Data also support proposed cognitive strategies that underlie observational learning/dyad practice, and suggest that strategies used are influenced by both the schedule and order of dyad practice.
Examining Motor Skill Competence and Cognitive Functioning Among Preschool Children
Ana West, University of North Texas; Joonyoung Lee, University of North Texas - Denton, TX; Tao ZhangF, University of North Texas
Background/Purpose: Motor skill competence assessed by fundamental motor skills (FMS), such as locomotor and ball skills, has been shown to have a positive impact on young children’s physical activity (PA) engagement, which may contribute to various short-term and long-term health outcomes (García-Hermoso et al., 2020; Stodden et al., 2008). However, a lack of empirical evidence exists about the roles of motor skill competence on young children’s cognitive development, especially among preschoolers in childcare centers. Hence, this study aimed to examine the roles of motor skill competence on preschoolers’ cognitive functioning.
Method: A total of 24 preschoolers (Mage = 4.80 ± 0.32; 54% girls) participated in this study from an early childhood center in the southwestern region of United States. Trained research assistants measured preschoolers’ FMS using the Test of Gross Motor Development–Third Edition (TGMD–3; Ulrich, 2019). Preschoolers’ cognitive functioning (e.g., inhibition, shifting, emotional control, working memory, plan/organize) was assessed via parent-reported Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Functioning–Preschoolers (BRIEF–P; Gioia et al., 2003). Lower scores indicated higher cognitive development in the BRIEF–P. Bivariate correlation and multiple regression analyses were performed to explore the relationships between preschoolers’ FMS (e.g., locomotor and ball skills) and cognitive functioning, and the predictive strength of FMS on preschoolers’ cognitive functioning.
Analysis/Results: Results showed that locomotor skills such as running and jumping were significantly related to inhibition (r = -.49, p < .05) and working memory (r = -.51, p < .01), while ball skills such as striking and throwing were associated with working memory (r = -.52, p < .01). No significant correlations were found between FMS (neither locomotor skills nor ball skills) and shifting, emotional control, and plan/organize among this sample (p > .05). Regression analyses revealed that locomotor skills (β = -.49) was a significant predictor of inhibition, accounting for 23.5% variance (F [1, 22] = 6.77, p < .01). Ball skills (β = -.52) significantly predicted preschoolers’ working memory, (F [1, 22] = 8.03, p < .01), accounting for 26.7% variance.
Conclusions: Our findings of negative correlations indicate that children with high locomotor and ball skills have greater cognitive functioning. Specifically, locomotor and balls skills were strong predictors for preschoolers’ inhibition and working memory, respectively. Although the sample size is relatively small in this study, the results indicate that locomotor skills may be related to preschoolers’ ability to control urges and manage their behaviors (Greene et al., 2019). Furthermore, ball skills may be associated with how well preschoolers can maintain information and use it to achieve tasks (Greene et al., 2019). Given that preschool is a crucial period for young children’s motor and cognitive development, it is imperative to provide supportive PA policies and environments where preschoolers can learn and develop their FMS through center-, community-, and home-based approaches.
Sensations of Fear: Virtual Reality Overriding Proprioception and Vestibular Integration
Robert J. Kowalsky, Daniel Joseph Burt, Texas A&M University-Kingsville
Background/Purpose: The history of virtual reality has demonstrated stimulation of learning and comprehension, as it relates to symbolic and experiential information (Bowman, Hodges, Allison, & Wineman, 1998). With the quality of current models of Virtual Reality technology more realistic in the impact of sensory stimulation. Studies on virtual reality have shown that using some forms of exergaming and virtual reality may offer a form of physiotherapy and rehabilitation in adults; Chao, Scherer & Montgomery, 2015; de Amorim, et al. 2018; Gerards, et al. 2017; Gerber et al., 2018; Kim et al., 2017; Hortobágyi et al., 2016). Despite the advances in technology, Virtual Reality has rarely been used to investigate perceptual motor skills, control, and behavior ((Bacha et al., 2018; Fabio, 2017; Soares et al, 2021).
Method: Participants included 60 undergraduate college students enrolled and recruited in a multitude of classes. Biofeedback was collected in terms of heart rate. Observations of motor response as the participant was raised to increased heights and then dropped were recorded. Surveys after the event asking perceptions and reactions to the visual stimuli (sense of falling), comparing it to the response to vestibular and proprioceptive feedback (sense of stability). Additionally, Descriptive statistics and previous motor experience with heights are recorded.
Analysis/Results: Post stimuli surveys will be analyzed with a Mann-Whitney U test to comparing independent groups by motor experience and observations due to nonparametric data use. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic and requirements on social distancing, this study was placed on temporary hold and has resumed. Results are currently pending the final collection of data.
Conclusions: Conclusions are pending the final data collection now that the lab is back open.
Physical Activity & Health Promotion
24-Hour Movement Behavior and Mental Health Among Depressed Female Students
Xiaoxia Zhang, East Carolina University; Xiangli GuF, Jing Wang, University of Texas at Arlington
Background/Purpose: Approximately 30% of college students are depressed and female students are twice more than males to be diagnosed with depression. Movement behaviors in a 24-hour cycle, such as physical activity, sedentary behavior, and sleep, are suggested to associate with mental health. It remains unknown, however, the underlying mechanisms of how these movement behaviors collectively influence mental health among depressed female college students. Guided by the behavioral mechanism of Lubans et al.’s (2016) conceptual model, this longitudinal research project was: 1) to examine the developmental trend of 24-hour movement behaviors (i.e., leisure-time physical activity [LTPA], sedentary behavior, and sleep) and mental health outcomes (health-related quality of life [HRQOL] and cognition) in depressed female college students over one academic year; and 2) to examine how changes of 24-hour movement behaviors may correspond to the changes of mental health outcomes among depressed female college students.
Method: A longitudinal repeated measure design was conducted. We recruited and screened 247 female college students from a Hispanic serving institute in North Texas. Among them, 102 were categorized as depressed based on the score of the 20-item Center of Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D ≥ 16; Radloff, 1977). Participants self-reported their 24-hour movement behaviors including LTPA (Godin, 2011), sedentary behavior (Rosenberg et al., 2010), and sleep duration, HRQOL (physical and psychosocial functioning; Varni et al., 2001), and cognition (working memory and inhibition; Holst & Thorell, 2018). A series of repeated measures t-test, Pearson’s correlation, and linear mixed-effects model were performed.
Analysis/Results: Over one academic year, depressed female college students had significantly increased adverse mental health status including reduced HRQOL (lower physical functioning [d = 0.83, p < 0.01] and psychosocial functioning [d = 0.74, p < 0.01]), and worse working memory [d = -0.82, p < 0.01]). Their 24-hour movement behaviors had no significant changes over time (ps > 0.05). The 24-hour movement behaviors had no significant associations with mental health outcomes across time (ps > 0.05). The linear mixed-effects model revealed significant time effects on physical functioning (B = -21.78, p < 0.01), psychosocial functioning (B = -11.76, p < 0.01), and working memory (B = 4.89, p < 0.01). Sleep was significantly and favorably associated with physical functioning (B = 3.26, p < 0.05) and psychosocial functioning (B = 3.64, p < 0.01) over time; sedentary behavior was significantly associated with inhibition (B = 0.14, p < 0.05).
Conclusions: The findings revealed significant declines in mental health status (i.e., HRQOL and cognition) among depressed female college students within one academic year. Sedentary behavior demonstrated to be a detrimental factor of cognitive function over time among depressed female college students. Maintaining sufficient sleep duration is suggested being a useful strategy to increase the quality of life among this population, which may result in a long-term mental health benefit. School health professionals and practitioners may consider providing healthy behavior management practices (e.g., reducing sedentary behaviors) as an essential part of the treatment plans for this group. (This study is supported by the 2018-2019 SHAPE America Graduate Research Grant.)
A Before-School Physical Activity Program on Students’ Social and Emotional Learning and Energy Levels
Tan Leng GohF, Chee Hoi Leong, Central Connecticut State University; Bryan Jesse Plona, Catherine M. McGee Middle School; Carol Ciotto, Central Connecticut State University
Background/Purpose: Before-school physical activity (PA) programs have been demonstrated to help youth increase their PA levels, decrease their body mass index, and improve their aerobic performance, without disrupting the daily school curriculum. However, investigations examining the effect of before-school PA programming on social and emotional learning (SEL) and energy levels have been limited. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine the impact of a before-school PA program on middle school students’ SEL and energy levels.
Method: A before-school PA program was disrupted halfway at a Northeastern U.S. middle school in spring 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Following a year of remote learning in 2020, the program was reimplemented in spring 2021. Eighteen students (6th to 8th grade) participated in the 30-minute program, three days per week for 6 weeks. The physical education teacher implemented the program which consisted of warm up, fitness activities, game play and cool down. Nine students in the program group completed a 17-item, 4-point Likert scale questionnaire to assess their SEL (five areas of competence: self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision-making) before and after the 6-week program, while 9 students served as the control group. Students in the program also filled out their energy levels (1 = asleep; 4 = focused/purposeful; 6 = maxed out) before and after their participation in the program each day.
Analysis/Results: A 2 x 2 (group x time) mixed repeated measures ANOVA was performed to determine differences in students’ SEL scores pre-to-post participation in the 6-week before-school PA program. Additionally, a paired sample t-test was performed to determine differences in energy levels pre-to-post participation in the PA program each day. There was a statistically significant increase in students’ SEL scores (40 ± 10 pre vs. 60 ± 4 post) and daily energy levels (2.2 ± 0.4 pre vs. 5.2 ± 0.5 post) in the program group following participation in 6 weeks of the before-school PA program (both ps < 0.001). SEL scores of students in the control group (56 ± 6 pre vs. 58 ± 7 post) was not statistically significant (p = 0.11).
Conclusions: Our main finding was that middle school students’ SEL improved following their participation in the 6-week before-school PA program. Furthermore, students reported higher daily energy levels after their participation in the program, suggesting that while they felt sleepy at the beginning of the program, they became more focused at the end of the program. Consequently, students feeling more focused following their daily participation in the before-school PA program could elicit higher levels of readiness for academic learning prior to the introduction of daily school curriculum.
A Fun Virtual Active Play Program Enhances Children’s Physical Fitness
Samira Rostami, 1Department of Biological Sciences in Sport, Faculty of Sport Sciences and Health, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran; Amin Gholami, Behavioral Sciences in Sport, Sports Sciences Research Institute, Tehran, Iran
Background/Purpose: Physical fitness is a strong indicator of health. Childhood has been considered as a critical period for the formation and promotion of positive health patterns. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of a fun virtual purposeful active play program on children’s physical fitness during home quarantine due to the outbreak of COVID-19.
Method: Twenty children 5-6 Yrs. old were selected to participate in the study based on a call posted in different social networks. Subjects were divided into two groups of 10 experimental and control. Modified physical fitness tests were used in the pre- and post-tests, which were performed in person but in accordance with health protocols. The training program was designed based on the three indicators including physical fitness elements and fundamental movement skills and enjoyment. The experimental group trained eight weeks online sessions (two 60-minute sessions per week) using the Zoom program. Analysis of Covariance method was used to detect differences between groups in the post-test by controlling pre-test scores.
Analysis/Results: The results showed that the training program had a significant effect on improving the mean scores of flexibility, muscle endurance and hand strength of the experimental group (P<0.05). On the other hand, there was no significant improvement in cardiopulmonary endurance after the program group (P>0.05).
Conclusions: It can be concluded that a purposeful active play program can have a positive effect on most elements of physical fitness in children during long periods of a sedentary lifestyle.
Adolescent Sexual Identity-Behavior Discordance and Prevalence of 24-Hour Movement Behaviors
Ryan D. BurnsF, Wonwoo Byun, University of Utah; You FuF, University of Nevada, Reno; Nicole L Mihalopoulos, University of Utah Health
Background/Purpose: Sexual minority adolescents tend to be at higher risk for health disparities compared to their non-sexual minority counterparts. Understanding health behaviors in sexual minority adolescent populations is thus critical to help lower risk of health disparities as these adolescents track into adulthood. The purpose of this study was to examine the association between sexual identity-behavior discordance and meeting recommendations for the 24-hour movement behaviors of physical activity, non-academic screen use, and sleep in adolescents.
Method: Participants were a cross-sectional sample of US heterosexual and gay/lesbian adolescents with a history of sexual contacts who completed the 2015-2019 National Youth Risk Behavior Survey (N = 16,632; 16.0 ± 1.2 years old; 44.8% female). A sexual identity-behavior discordance variable indicated response disagreement between self-reported sexual identity and self-reported sex of sexual contacts. The 24-hour movement behaviors included a self-report of meeting recommendations for weekly physical activity (60 minutes per day, 7 days per week), hours per day of non-academic screen use (2 hours or less per day), and hours of school night sleep (9-11 hours of sleep for 5–13-year-olds and 8-10 hours of sleep for adolescents 14 years and older).
Analysis/Results: Sex-specific and weighted multivariable logistic regression models analyzed associations between sexual identity-behavior discordance and meeting recommendations for 24-hour movement behaviors controlling for age, race/ethnicity, weight status, and recent feelings of sadness or hopelessness. In males, having sexual identity-behavior discordance associated with lower odds of meeting recommendations for physical activity (OR=0.42, 95%CI: 0.26-0.58, p < 0.001) and lower odds of meeting recommendations for sleep (OR=0.57, 95%CI: 0.32-0.99, p = 0.037). In females, having sexual identity-behavior discordance associated with lower odds of meeting recommendations for all 3 24-hour movement behaviors concurrently (OR=0.32, 95%CI: 0.13-0.78, p < 0.001).
Conclusions: The presence sexual identity-behavior discordance associates with a lower probability of meeting 24-hour movement behavior recommendations in heterosexual and gay/lesbian adolescents with a history of sexual contacts. Specific to the psychomotor domain, real or perceived sexual stigma may preclude adolescent participation in physical activities with mostly heterosexual or non-sexual minority peers, such as within organized sports. Tailored interventions may be needed to help circumvent potential barriers that may exist for successful physical activity and/or health behavior program implementation for sexual minority pediatric populations within school- and community-based settings.
Assessing the Physical Literacy Environment of Early Childcare Centers: Findings From the Movement for Life Project
Nathan D. Hall, Brock University; Melanie Gregg, University of Winnipeg
Background/Purpose: Early childhood education settings play a critical role in offering opportunities for children to develop physical literacy (PL). Whitehead (2010) and Clark (2014) suggest that early childhood educators (ECEs) may not recognize the importance or give attention to movement skills in young children, as they tend to focus on numeracy, language, social and emotional skills development. A Canadian study of ECEs showed that they overestimated the amount of physical activity that children engage in during the early years (House & Palin, 2009). Caregivers need to understand the significance of PL in the early years to assist young children in developing a love of being physically active (Newport, 2013). Therefore, the purpose of this SSHRC funded study was to assess early childcare settings’ support for PL development and examine whether a PL education program for ECEs could positively influence support in these settings.
Method: The participants in this study were a convenience sample of early childhood daycare centre directors (N = 9) and ECEs (N = 107) from nine different urban daycare centres in a Canadian city. Mean years of experience working in early childhood childcare was 11.40 years (SD = 9.58). Participants were asked to complete the PL Environmental Assessment (PLEA; Caldwell et al., 2020) prior to and immediately following the completion of an eight-week PL education program (i.e., the Movement For Life! program). The PLEA is a 20-item validated, program evaluation tool designed to assess a program’s implementation of PL principles across four domains: environment, programming, leaders and staff, and values and goals. The Movement for Life! program involved a three-hour workshop focused on sharing research-based evidence and educating participants on reasons for becoming more aware of early childhood PL development. This was followed by once-a-week visits to the daycare by early childhood PL development specialists. During these visits the specialists organized and lead PL focused activities with children while the ECEs helped and/or observed.
Analysis/Results: Means and standard deviations were calculated for each of the four domains assessed by the PLEA, as well as the overall scores on the PLEA (the PLEA is scored out of 20; the higher the score the better the PL environment being provided by the program). This was done for the responses collected both before and after the Movement for Life! program was completed. The mean PLEA score for daycares prior to the program was 12.19 (SD = 4.94) and following the program was 13.58 (SD = 4.68). Paired t-test demonstrated that the overall improvement in PLEA scores pre-post the Movement for Life! program was significant (p < .05) and subsequently so was the improvement to scores in three of the four PLEA domains (environment; leaders & staff; values & goals).
Conclusions: This study demonstrates there is considerable room for improvement in the daycare environment when it comes to supporting PL development among children. Furthermore, the results provide support for the positive influence that PL education for ECEs can have with respect to improving the PL environment in daycare settings.
Association of Adolescent Bullying Victimization With Meeting 24-Hour Movement Behaviors
You FuF, University of Nevada, Reno; Ryan D. BurnsF, University of Utah; Peng ZhangF, East Stroudsburg University; Samantha Dyer, University of Nevada, Reno; Sanjun Yang, China University of Mining & Technology, Beijing; Nora Constantino, University of Nevada, Reno
Background/Purpose: It is currently unknown if bullying victimization in both school and online settings associates with meeting recommendations for the 24-hour movement behaviors among the adolescents. Previous work examining associations between bullying victimization variables and health indicators in adolescents have used relatively limited samples sizes which attenuates the ability to make valid inferences. Combining and analyzing national surveys across multiple years may help overcome this methodological limitation. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the associations between bullying victimization and meeting recommendations for the 24-hour movement behaviors of physical activity, non-academic screen use, and sleep duration in adolescents.
Method: Participants were a sample of US adolescents from the 2015-2019 national Youth Risk Behavior Survey (N=43,847; Mean age = 16.0 ± 1.2 years; 50.7% female), which is a voluntary and anonymous self-report survey that is conducted every two years during the spring semester, with the purpose to monitor adolescents’ health behaviors that significantly contribute to the leading causes of death, disability, and social problems, among the secondary public schools, Catholic schools, and private schools throughout the US. The bullying victimization variables included the bullying experiences at school and online. Bullying at school was assessed using one item on the survey that asked “During the past 12 months, have you ever been bullied on school property?” and bullying online was assessed using one item that asked “During the past 12 months, have you ever been electronically bullied? ”. Both items’ responses were recoded 0 = No or 1 = Yes for analysis. Three binary coded 24-hour movement behaviors, including physical activity, academic screen use, and sleep duration, were the outcome variables.
Analysis/Results: Weighted multivariable logistic regressions analyzed associations between bullying victimization and meeting recommendations for 24-hour movement behaviors controlling for age, sex, race/ethnicity, and weight status. Overall, adolescents meeting non-academic screen and sleep duration recommendations had 25% (OR = 0.75, 95%CI: 0.69-0.82) and 19% (OR = 0.81, 95%CI: 0.74-0.89) lower odds to be bullied at school. Adolescents meeting non-academic screen recommendation had 27% lower odds (OR = 0.73, 95%CI: 0.58-0.91) to experience online bullying. Male adolescents met physical activity, non-academic screen use, and sleep recommendations had lower odds to experience the bullying at school of 29% (OR = 0.71, 95%CI: 0.59-0.85), 26% (OR = 0.74, 95%CI: 0.61-0.90), and 31% (OR = 0.69, 95%CI: 0.55-0.86), respectively. Among the females, non-academic screen use was the only movement behavior yielded statistical significance, in that those who met the recommendation had 15% (OR = 0.85, 95%CI: 0.73-0.98) lower odds to experience the bullying at school.
Conclusions: The presence of meeting 24-hour movement behavior recommendations associates with a lower probability of bullying at school and online environment in adolescents. Interestingly, these associations tended to be stronger and more consistent in males compared to females. Furthermore, meeting screen use and sleep recommendations more consistently associated with lower odds of both school and online bullying whereas meeting recommendation for physical activity only associated with lower probability of school bullying in males.
Behavioral Mechanism of Adolescents’ Cognitive Health: The ABCD Study
Xiangli GuF, Jing Wang, University of Texas at Arlington
Background/Purpose: Exposure to adversity and stressors such as obesity, poverty, neighborhood unsafety and limited school engagement can negatively affect adolescent’s neurodevelopment (Lubans et al., 2016), but the underlying mechanism is not clear in the literature. Guided by the Socio-Ecological model, the main purpose of this study was to examine the social environment and behavioral determinants of adolescent’s cognitive health based on the NIH Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. Specifically, we examined the relation of social environment factors (i.e., socio-demographics, neighborhood environment, school involvement), with 24-hour movement behavior (i.e., sedentary behavior, sleep, and physical activity [PA]) and cognitive health (i.e., Crystallized Cognition, Fluid Cognition, and total Cognitive Function). Then, the behavioral mechanism of cognitive health was examined by testing the mediating role of 24-hour movement behavior in the relation between social environment factors and cognitive health.
Method: The data were retrieved from the first wave of the ABCD Study (11,875 adolescents ages 9-10 years; 48% girls; 52% White,15% Black, 20% Hispanic, 2% Asian, and 11% Other). Parent-reported socio-demographic variables included adolescent sex, body mass index (BMI) percentile, household income, and estimated lead risk in census tract of primary residential address. The NIH Toolbox® cognition neurocognitive battery was used to assess the adolescents’ cognitive function. Raw scores from seven cognitive measures were converted to standard scores and were used in the data analysis. The neighborhood environment (i.e., crime and safety), and the 24-hour movement behavior were reported from youth and/or parent/caregiver. The descriptive and correlational analyses were conducted. The structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis was performed to assess the mediating role of 24-hour movement behavior in the relation between social determinants and cognitive health.
Analysis/Results: It was found that significant racial/ethnic disparities in socio-demographics (p <.0001), with pronounced socioeconomic disadvantage among Black and Hispanic adolescents. Neighborhood safety was significantly associated with all components of 24-hour movement behavior and cognitive health (rs range from .10 to .18; p < .01). Residential crime was weakly associated with 24-hour movement behavior but was not significantly associated with cognitive health. The SEM model was a good fit with sound goodness-of-fit indices (χ2/df = 1857.51/55; CFI = .925; RMSEA = .044; 90% CI [.044, .042]). The direct effect of 24-hour movement behavior on cognitive health (β= .61; p < .001) was significant and greater than the effect of social environment factors on 24-hour movement behavior (β sociodemographics= -.18, βneighborhood safety/crime= -.34, βschool involvement= .14, p< .01). The model fit indicated that 24-hour movement behavior served as a significant mediator in the relation between social environment factors and cognitive health (p < .01), regardless of sex, ethnicity, BMI percentile, and poverty level among this sample (41% variance), respectively.
Conclusions: It is critical to objectively monitor 24-hour movement behavior during adolescence years, which may provide a comprehensive picture to understand the connections between daily activities and cognitive development. Policy-based approaches to promoting PA (e.g., reduce screen time) and supportive physical environment (e.g., neighborhood walkability) are recommended for neurodevelopment among U.S. adolescents, particularly among disadvantaged minorities.
Classroom Physical Activity Breaks in Early Elementary Students
Jeanne Barcelona, Wayne State Univrsity; Hannah Calvert, Boise State University; Paige Arvidson, Nathan McCaughtryF, Wayne State University
Background/Purpose: Children and adolescents are not participating in the recommend amount of physical activity (PA). Lack of PA is a leading risk factor for chronic disease in youth (WHO, 2009). Since schools are the ideal setting to implement more movement throughout a student’s day, successful programs have been developed to increase moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) within courses such as physical education. Models such as the Comprehensive School Physical Activity Programs (CSPAP) have been developed to understand holistic approaches on how to implement PA across the school day, also providing strategies and best practices for enhancing PA opportunities. Classroom PA breaks are one strategy that can increase PA in youth and may facilitate academic and cognitive performance in children, though findings are mixed (Norris et al., 2020). Therefore, comprehensive programs that utilize classroom PA breaks can decrease sedentary behavior, increase learning in students, and are typically free and easily accessible to teachers. However, consideration for how psychosocial factors influence student engagement in classroom PA and how this may elucidate their influence on cognitive and academic outcomes have yet to be explored. As such, this study examined the influence of psychosocial factors on engagement in a short duration, acute bout of classroom PA, and subsequent performance on an academic and cognitive assessment in early elementary students.
Method: A total of 232 early elementary students, kindergarten through second grade, across 20 classrooms in 6 public schools participated in the study. Using an online video module from an established classroom PA platform designed to elicit MVPA, students’ intensity of engagement in a bout of classroom PA was measured using accelerometers. A baseline survey measuring perceptions of classroom PA and self-ratings of student tendency toward impulsivity as well as pre and post academic and cognitive measures were administered. Multilevel regression models examined effects of student psychosocial factors on 1) activity level during the PA break, 2) change in math assessment scores 3) change in TMTB scores.
Analysis/Results: Perceived interest in classroom PA significantly predicted a higher intensity of engagement in the PA session (Coeff. = 192.1, t(134) = 1.990, p = 0.049). There were no significant predictors of change in cognition or academic performance.
Conclusions: No significant academic or cognitive change resulted from the PA intervention. However, students’ perceived interest and enjoyment of PA breaks predicted the intensity of their engagement. This is informative because it sheds light on an important need for future research that investigates how PA breaks needs may vary across grade levels and developmental periods. Research to date has evidenced the role of individual psychosocial factors, such as interest and enjoyment, on PA engagement in older elementary and adolescent populations, yet there is little evidence within early elementary (Fu et al., 2016). Future studies should look to examine the significance of interest and enjoyment in PA across multiple developmental stages, especially as it relates to comprehensive school models such as CSPAP.
College Student Knowledge of Self and Peer Binge Drinking
Judy R. Sandlin, Texas A&M University; Rosanne Keathley, Sam Houston State University; Michael Sandlin, Texas A&M University
Background/Purpose: Binge drinking is the most common and deadly pattern of excessive alcohol use in the US. Binge drinking, defined as a pattern of drinking that brings a person’s blood alcohol concentration to 0.08 or above, is particularly dangerous for college students. Although the majority of students come to college already having some experience with alcohol, certain aspects of college life can intensify the problem. This study investigates college students’ knowledge of binge drinking as well as their beliefs, opinions, and dispositions for such behaviors.
Method: Participants were primarily female (58%), Caucasian (74%), and upper classman (71%) at a southwest US university. Subjects ranged in age from 18-27 and came from a cross-section of ethnicities and majors at the university. Most reported regularly consuming caffeine (72%) while few (21%) regularly consumed energy drinks. Each (n=280) completed a 34-item instrument primarily interested in participant’s binge drinking knowledge and behaviors.
Analysis/Results: Given their high level of alcohol consumption (66% regularly drink alcohol), participants’ knowledge about binge drinking was reasonably high (M=7.34/10, S=1.33). Significant differences in knowledge existed between those who believe they have complete control over whether they binge drink in the next week and those who do not, t(276)=3.00; p=.00. Subjects who indicated greater control displayed more knowledge about binge drinking (M=7.43/10) compared to those reporting less control (M=6.68). Differences also existed between subjects who believe a high percentage of their friends will binge drink in the next week compared to those who believe a small percentage will, t(276)=2.21; p=.03. Those who believe a high percentage will binge in the next displayed more knowledge (M=7.57) compared to those who believe a lower percentage will (M=7.18).
Subjects displayed more knowledge (90% of subjects answered correctly or higher) for questions related to the signs and symptoms of binge drinking, what to do if one suspects alcohol poisoning, and the unintended consequences of binge drinking. Students were very informed in these binge drinking subject areas. High levels of knowledge were also observed for additional questions (80% of subjects answered correctly or higher) including those related to the definition of binge drinking, who participates in binge drinking activities including which genders and which age group(s), and the overall amounts of alcohol consumed when a young person binge drinks.
Deficits in participants’ knowledge of binge drinking are of concern. Participants have less knowledge with regard to the percentage of college students who frequently binge drink – they greatly overestimated the percentage. Subjects were also not aware of the cost and death rates associated with binge drinking nor the patterns of drinking among those 18-22 years old who do and do not attend college – they incorrectly thought the consumption rates were equal.
Conclusions: Our study found that college students have increased their knowledge about binge drinking compared to previous studies. While consumption rates remain high, knowledge of protective and treatment strategies appear to be consistently present. Education efforts should focus on self-control and accountability for one’s alcohol consumption and the perception of high consumption rates among peers.
Comparison of Basic Psychological Needs to Physical Activity Between College Students With and Without Intellectual/Developmental Disabilities
Myung Ha Sur, Deborah Shapiro, Georgia State University; Jaehun Jung, Oregon State University
Background/Purpose: Colleges and universities across the USA are enrolling an increasing number of students with disabilities with approximately 300 college programs specifically geared to students with intellectual/developmental disabilities (IDD) . For individuals with IDD emerging adulthood (age from 18-25) is a critical transitioning period to independent living inclusive of physical activity. It is crucial to the development of physical and emotional health and overall quality of life that individuals with IDD by developing self-determined motivation for regular participation in physical activity (PA). College is a place where students tend to have access to facilities and resources through campus recreation services to be physically active. Yet, research suggests a significant difference in physical activity participation rates between college age adults with and without IDD. Using the basic psychological needs theory of self-determination theory as a framework to understand PA participation of college students with IDD the purpose of the current study was to compare the similarities and differences on basic psychological needs for PA participation of college students with and without IDD.
Method: . A total of 192 college students with and without IDD completed an online questionnaire consisting of 22 questions measuring the satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs (autonomy, relatedness, and competence) to PA participation.
Analysis/Results: Descriptive statistics was used to calculated mean and standard deviation of the average score of each factor. Pearson Correlation coefficient was used to examine the relationships between need satisfaction and frustration for autonomy, relatedness, and competence. Analysis of Variance was used to compare the two groups. Factors related to the need satisfaction were positively correlated to each other, and factors related to the need frustration were also positively correlated to each other at p < .05. College students with IDD showed lower need satisfactions (autonomy, relatedness, and competence) and higher need frustration in autonomy and competence but not in relatedness at p < .05 than students without IDD.
Conclusions: College students with IDD experience lower need satisfactions and higher need frustration compared to college students without disabilities for PA participation that may be a critical reason preventing college students with IDD from engaging in PA. To fully understand the causes for lower need satisfaction and higher frustration and intervention strategies, future research should consider examining these factors within an ecological model, along with environmental and social factors that may influence one’s basic psychological needs.
Considering the Role of Adults in Shaping Black Girls’ School-Based Physical Activity
Nneka A Arinze, The University of Connecticut
Background/Purpose: It has been suggested that schools serve as important sites youth physical activity (PA) given the amount of time young people spend there. The CDC has made recommendations for Comprehensive School Physical Activity Plans, or CSPAP, as ways that the school environment can be more conducive for students to meet the recommended amount of PA. This includes guidelines for physical education and PA breaks as well as the overall school environment. However, not all schools are providing environment that help students meet these guidelines. In particular, schools with higher proportions of students from minority backgrounds or who hail from lower socioeconomic statuses are less likely to provide adequate time for PA and more likely to have student populations that fail to meet recommended PA levels. This is particularly alarming as Black girls, who are more likely to have lower levels of PA, are more likely to attend these types of schools and thus have fewer resources for PA. As such, it is important to consider how to better shape school environments to address this disparity. With resources remaining constant, there is evidence that how school adults engage with black girls better predicts their involvement in physical activity. However more in-depth look at the ways in which teachers and other adults in schools influence Black girls’ participation rates is needed. The purpose of this presentation is to provide evidence from a qualitative case study that explored the ways in which adults influenced Black girls’ participation in PA.
Method: The participants were 6 eighth grade girls who participated in a school-based sport-based youth development program and the 7 adult women who served as leaders. Data was collected through participant observation and semi-structured and informal interviews. The observation field notes and interview transcripts were analyzed using thematic analysis.
Analysis/Results: There were multiple behaviors by adults that girls perceived to and were observed to influence participation rates. The factors that served to discourage PA were lowered expectations, gender stereotypes, lack of encouragement, and limited space and resources. Those that promoted PA were active involvement in activities, positive youth-adult relationships, and behavior modeling. These contrasts were apparent in the ways in which teachers engaged with students as compared to the intentional strategy taken by the SBYD program leaders.
Conclusions: As noted in the CDC guidelines, the behaviors and approach of adults should be considered when implementing plans to increase students’ PA. As such, school leaders consider how to better engage Black girls in PA, they should consider not only the physical resources provided but strategies to help adults better engage students in PA.
Cooking Meals at Home: The Perfect Recipe for General Anxiety
Rosanne Keathley, Sam Houston State University; Judy R. Sandlin, Michael Sandlin, Texas A&M University
Background/Purpose: Therapeutic and rehabilitative settings have used cooking interventions with positive, anecdotal results. Few studies have investigated these interventions on psychosocial outcomes. A 2018 review of literature found that inpatient and community-based cooking therapy generated positive effects on socialization, self-esteem, quality of life, and affect. Another 2014 review of literature found cooking interventions led to promising changes in health status and dietary intake of fat, fiber, and sodium and these interventions resulted in changes in cooking self-efficacy and attitudes and behaviors toward cooking. This research examined cooking at home behaviors and the relationship of feelings about cooking to levels of generalized anxiety.
Method: Participants responded to the 7-item Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale that screens for stress, anxiety, and panic disorders. Low scores indicate minor levels of distress while high scores indicate major levels of distress. Subjects also responded to demographic and cooking at home related questions. The 409 participants (n=156/253 males/females) represented five ethnicities with an average age of 30.51 (S=15.07).
Analysis/Results: Participants were grouped based on their feelings about cooking meals at home – Relaxing or Stressful (those who indicated Neither Relaxing or Stressful were excluded from this analysis). An independent t-test was used to determine if there was a significant difference between the groups with regard to general anxiety. A significant difference was found, t(307)=-3.34; p=.000. Those who indicated cooking meals at home is Relaxing (M=6.04, S=5.37) had significantly lower levels of anxiety compared to those indicating cooking meals at home is Stressful (M=8.16, S=5.88).
In addition, a significant negative correlation was found between the number of meals prepared at home per week and general anxiety, r(407)=-.15, p<.05. Participants who indicated preparing more meals at home/week had lower levels of anxiety and those who indicated preparing fewer meals at home had higher levels of anxiety. Interestingly, the average anxiety level for those preparing meals at home 7 days/week was 5.41 (S=.81) compared to those who never prepare meals at home (M=9.48, S=1.38).
Lastly, participants were asked to explain why cooking meals at home was relaxing or stressful for them and the responses were themed. Relaxing indicators included:
“I love the process of making something out of ingredients and learning new recipes.”
“Making something good for my family.”
“It distracts me from the stress of work.”
“Being able to be creative, making a good meal, and the pride from doing so.”
Stressful indicators included:
“I don’t like going to the store. Prepping takes up a lot of time I could be spending doing something else.”
“It creates stress because I don’t know what a balanced meal is.”
“I am just afraid of making mistakes.”
Conclusions: Few studies have investigated the benefits of cooking on lowering stress and anxiety within the general population. Our results indicate that self-reported feelings about preparing meals at home are a strong indicator of general anxiety and that general anxiety is lower for those who prepare more meals at home. Quantitatively themed indicators should be used to assist those who find preparing meals at home to be stressful.
Correlations Between Physical Activity Participation, the Environment, and COVID-19 in Children and Adolescents: A Comprehensive Meta-Analysis Using Ecological Frameworks
Longxi Li, Michelle E. Moosbrugger, Springfield College
Background/Purpose: Physical activity (PA) and sports are efficient ways to promote the young generation’s physical and mental health and development (Hallal et al., 2012; Liguori & ACSM, 2020). However, less than 30% of children worldwide meet the recommended PA guidelines of the World Health Organization which was identified as a significant risk factor for global mortality (WHO, 2010). To this date, the global pandemic is making this topic more concerning. This study expected to demonstrate the complexity of ecological factors associated with children’s and adolescents’ non-organized PA and the impact of COVID-19 pandemic on children and adolescents’ non-organized PA.
Method: Relevant articles were sourced from PubMed, SPORTDiscus, PsycInfo, MEDLINE Complete, ERIC, Dimensions, Cochrane Library, and Academic Search Complete. Only studies were fundamental on Bronfenbrenner’s ecological framework and published between 2001-2021 were selected based on the following agenda: participants are healthy and 3-18 years old; outcomes must include objective or self-reported PA measures. To note, COVID-19 studies’ PA data was measured at before and during the pandemic. Calculations were produced in Comprehensive Meta-Analysis 3.3.
Analysis/Results: Fifty eligible studies (N = 339,379) with moderate to high quality were included (Pre-COVID-19 studies = 39 and Pre-During Comparisons studies = 11). No potential publication bias was detected using statistical analyses. The meta-analysis revealed that the overall ecological factors correlated positively with children and adolescents’ non-organized PA; the meta-analytic average of the correlations was (′r = .32, p < .001; R2 = .17). Results from subgroup analysis indicated that theory-based influence factors achieved moderate effect with boys (′r = .37, p < .001) and girls (′r = .32, p < .001) in non-organized PA. Interestingly, higher correlations were found between ecological factors and twins’ non-organized PA (′r = .61, p = .001). Further, individual (′r = .32, p < .001), macro- and chronosystems factors (′r = .50, p < .001) appeared slightly more influential than microsystems factors (′r = .28, p < .001) and COVID-19 (′r = -.19, p = .023) as an influential factor which negatively impact on children and adolescents’ non-organized PA.
Conclusions: Although findings from included studies covered were to some extent heterogeneous, it is possible to identify consistent correlates of non-organized PA in children and adolescents. The results supported that non-organized PA is a complex and multi-dimensional behavior which is determined by numerous biological, psychological, sociocultural, and environmental factors. Although three studies revealed increasing non-organized PA in Australia and Germany, COVID-19 is still one of the direct reasons for decreasing PA in children and adolescents. Hence, PA among children and adolescents is highly ecological environmental and context driven and does not act as a functional opposite to sedentary behavior and screen time. Future studies which focus on the integration effect of macrosystem and chronosystem environmental factors and apply longitudinal designs and objective measurements are encouraged to further unfold the complexity of the ecological system and its implications in promoting children and adolescents’ non-organized PA in the post pandemic era.
Disparities in Physical Activity, Tobacco Use, and Depression During COVID-19
Kimberly Vanhoose, Samantha Moss, University of Texas at Arlington; Xiaoxia Zhang, East Carolina University; Ziyad Ben Taleb, Xiangli GuF, University of Texas at Arlington
Background/Purpose: The COVID-19 pandemic has been shown to increase obesity and various health-risk behaviors (e.g., sedentary behavior, smoking), however, it remains unclear how those behaviors may be associated with depression during the pandemic. Health disparities are widening due to the COVID-19 pandemic, so it is vital to understand the behavioral practices associated with depression during this sensitive time. The purposes of this study were: 1) To examine the relationship of leisure-time physical activity, sedentary behavior, and cigarette/e-cigarette use with depression; and 2) To examine obesity and ethnic disparities in study variables.
Method: A cross-sectional research design was used and a total of 366 participants (60.1% females; 38.8% Hispanic; 46.7% overweight/obese; Mage = 22.59 ± 4.98 years) were recruited from a university. Body mass index was calculated from self-reported height/weight and categorized based on the CDC index chart. Leisure-time PA (LTPA) was assessed using the Godin-Shepard Leisure-Time Physical Activity Questionnaire (Godin, 2011). Sedentary behaviors including screen time and non-screen time, were assessed by the Sedentary Behavior Questionnaire (Rosenberg et al., 2010). The 20-item Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression Scale (CES-D; Radloff, 1977) was used to measure depression. Participants also self-reported their cigarette and e-cigarette use within the last 30 days. Data were collected between February 2020 – October 2020 (during the COVID-19 pandemic). Correlational analysis and the multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) were performed to address the research questions.
Analysis/Results: On average, participants engaged in approximately 15 hours of sedentary behavior per day. More than one third of the participants showed cigarette/e-cigarette usage and elevated signs of depressive symptoms (CES-D ≥ 16) during COVID-19. Depression was significantly related to e-cigarette use (r = .141, p < .01), sedentary behavior (r = .144, p < .01), and screen time (r = .169, p < .01) and inversely associated with LTPA (r = -.111, p < .05). The regression model revealed e-cigarette use (β = .153, p < .01) and sedentary behavior (β = .229, p < .05) as significant predictors of depression (R2 = .074, p < .01). The MANCOVA displayed significant obesity and ethnic effects on health-risk behaviors (Wilk’s λ = .968, p < .05, η2 = .032). Compared to Hispanic participants, non-Hispanic participants engaged in significantly more total sedentary behavior (15.96 hrs. vs. 14.18 hrs.; Cohen’s d = .24) and screen time (9.97 hrs. vs. 8.79 hrs.; Cohen’s d = .26). The results showed overweight/obese participants engaged in significantly less LTPA (53.10 vs. 59.95; Cohen’s d = .21) and more non-screen sedentary behavior (6.15 hrs. vs. 5.24 hrs.; Cohen’s d =.24) than their normal weight counterparts. No significant ethnic or obesity effects on depression and cigarette/e-cigarette use were observed in this sample.
Conclusions: During the COVID-19 pandemic, excess sedentary behavior and tobacco use are associated with depression among young adults. The observed obesity and ethnic disparities on health-risk behaviors further emphasize the need for tailored interventions to promote physical activity, and discourage unhealthy behaviors (i.e., excess sedentary behaviors, smoking) among college students, especially for the at-risk minority populations.
Disruptive Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Children’s Mental Health and Health Behaviors: Insights From Cooperative Extension Agents
Senlin ChenF, Louisiana State University; Jessica Stroope, Denise Holston, LSU AgCenter; Ryan Hulteen, Fahui Wang, Beibei Guo, Louisiana State University; Gang Hu, Amanda E Staiano, Pennington Biomedical Research Center
Background/Purpose: The COVID-19 pandemic has caused significant societal changes in the U.S. (e.g., virtual/hybrid instruction in schools, stay at home orders, social distancing), which have constrained the opportunities and outcomes related to children’s mental health and health behaviors (e.g., physical activity, screen time, diet, sleep). Extension agents whose work involves engagement with K–12 schools and communities offer a unique, meaningful perspective to understand the disruptive impact of the pandemic. The purpose of this study was to quantify Extension agents’ perceived disruptions of the pandemic on school-based programs/opportunities (PreK-8th grades) over the course of the pandemic, as well as their perceived impact on children’s (3-12 years old) mental health and health behaviors.
Method: An anonymous survey was designed through a joint effort by researchers and Extension specialists. The survey consists of three background questions, four questions on the models of school instruction in four pandemic time phases, two questions pertaining to disruptions of the pandemic to a variety of school-based programs/opportunities (e.g., physical and health education, after-school programs, wellness counseling, etc.) in the four time phases, and two questions asking the perceived impact on five mental health outcomes and four health behaviors. The survey was distributed to the Extension agents who attended a late spring webinar workshop held by the university’s Extension department. Sixty Extension agents (N = 60) representing 45 out of the 64 Louisiana parishes (counties) completed the survey. The survey results were analyzed using descriptive statistical analysis and graphed using the geographic information system (GIS).
Analysis/Results: Most Louisiana parishes had schools adopting a virtual/hybrid instruction model in the spring semester of 2020 (87%). Since fall 2020, our survey showed an upward trend of school reopening (virtual/hybrid instruction declined to 78% and 45% in the two 2020-2021 academic semesters, respectively). A third of the agents were uncertain about their parishes’ planned model of instruction for the fall semester of 2021. The agents-reported level of pandemic disruptions to school-based programs and resources showed a steady decline by time, as depicted by the GIS maps (to be presented at the conference). The agents also reported moderate to high negative impact of the pandemic on children’s ill-being (stress, anxiety, depression; 70.6%), socialization (with peers and friends and teachers; 71.1-84.0%), cognitive function (53.4%), physical activity within (69.7%) and outside of schools (62.9%), screen time (86.2%), and sleep time and quality (61.2%).
Conclusions: This study has generated first-hand evidence describing the negative disruptive impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on children’s opportunities and outcomes related to mental health and health behaviors in Louisiana. The Extension agents across the state offered timely and informative insights through the survey. The results highlight the importance of relevant school-based programs and opportunities for children to engage in healthy living behaviors and achieve good mental health. Despite the improvement made in containing the virus, the lingering COVID-19 pandemic continues to render disruptive impact. Resuming safe in-person instruction in schools is critical to individual, community, and public health, which demands purposeful policy and practice to minimize the impact on children’s mental health and health behaviors.
Dose-Response Relationship of Physical Activity With Cognition and Classroom Behaviors
Samantha Moss, University of Texas at Arlington; Xiaoxia Zhang, East Carolina University; Larry Nelson, Xiangli GuF, University of Texas at Arlington
Background/Purpose: Physical activity (PA) has been shown to be associated with cognitive function and academic behaviors (i.e., classroom behaviors) and is receiving considerable attention among children (Donnelly et al., 2016). There is not, however, a clear understanding on the dose-response effects of school-based PA, in terms of intensity, on cognitive function and classroom behaviors during early childhood. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the dose-response relationship of different intensity levels of PA (light PA [LPA], moderate-to-vigorous PA [MVPA]) and sedentary behavior with cognitive function and classroom behaviors in a sample of kindergarteners. The gender and ethnic disparities in the outcome variables were also examined.
Method: This study implemented a cross-sectional design and recruited 94 children (Mage= 5.37 years; 45 girls; 24.1% Hispanic) from two elementary schools located in North Texas. Different intensity levels of PA and sedentary behavior were captured by accelerometer (GT9X ActiGraph Corp, LLC, Pensacola, FL) for 5 consecutive school days. Cognitive function, including simple and choice movement time (SMT; CMT), and simple and choice reaction time (SRT; CRT), was measured using the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB). Children’s classroom behaviors were reported by teachers using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (Goodman, 1997), with five behavioral domains: conduct, prosocial, peer problems, emotional problems, and hyperactivity. The correlation analysis was conducted to address the first purpose. The multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) was performed to analyzie the gender and ethnic disparities by controlling the age.
Analysis/Results: On average, children spent 141.78 minutes in LPA, 82.70 minutes in MVPA and 32.24 minutes in sedentary behavior during one typical school day. Around 32.9% of children were in the slightly raised band, showing worse performance than average behavioral scores according to the SDQ measure. Correlational analysis revealed that MVPA was significantly associated with peer problems and conduct problems (r= -.29, r= -.25; p <.05, respectively), whereas LPA was also significantly associated with peer problems (r= -.29, p <.01). The significant associations between LPA and CRT (r=.24; p<.05), and between MVPA and CMT(r=.25; p<.05) were observed in this study. The MANCOVA model revealed significant ethnic effects on PA outcomes (Wilk’s λ =.806, p < .05, η2 = .194) but not on classroom behaviors. Compared to Hispanic peers, non-Hispanic children participated in significantly less LPA (Cohen’s d=1.35; 122.38 vs. 218.78 mins), MVPA (Cohen’s d=.80; 78.74 vs. 101.34 mins) and engaged in more sedentary behavior (Cohen’s d=.73; 35.80 vs. 14.60 mins) during school days. Girls had a significantly higher CRT than boys (Cohen’s d=.63, 640.64 ms vs. 555.76 ms), but there were no significant gender effects on PA and classroom behavior outcomes.
Conclusions: Engaging in various intensity levels of PA (i.e., LPA and MVPA) has potential to benefit cognitive function and classroom behaviors (e.g., less peer and conduct problems) which may help position children toward a positive developmental trajectory. The emerging ethnic and gender disparities warrant further investigations to determine possible pathways to narrow these gaps in early child education.
Drunkorexia, Alcoholemia, and Alcohol Protective Practices Among College Students
Michael Sandlin, Judy R. Sandlin, Texas A&M University; Rosanne Keathley, Sam Houston State University
Background/Purpose: That college students display risky behaviors with regard to alcohol use and abuse is not new. Two relatively new behaviors are drunkorexia and alcoholemia. Drunkorexia is classified as restricting daily caloric intake in order to consume more alcohol. Alcoholemia is characterized as purposefully purging after consuming food or alcohol in order to consume more alcoholic beverages. Other risky behaviors include consuming caffeinated beer and alcohol mixed with energy drinks. The purpose of this study was to examine the alcohol consumption and alcohol protective strategies among college students.
Method: Participants were 303 college students attending a large four-year state university in the south. Subjects responded to a 12-item survey associated with the purpose of the study. The sample was almost equally divided between males (42%) and females (58%) and the average age of the participants was 21.68 years (SD =.10).
Analysis/Results: Well over half of the subjects (59.08%) had heard of drunkorexia while 19.14% (n=58) admitted to drunkorexia themselves. Of those and within the past six months, the average number of times of drunkorexia was 12.14 (S=5.85). Twenty participants disclosed that they had participated in drunkorexia 10 or more times in their lifetime. Alarmingly, two subjects reported that had participated in drunkorexia “every weekend” and “way too often.” Interestingly, a number of participants who are under the legal age limit had participated in drunkorexia – age 19=3 participants, and age 20=9 participants.
Just over half of the participants (55.12%) had heard of alcoholemia and 12.54% (n= 38) admitted to alcoholemia. The average rate of participation in alcoholemia in the last 6 months was 3.32 (S = 4.71). Six subjects admitted that they had vomited 10 or more times in order to consume more alcohol. A number of participants who are under the legal age limit had also participated in alcoholemia – age 18=1 participant, age 19=3 participants, and age 20=6 participants.
Lastly, participants were asked about their alcohol protective strategies when going to clubs and bars. By far, the planned strategy was consuming food before drinking alcohol (81.85% of participants). Interestingly, 68.90% of participants stated that they had served as a sober friend for others consuming alcohol but only 52.47% had relied on a friend to do the same for them. Other positive plans included knowing where they were going for the evening (65.35%) and had a plan for arriving home safely (66.01%). Close to 50% of the participants stated that they alternated alcohol with non-alcoholic drinks, go out with a coed gender group, drink at home before going out, and do not leave a drink unattended. Among the least used planned strategies were predetermining a drinking limit for oneself (42.57%) and going out in a same gender group (42.57%).
Conclusions: Programs should continue to educate college students about the dangers of alcohol consumption and risky behaviors associated with alcohol consumption like drunkorexia and alcoholemia particularly for underage college students. On a positive note, college students do appear to think about ways to safely make it home after a night of drinking.
E-Cigarette/Vape Usage: Thoughts, Feelings, and Knowledge Among College Students
Rosanne Keathley, Sam Houston State University; Judy R. Sandlin, Michael Sandlin, Texas A&M University
Background/Purpose: E-cigarette use is on the rise. The number of college students who have begun to engage in this “safe” form of smoking has shot up tremendously. Students who have never smoked cigarettes have started to vape and use e-cigarettes. Interestingly enough, young people who start vaping are nearly three times more likely to go on to smoke cigarettes than their peers who do not use any tobacco products. Although there has been heavy coverage on vaping and e-cigarette use in the news lately, many college students who partake in this activity say they are not concerned by the potential hazards. This study investigates the thoughts, feelings, knowledge, and planned behavior of e-cigarette/vape use among college students.
Method: Participants (n = 280) completed a 34-item instrument related to the purposes of the study. A key portion of the survey identified participant’s familiarity with e-cigarette/vaping hazards. Questions were scored with higher scores indicating more knowledge about e-cigarette/vaping risks. The average age of participants was 21.4 (S=2.48) who had an average GPA of 3.40 (S=.38). Participants spanned all years in school as well as all ethnicities.
Analysis/Results: Overall, the participants revealed very positive views about their intent to use e-cigarettes/vape over the next several weeks suggesting it would be “bad,” “worthless,” “unwise,” “negative” and that their significant others would not approve of their use of e-cigarettes/vaping (79%). Over 50% stated that using e-cigarettes/vapes goes against their principles and they would feel guilty if they used e-cigarettes/vapes. Some plan (and are likely) to use e-cigarettes/vape in the next week (9%). However, many (67%) suggest that their friends and peers are likely to use e-cigarettes/vape in the next weeks.
Participants had a relatively high knowledge of e-cigarette/vaping risks (M=7.16/10, S=1.56). They scored highest on questions related to the chemicals in e-cigarettes/vapes (91%, 87%, and 70% answered correct), E-cigarette Use-Associated Lung Injury (EVALI) (87% correct), use of e-cigarettes/vapes from informal sources (85% correct), and e-cigarette/vaping use leading to other tobacco usage (76% correct). Less knowledge was observed for e-cigarette/vaping liquid structure (61% incorrect) and e-cigarette/vaping federal/state regulation (55% incorrect).
Very few participants stated that they regularly use tobacco products (15%). However, of the participants who use tobacco products, 68% of the users were male. Significant differences in e-cigarette/vaping knowledge was indicated between males and females, t(278)=2.15; p=.03. Females recorded more knowledge (M=7.33) compared to males (M=6.93). Significant differences were also observed between participants who do not use and those who do use e-cigarettes/vape, t(278)=3.27; p=.00. None-users revealed more knowledge (M=7.29) compared to users (M=6.44).
Conclusions: Findings validate some previous research that beliefs and attitudes regarding e-cigarettes/vape use, behavioral intentions, and perceived controls result in positive behaviors. Further, the normative beliefs identified in Theory of Planned Behavior were indicative of positive e-cigarette/vape behaviors among most subjects. Of concern, however, are the findings for male, e-cigarette/vape users. Education resources and efforts should clearly be emphasized for college male users. Social-nom educational programs could be a viable approach for this target population given the actual relative low tobacco/e-cigarette/vape usage rates among males.
Effects of COVID-19 Mandates on Exercise Levels and Experiences Among College Students
Maria KosmaF, Louisiana State University; MooSong Kim, Northeastern State University; Dalhyun H. Moon, California State University East Bay; Shelia Fritts, Northeastern State University
Background/Purpose: The positive physical and mental health benefits of physical activity are well-established in the literature. Recent research has even discovered that exercise can improve long-lasting symptoms of COVID 19, such as fatigue, breathlessness, and exercise capacity (Daynes et al., 2021). It is also known that COVID-19 mandates have had devastating effects on physical and mental health of especially young adults (e.g., increased suicides and suicide contemplation, depression, and anxiety levels; Haseltine, 2020; Smith et al., 2020). It is unclear how COVID-19 mandates, such as lockdowns and mask wearing, have affected the exercise levels and experiences among young adults. Therefore, the purpose of this qualitative (phronetic) study was to examine how COVID-19 mandates affected the exercise levels and experiences of college students.
Method: This was a qualitative, phronetic study among 10 US college students (males =3, females =7), who were individually interviewed via Zoom. All interviews were audio and video recorded and lasted between 35 and 45 minutes. Interview questions addressed aspects of physical activity levels and experiences before and during COVID 19. For example, participants were asked about their exercise participation before COVID 19 and potential exercise changes because of COVID 19. The term COVID-19 mandates was not included in the questions but it emerged in participants’ responses.
Analysis/Results: Based on the qualitative, phronetic analysis in the latest version of NVivo, all participants were physically active before COVID 19. Most of them used to regularly exercise at gyms and/or play sports. However, following the COVID-19 mandates several negative exercise changes occurred for most participants as reflected in the first theme of the two following emerging themes: a) Negative exercise experiences: reduced exercise participation and motivation due to inability to train with other people (e.g., closed gyms and termination of contact sports), increased screen use leading to high anxiety levels, and mask wearing (e.g., difficulty to breathe while exercising) and (b) Unchanged exercise levels due to preferred activity types: a few participants mentioned that their exercise levels did not change during COVID 19 because of their preference to participate in outdoor activities (e.g., walking, hiking, and ultimate freebee) or at their home gym.
Conclusions: Based on the study findings, COVID-19 mandates (e.g., lockdowns, absent or limited social interaction and support, and increased screen use) overall negatively affected college students’ physical activity behavior and experiences. Most participants indicated that their exercise levels and motivation decreased because of COVID-19 mandates while screen use and anxiety levels increased. These results corroborate other recent research showcasing the devastating effects of COVID-19 mandates on young people’s physical and mental health and substantiate the importance of participation in community-based exercises involving high social interaction and outdoor activities. In this way, young adults can keep active, lead the good life (per phronesis), and sustain their sense of well-being.
Establishing a Rural Youth Fitness Surveillance System: A Pilot Study
Cate A. Egan, Chris Merica, University of Idaho; Seth Rose, University of Idaho; College of Education, Health, and Human Sciences; Andrew K Martin, University of Idaho; Chantal A Vella, David R Paul, University of Idaho; College of Education, Health, and Human Sciences
Background/Purpose: In the United States, 16% of youth are considered obese, particularly rural youth who have been shown to be more overweight or obese than their urban peers. Obesity is often coupled with low levels of physical fitness both of which increase the risk of cardiovascular disease morbidity and mortality. In youth, higher fitness is associated with lower rates of obesity, healthier cardiovascular systems, enhanced muscular strength and endurance, and improved cognition. One way to understand youth fitness status is with annual fitness testing (i.e., surveillance), which is nationally recommended as an important component of physical education. However, only 26.6% of states require fitness testing within schools. In Idaho, there is no uniform fitness testing (e.g., one set test) or reporting system, and the fitness status of youth in Idaho is relatively unknown. This study was part of a larger study to train physical education teachers via distance technology to conduct standardized fitness testing (i.e., FitnessGram), establish a fitness surveillance system, and estimate the prevalence of obesity and low fitness in grades 3, 5, 7 and 9-12 from select schools in northern Idaho, so that targeted cost-effective interventions can be developed.
Method: A convenience sample of physical education teachers (N=13; n=4 male) were recruited from 11 schools. Teachers were trained on FitnessGram testing procedures via distance technology, completed a content knowledge test, and were checked for reliability prior to collecting data. Data on body mass index (BMI), PACER, curl up, push up, and sit and reach were collected from students (N=803; n=355 females) in grades 3, 5, 7, and 9-12.
Analysis/Results: Data were entered into Excel spreadsheets and imported into SAS (version 9.4). BMI was calculated using the Centers for Disease Control code (2016 version). A SAS code was written to generate FitnessGram scores, with the Mahar (2011) equation used for VO2 scores. All teachers passed the content knowledge test (M=97.8%), and reliability check (90.1%), with reliability issues related to equipment set up (e.g., sit and reach box not against the wall). Preliminary results for BMI indicate that 24.5% of 3rd and 5th graders, 21.8% of 7th graders and 11.8% of high schoolers were categorized as Needs Improvement-Health Risk (NI-HR), respectively. For the PACER, 24.8% of 3rd and 5th graders, 21.8% of 7th graders, and 22.2% of high schoolers were categorized as NI-HR, respectively. Across all grade levels most students were in the healthy zone for the sit and reach (M=81.2%, range=62.1-93.1%), curl up (M=78.5%, range=65.2-89.9%), but the push up only yielded a slight majority in the healthy zone (M=58.0%, range=43.6-69.0).
Conclusions: The preliminary results indicate approximately 45% of students in 3, 5, and 7th grades need improvement for BMI. Around a quarter of all students tested need improvement or are at a health risk for cardiovascular fitness. Our preliminary data suggest that rural Idaho youth may benefit from targeted school-based physical activity and fitness interventions to improve risk of obesity and overall fitness, and training teachers via distance technology is a viable option for establishing fitness surveillance.
Evaluating Physical Activity and Fitness Within Sport Education: A Systematic Review
Luis Gabriel Estrada, University of Puerto Rico at Río Piedras; Zachary Wahl-AlexanderF, Northern Illinois University; Anthony Melendez, University of Puerto Rico at Río Piedras; Olvin O. Rosado, University of Puerto Rico
Background/Purpose: The Sport Education Model (SEM) is recognized as the most widely researched and implemented pedagogical model (PM) in the Physical Education (PE) field. As PM that promote enthusiastic, competent and literate people through sports (Siedentop et al., 2019) have evolve with non-sports content and practical lessons (Sibley, 2012); physical conditioning (Blocker & Wahl-Alexander, 2018) to promote physical activity (PA) and fitness.The purpose of this study was to review the Sport Education Model (SEM) physical activity (PA) and fitness outcomes reported in the physical education (PE) or related field and identify new trends for future research directions since Hastie et al 2011.
Method: Research articles selected were found through the six databases including ResearchGate, Medline, Scopus, SportDiscuss (EBSCO), ERIC (ProQuest) and Google Scholar. The keywords associated (Sport Education, Pedagogical Models Physical Activity and Fitness) were used in different combinations. The articles were selected using the following criteria:(a) peer-reviewed studies in international journals indexed (b) isolated implementation of the SEM or compared with others;(c) findings focus in PA or fitness; (d) elementary-college or related setting research; and (e) published in English or Spanish. Furthermore, journal articles were then obtained through the citations and references in the original documents. A total of 16 articles were identified through the searching process.
Analysis/Results: PRISMA (2020) guidelines were used to analyze the different studies. Articles were initially categorized according to the following dimensions: country of origin, focus, participants, topics, length of season, participants (grade, gender, age), and results. They were then discussed in terms of PA and fitness as common content and aims of physical education context or related. Sixteen papers were identified that comply with the selection criteria, and PA or fitness as a season outcome. Since, Hastie et al., 2011 review, there been an expansion in the number of studies related to SE and PA as a season outcome, new contexts and research purposes. However, fitness as an outcome still lacking research, there was only 3 studies with the same content standard.
Conclusions: Studies of SE as PA or fitness as season outcome still lacking research in other sites rather than United States and Spain. Results presents that the SEM can be considerate as a consistent and flexible PM that can promote and reach moderate/vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and some health related fitness components (cardiovascular) through different topics contents and academics level. Nonetheless, physical fitness as season outcome through sport, non-sport and innovated proposals content standard is needed to be researched. Longitudinal and multi-sites studies as PA and fitness outcomes are highly recommended too.
Examining the Impact of Intramural Sports on Social and Emotional Learning
Mark Urtel, Indiana University Purdue University – Indianapolis
Background/Purpose: The research on intramural sports in after-school programs is underdeveloped (Le Menestrel et. al., 2002). Furthermore, the intentionality of how afterschool sports has been delivered have been disjointed or unclear, which makes assessing the impact difficult (Coatsworth and Conroy, 2007; Opstoel et. al., 2020). Nevertheless, there is an emerging focus regarding the youth sport experience (Sport Education Model (SEM)) and its impact on Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) (Jacobs and Wright, 2014). Yet, most of this research is within a physical education program. Therefore, the necessity of studying the impact of the SEM in afterschool programming on SEL becomes convincingly clear.
Method: The afterschool SEL and SEM program (intervention) had open enrollment and resulted in 41 participants joining. We then identified a matching group who did not enroll in the intervention. While (a) grade (b) gender and (c) ethnicity and (d) program participation were the dependent variables, SEL score was the independent variable. SEL score was assessed by the home-base teacher who completed the DESSA-mini in a pre-test and post-test manner; again, for both program participants and the matched control. The DESSA-mini was selected due to (a) efficiency for inventory completers (b) reliability to the larger DESSA inventory (c) strength for assessing elementary-aged students and (d) relevance for after-school programming (Naglieri et al., 2011; Shapiro, et. al., 2017). The program intervention met for twice weekly, for 1.5 hours per session over the 4.5-week season.
Analysis/Results: To explore the impact of SEM-based programming on Social and Emotional Learning in an afterschool setting a repeated measures ANOVA was utilized between the variables. All statistical analyses were performed using SAS software 9.4 with significance established at the p < .05 level. The results indicate that overall, there was a statistically significant difference between program participants and a peer control group of non-participants (p=.0009). Factoring in grade, there was a statistically significant difference between 4th graders participating in the program, versus a peer control (p=.0034). Regarding gender, there was a statistically significant difference between males participating in the program, versus a peer control (p=.0254). Factoring in grade and gender, there was a statistically significant difference between 4th grade males participating in the program, versus a peer control of non-participants (p=.0029).
Conclusions: Implementing the SEM in afterschool sports programming will plausibly yield significant SEL benefits. In particular, 4th grade boys express the most significant benefit from this type of intervention. The strength of this project includes (a) utilized evidenced-based frameworks (b) applied an efficacious assessment tool (c) invoked the perspective of a key stakeholder on youth development, the home-base teacher (d) employed a matched peer group serving as a control and, perhaps most importantly, (e) using a very popular and long-standing setting, afterschool time.
However, some limitations should be noted. First, there were no enrollment criteria. Future research may benefit from in-school professionals referring students to this type of program intervention. Second, the number of participants is modest.
Gender Preference in Motivation and Knowledge Achievement in Physical Education
Chaojie Shang, Anqi Deng, University of North Carolina at Greensboro; Alexander Clayton Moss, University of North Carolina Greensboro; Ang ChenF, North Carolina-Greensboro/University of
Background/Purpose: Motivation and knowledge are two critical components that influence student achieving the goal of lifelong physical activity participation. Expectancy beliefs and perceived task values are major motivation sources that are considered to define the relation of motivation and knowledge. Literature has documented that gender can be a moderator for both expectancy-value motivation and learning (Ding et al., 2011). Guided by the Situated Expectancy-Value theory (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020), this study was intended to identify gender role in high school students’ expectancy-value motivation and knowledge achievement. The findings of the study may help enhance students’ motivation in physical education by understanding the impact of gender.
Method: A mixed-methods approach was used in the study. A random sample of 207 students drawn from four high schools provided the data responding to the expectancy-value motivation questionnaire adapted from Eccles et al. (1983) and a standardized knowledge achievement test. A MANOVA analysis was implemented to determine the role of gender in expectancy beliefs, task values, and knowledge achievement. Cost, a component of SEVT, was measured using two open-ended questions, an open-, axial, selective coding approach was adopted to categorize the type of costs with a Chi-square analysis to confirm the gender role.
Analysis/Results: The MANOVA revealed a statistically significant difference between the females and males (Hotelling’s Trace = .07, F5, 201 = 2.84, p = .02, partial ƞ2 = .07). The univariate analysis (ANOVA), with the Bonferroni adjustment, identified differences in attainment value (F1, 205 = 4.00, p = .05, partial ƞ2 = .02) between females (M = 3.12, SD = .93) and males (M = 3.39, SD = .99) and in knowledge achievement (M = .41, .36, SD = .69, .73, respectively; F1, 205 = .16, p = .006, partial ƞ2 = .036). There were no gender differences in expectancy beliefs, intrinsic value, and utility value. The results showed that female and male high school students may have different views about the importance of physical education. Otherwise, they shared similar expectancy beliefs and other task values.
The qualitative analysis revealed three broad cost categories consistent with the SEVT theory: opportunity cost, effort cost, and emotional cost. The analysis also revealed four cost categories unique to physical education: content cost, instruction cost, environment cost, and personal cost. Chi-square analysis indicated that gender preference existed only in the perceiving opportunity cost (χ2 = 8.00, p = .005).
Conclusions: Gender role has been found as an insignificant factor in influencing high school students’ expectancy beliefs, intrinsic value, and utility value. Although the males were more likely to recognize the importance of physical education than the females, the females seemed to learn the content better and to be more likely to perceive opportunity cost, where they felt losing opportunities to learn in other subject matters. The cost the students perceived encompasses seven categories including opportunity, effort, emotion, content, instruction, environment, and personal factors. Further studies are needed to explore remedies in these perceived cost categories to minimize their impact on student motivation and learning.
Generalization and Maintenance of Participation in Parkour in Elementary Schools
Kian Vanluyten, KULeuven; Shu Cheng, KU Leuven; Cedric Roure, University of Teacher Education; Jan Seghers, KU Leuven; Philip WardF, The Ohio State University; Peter Iserbyt, KU Leuven
Background/Purpose: An important goal of a Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program (CSPAP) is connecting the content of physical education with other components such as recess programs (Coolkens et al., 2018). Our purpose was to investigate the effect of generalization and maintenance of participation in parkour from physical education to parkour recess as a function of gender. Generalization occurs when children practice and apply parkour skills learned in physical education lessons in a generalization setting (e.g., parkour recess). Maintenance occurs when children continue to participate in parkour after the parkour unit during physical education has ended.
Method: Seven K-2 elementary classes (147 children, 55 girls, 92 boys) from different schools were taught a 10-lesson parkour sport education unit in physical education. During generalization phase (i.e., during the parkour sport education season), five parkour recess sessions (20 minutes/session) were organized. During maintenance phase (i.e., after the parkour season), another five parkour recess sessions (20 minutes/session) were organized. Both physical education lessons and parkour recess sessions were organized in the gymnasium by the children’s regular physical education teacher. Participation in all parkour recess sessions was voluntary meaning children could choose to participate in parkour recess or stay on the playground like on any other days (i.e., traditional recess). MVPA during physical education, parkour recess, and traditional recess were measured using systematic observation. The Statistical Package for Social Science software (SPSS) was used to conduct Chi-Square analysis for participation data and analysis of variance for MVPA data.
Analysis/Results: Participation in parkour recess was significantly higher during generalization (78%) compared to the maintenance (52%) phase (p < .001). No significant differences for participation in parkour recess between boys and girls were found in both generalization (76% vs 82%), and maintenance (56% vs 56%) phases. During generalization phase, no significant differences for MVPA between boys and girls were found in physical education (37% vs 38), parkour recess (60% vs 55%), and traditional recess (49% vs 44%). However, during maintenance phase, boys achieved higher MVPA compared to girls in both parkour recess (70% vs 64%, p = .042) and traditional recess (49% vs 41%, p = .010). Both boys and girls achieved higher MVPA in parkour recess compared to traditional recess during generalization phase (57% vs 47%, p < .001) as well as maintenance phase (68% vs 46, p < .001).
Conclusions: Generalization of participation in parkour recess was higher during generalization than maintenance phase, both boys and girls achieved more than 12 minutes’ MVPA during parkour recess. Future work should continue to investigate how participation in activities learned in physical education can be generalized and maintained across other physical activity settings at schools.
Generalization of Participation in Parkour From Physical Education to Recess: Analysis of Skill Trials
Shu Cheng, KU Leuven; Kian Vanluyten, KULeuven; Jan Seghers, KU Leuven; Philip WardF, The Ohio State University; Peter Iserbyt, KU Leuven
Background/Purpose: A Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program (CSPAP) aims to help all students achieve 60 minutes of physical activity each day (SHAPE America, 2013). The theory of generalized behavior change (Cooper et al., 2020) offers a framework to conceptually connect physical education with recess. Previous work has shown that generalization has the potential to increase students’ physical activity during recess (Coolkens et al., 2018). In this study we connected the content of physical education (i.e., parkour) with parkour recess sessions to investigate generalization in elementary schools. Our research questions were (a) what proportion of children voluntarily participate in parkour recess, (b) what amount of parkour skill trials do children perform in the generalization setting (i.e., parkour recess) compared to physical education. For both research questions gender effects were investigated.
Method: Seven K-2 elementary classes (147 children, 55 girls, 92boys) in different schools were taught a 10-lesson parkour sport education unit in physical education. During the parkour unit, five parkour recess sessions were organized by their regular physical education teacher every two weeks in which children could voluntarily participate. In both physical education and parkour recess, skill trials were collected through event recording (Cooper et al., 2020). A skill trial was defined as the performance of a parkour skill taught by the teacher, such as a speedstep over the vault box. All parkour techniques were taught based on parkour handbook (Coolkens et al., 2018). The amount of skill trials means the overall skill trials children performed in physical education (45 minutes/lesson) and parkour recess (20 minutes/session). To ensure the correct implementation of 10-lesson parkour sport education unit in physical education, the physical education teachers were trained by an expert in parkour and sport pedagogy during a standardized 4-hour workshop with a parkour knowledge packet. During parkour recess, the teacher did not teach new contents but prompted the children to practice previously learned parkour skills. SPSS was used to conduct analysis of variance to detect statistical differences between physical education and parkour recess as a function of gender.
Analysis/Results: On average, boys’ voluntary participation in parkour recess sessions was higher compared to girls (78% vs 52%, p < .001). Boys performed significantly more amount of parkour skill trials than girls in physical education (82 vs 60, p < .001) and parkour recess (66 vs 38, p = .008). Boys and girls performed more amount of parkour skill trials in physical education compared to parkour recess, p = .001. Additionally, boys performed significantly more amount of parkour skill trials per minute compared to girls in physical education (3.8 vs 3.2, p = .001) and parkour recess (4.3 vs 2.5, p = .007).
Conclusions: Generalization of participation in parkour recess was higher for boys compared to girls. During parkour recess, boys had a higher amount of skill trials per minute compared to physical education whereas for girls this was lower. Generalization is a valuable theory to help students practice skills learned in physical education in other school-based settings such as recess.
Healthy@Home: Parental Perceptions of the Value and Effectiveness of Virtual Nutrition and Physical Activity Content
Laurel Whalen, Cheryl Somers, Nathan McCaughtryF, Wayne State University
Background/Purpose: Despite continued calls for comprehensive study, the role of family and community engagement is one of the least frequently implemented (Cipriani, Richardson, & Roberts, 2012) and least studied (Chen & Gu, 2018) components of comprehensive school physical activity programs (CSPAP). However, as communities shifted to remote and hybrid schooling to comply with COVID-19 public health guidelines over the last year, teachers and school leaders were forced to engage parents and caregivers as important stakeholders in meeting their educational objectives. During this time, 38 elementary schools in the midwest United States were implementing an online, whole-school health intervention that focused on integrating nutrition education, improving the quality of physical education (PE), and increasing physical activity (PA) among youth. As part of this effort, schools were provided with resources and activities to help families make healthier choices at home. The purpose of this study is to examine the parent perceptions of the value of the home-based resources, the efficacy of the program, and the impact on their children’s health behavior.
Method: At the conclusion of the academic year, surveys were collected from multiple school stakeholder groups, including in-school program coordinators (n=40) and parents (n=253). Answers for survey questions were compiled and coded; data were analyzed using constant comparison and analytic induction and triangulated among the respective groups.
Analysis/Results: Data analysis indicated strong support of the at-home program component from school personnel, with 87% of schools sending communication home to parents at least monthly (56.4% communicated weekly), and 84.6% of in-school coordinators reporting the program encouraged families to make healthier choices at home. Parent respondents also reported positively: 87.91% suggested the resources were useful in providing information to promote healthful living; 46% indicated that the at-home materials encouraged their children to be more physically active; and 57% reported that the program helped their children eat healthier. Further, qualitative responses reinforced these themes with parents reporting a) children asking for their families to make healthier food choices, and b) the at-home resources encouraged the whole family to be more active.
Conclusions: Parent engagement is essential to the success of a CSPAP because the home environment is an important social context where children learn and adopt healthy behaviors. As we continue to examine the health and educational impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on children, it will be critical to consider ways to leverage the role that parents play in promoting physical activity (Glowacki, Centeio, VanDongen, Carson, & Castelli, 2016) and influencing their children’s nutritional choices (Scaglioni, Arrizza, Vecchi, & Tedeschi, 2011). This study suggests that equipping parents with virtual, at-home nutritional resources and PA strategies may be an effective mechanism to engage students and their families as part of a CSPAP model and further support families in making healthier choices.
How Familiar Are Youth Sport Parents About State Concussion Legislation?
Sungwon Kim, St. John’s University; Daniel ConnaughtonF, University of Florida
Background/Purpose: Sport-related traumatic brain injury, including concussion, is a serious public health issue. In an effort to reduce the likelihood and severity of concussions among young athletes, from 2009-2014, all 50 U.S. states enacted youth sport concussion legislation (Harvey, 2013). Although concussion legislation has resulted in many positive outcomes, including assisting schools in developing and implementing concussion policies (Coxe et al., 2018), research examining the public’s awareness about such legislation is limited. Investigating youth sport parents’ awareness of concussion legislation is particularly important since parents who are familiar with their state law and its’ requirements can help reduce and properly manage concussions. Additionally, parents with strong familiarity with the law can ensure their child’s youth sport program’s concussion policies are reflective of the law. This presentation will explore youth sport parents’ familiarity with concussion legislation, as well as factors associated with increased familiarity.
Method: Cross-sectional, online survey data were obtained from parents (n = 430) of youth sport athletes from 22 U.S. states. A questionnaire was developed based on a comprehensive literature review (Baugh, Kroshus, Bourlas, & Perry, 2014; Harvey, 2013; Kim et al., 2017; Lowrey, 2015) which included 16 demographic and nine a priori items (5-point Likert-type: not at all familiar to extremely familiar) that were based on uniform components of legislation shared by the selected 22 states. Examples of survey items included familiarity with the following requirements: removing an athlete from play, return-to-play (RTP), and medical clearance to RTP. Based on the inclusion criteria (i.e., reside in one of the 22 states, child who plays a contact/collision sport at youth or interscholastic level), parents were recruited by Qualtrics Research Services.
Analysis/Results: Findings suggest that parents were most familiar with the following requirements: medical clearance for athletes to RTP (mean = 4.05); signing a concussion safety information sheet before their child can participate (mean = 3.99) and; concussion training for coaches (mean = 3.89). The items with the lowest familiarity were the requirements for: a RTP policy for youth sport programs (mean = 3.69); a minimum 24-hour waiting period to RTP (mean = 3.74); and removal from play when an athlete has a suspected concussion (mean = 3.82). Based on the results of the regression model, a significantly greater familiarity with concussion legislation was found among parents who were White/Caucasian (OR = 2.36; 95% CI: 0.81-1.91), had advanced degrees (OR = 2.50; 95% CI: 1.02-1.98), higher household incomes (OR = 1.80; 95% CI: 0.44-1.16), or were urban residents (OR = 1.81; 95% CI: 0.45-1.17).
Conclusions: Although concussion laws are relatively new in many states, the findings suggest that youth sport parents have a sound understanding about the laws. Nevertheless, the present study also underscores a need for improving the public’s familiarity regarding some of the essential provisions of the laws, such as the RTP requirement for youth sport programs. Parents who face sociocultural and economic barriers can benefit most from receiving credible concussion education/information about their state’s concussion legislation.
Impact of Brain-Break Physical Activity Program on Selective Attention in School-Aged Children
Jiarong Zhong, Xiaozan Wang, Chenjun Zong, East China Normal University
Background/Purpose: According to a survey in China, 75% of school-aged children lack attention which affects their academic performance. As a new classroom-based program, Brain-Break is becoming popular worldwide. However, in China, the program has not been widely disseminated, and its effect on the selective attention of Chinese students remains to be studied. The purpose of the study is to examin the effects of 5-month, daily 3-5 minutes Brain-Break breaks in the classroom on selective attention in school-aged children.
Method: Participants (n=92) in fourth grade from two elementary schools were assigned to two groups: one intervention group (n=46) and one control group (n=46). Both two groups were pre-and post-tested with the d2 Test of attention (d2 test). The intervention group took part in 3-5 minutes of daily Brain-Break break during the third class in the morning for 5 months. The control group is as usual. The 2*2 repeated measurement ANOVA was used to explore the factors affecting the change of students’ selective attention.
Analysis/Results: Students in intervention group showed significant main effects of intervention on accuracy (E%, F=5.67, p=0.022), concentration performance (CP, F=7.14, p=0.01) and attention span (FR, F=5.27, p=0.026). There were significant main effects of time on processing speed (TN, F=7.88, p=0.007), accuracy (E%, F=31.65, p=0.000), focused attention (TN-E, F=12.25, p=0.001), concentration performance (CP, F=486.63, p=0.000), attention span (FR, F=13.92, p=0.002). Accuracy (E%, F=8.96, p=0.004), concentration performance (CP, F=255.17, p=0.000), attention span (FR, F=7.56, p=0.009) showed significant interaction effects between intervention and time.
Conclusions: The implementation of Brain-Break program in elementary school classrooms could significantly improve students’ accuracy, concentration performance, and attention span. The focused attention was also significantly improved when the intervention was carried out for a long time.
Influence of Education Majors’ Perceptions of High School Physical Education
Tara C. Putnam, University of Wisconsin- Eau Claire; Saori Braun, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire; Tayler Mort, University of Wisconsin- Eau Claire; Cale Christianson, University of Wisconsin - Eau Claire
Background/Purpose: It is believed that a positive experience in physical education during high school impacts individuals as they grow into adulthood. A majority of students in grades 9-12 take physical education classes. There is limited research on how perceptions of high school physical education experiences impact current physical activities levels in the college-aged undergraduate physical education and education majors. Furthermore, little is known about the impact of perceptions of high school physical education on current appreciation for and confidence in physical activity. The purpose of this study was to address those three voids in the literature. Knowledge about the retrospective psychological and physical impact of high school physical education is important. It may increase the importance for promoting quality high school physical education in those students seeking a teaching credential.
Method: Participants were undergraduate education majors (n=172, 70 males and 102 females) at a Midwestern University in the United States. Thirty-six of the participants were declared physical education majors. The remaining one-hundred and thirty-six participants were declared education majors. The online survey included retrospective questions about how positive their high school physical education experiences were. An example item is “How would you rate your high school physical education experiences?” Responses were indicated using a 5-point Likert scale (1 = very negative to 5 = very positive). Current levels of physical activity were measured by assessing the number of days per week as well as the number of minutes per day participants engaged in physical activity. Current appreciation for physical activity and current confidence in engaging in physical were each assessed with one item using a 5-point Likert scale.
Analysis/Results: Descriptive statistics revealed seventy-two percent of the participants reported positive high school physical education experiences. Twenty- eight percent of the participants reported negative high school physical education experiences. In addition, participants’ current levels of appreciation for physical activity (80%) and current confidence in being physically active (80%) were generally high. Participants who enjoyed their high school PE experience tended to be currently active more days per week, enjoy more types of physical activities as well as indicate greater appreciation for and confidence in being physically active than those who did not enjoy high school PE.
Conclusions: Education and physical education majors who enjoyed their high school physical education (PE) experience reported greater current levels of physical activity and greater levels of appreciation for and confidence in being active. These findings support prior research suggesting that high school PE impacts individuals well into adulthood. These findings reiterate the importance of providing quality PE in high school. This may be particularly relevant today because many education majors are required to teach PE, particularly at the elementary level. If education majors have positive prior experience with PE then they are more likely to endorse and provide quality PE experiences in their classrooms. This may greatly impact the physiological and psychological well-being of young students.
Middle School Students’ Behaviors, Fitness, and Knowledge Related to Active Living Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Baofu Wang, Stacy Imagbe, Louisiana State University; Jared Androzzi, Winthrop University; Yang Liu, Wuhan University of Technology; Xiangli GuF, University of Texas at Arlington; Amanda E Staiano, Gang Hu, Pennington Biomedical Research Center; Senlin ChenF, Louisiana State University
Background/Purpose: Opportunities for youth to be physically active and fit may stem from both in and out of school settings. During the COVID-19 pandemic, most schools transitioned from in-person to hybrid or online instructions between early 2020 and spring 2021, which limited students’ physical activity (PA) opportunities. Many schools attempted to resume in-person instruction with caution in the spring semester of 2021. This study aimed to compare students’ behaviors (i.e., PA at school, PA out of school, screen-based sedentary behaviors), health-related physical fitness (i.e., cardiorespiratory endurance, abdominal endurance), and knowledge understanding related to active living before and during the pandemic.
Method: The study took place at a public middle school located in a southeastern state of the United States. The school was closed for in-person instruction in late February 2020 and gradually re-opened in the fall (2020) and spring (2021) semesters. Data were collected at T1 pre-pandemic (n=403; February 2020), T2 partially reopened (n=436; February 2021), and T3 full reopened (n=460; March 2021). A high intensity interval training (HIIT)-based fitness education unit, designed by the researchers, was implemented in the physical education program in the spring semester of 2021. Students in 6th, 7th, and 8th grades, who attended school in person, completed the Youth Activity Profile, the 20-meter Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER) test and the Plank test, and a validated written test, to measure behaviors (T1-T3), fitness (T2-T3), and knowledge (T1-T3), respectively. Statistical analyses were conducted to examine the changes in knowledge, fitness, and behaviors by time, gender, and grade.
Analysis/Results: MANOVA revealed significant time main effect (Pillai’s Trace =.02, F6, 2560 = 5.02, p < .001) and time*grade interaction (Pillai’s Trace = .02, F12, 3843 = 1.93, p = .03) for active-living behaviors. Subsequent post-hoc tests identified a significant decline in PA out of school from T1 to T2 (p < .001), especially among 6th grade students. Sedentary behaviors demonstrated significant time*grade interaction effect (p < .05; increased from T1 to T2 but declined from T2 to T3 for 8th grade vs. declined from T1 through T3 for 6th and 7th grades). Cardiorespiratory endurance (p < .001) and abdominal endurance (p < .001) increased from T2 to T3. Knowledge showed gender effect (F1, 1281 = 46.83, p < .001) and time*gender interaction effect (F2, 1281 = 4.42, p = .012), with boys (decreased) and girls (increased) showing opposite change patterns.
Conclusions: This study found that the middle school students’ PA out of school and screen-based sedentary behaviors changed before and during the pandemic, and these change patterns differed by grade. Boys and girls displayed opposite change trajectory for active-living knowledge. Further, the school re-opening saw improvement in students’ health-related fitness, which was partially attributable to the HIIT-based fitness education delivered in the physical education program. The findings indicate the disruptive impact of COVID-19 pandemic on middle school students’ behaviors, fitness, and knowledge related to active living. The pandemic limited their opportunities to be active, fit, and to learn.
Missed Opportunities for Expanded Physical Activity Program Supports
Shannon C. Mulhearn, University of Nebraska-Kearney; Pamela Hodges KulinnaF, Arizona State University
Background/Purpose: The comprehensive school physical activity program (CSPAP) is a model utilized to create opportunities for students to be physically active while also developing a whole-school community that values physical activity (PA). From a lens of the professional socialization phase of Teacher Socialization theory, Physical Education Teacher Education (PETE) programs are a time during which future teachers can develop an appreciation and strategies for creating and sustaining CSPAPs. The purpose of this study was to learn about practices of current physical educators from a single PETE program with themes of implementing CSPAP in their curriculum.
Method: An electronic questionnaire was sent to graduates from a single PETE program who completed their degree between May 1999 and May 2019. Questions included general and teaching demographics and the CSPAP-Q (Stoepker et al., 2020) which asks about contextual supports of CSPAP and has been found to be valid and reliable. For the present study, only sections related to “Physical Activity Before & After School”, “Staff Involvement”, and “Family & Community Engagement” were utilized. Seventy-four completed questionnaires were included in the analyses. All 20 years of graduates were represented in the sample which was evenly split between female and male (50% each), mostly white (71.9%), and graduates with bachelors (46.9) and masters degrees (51.6%).
Analysis/Results: Frequencies of categorical responses were investigated, and chi-square was used to explore group differences. About half of the teachers (61.8%) indicated having attended professional development specifically related to expanded PA after graduating. Most (91.4%) indicated their school provided PA opportunities for students beyond physical education; however, when responding to frequencies of each of specific components of CSPAP, only lunch recess was indicated as being offered on Most or Every Day of the week (81%). Before and after school PA and Classroom PA were noted as being offered Most or Every Day (52.2%; and 43.5% respectively). Only enjoying Some Days in a Year were Staff Involvement (56.5%) and Family and Community engagement (47.8%). Regarding community engagement, there was a high number of responses where teachers indicated they “Do not know” if their school collaborated with the local Health Department (44.1%), Private businesses (42.1%), Hospitals (46.6%), Police or Fire departments (37.9%), Volunteer associations (48.3%), Fitness Clubs (42.4%), or Universities (40.7%). No statistically significant group differences were observed.
Conclusions: Teacher Socialization theory suggests PETE programs have the potential to impact future physical educators’ practices. The results of this study pinpoint some important resources that may be getting overlooked by physical education teachers regarding family and community involvement which could support their schools’ expanded PA programming. Additionally, these missed connections should be highlighted in PETE programs so graduates know to ask about current collaborations at their school and know what types of organizations within the community they could be reaching out to. Finally, it is concerning that it seems many graduates simply don’t consider reaching out to local universities for continued support beyond graduation.
Movements in Virtual Reality: How Much Are We Using?
Stephanie Zinai Gonzalez, Joonyoung Lee, Ana West, Tao ZhangF, University of North Texas
Background/Purpose: Since the COVID-19 pandemic, social distancing has become the norm (Collignon, 2021). Virtual reality (VR) games have shown many potentials to promote individuals’ physical activity (PA) and health during unprecedented experiences of home quarantine and social isolation. However, limited evidence exists about specific body movements and metabolic equivalence of tasks (METs) while engaging in VR games for health. Given the fact the VR games can be widely used to promote PA and health in diverse settings, the main purpose of this study was to examine what kind of movements are required and how much energy is spent participating in different VR games.
Method: Web-data extraction techniques, which allows for extracting data from Web sources, were applied in this study. Among more than 5,000 VR games (https://store.steampowered.com/), 98 VR games were selected based on inclusion criteria (e.g., data accessibility of movement descriptions and METs). Two examiners assessed each game’s required body movements and PA intensities via Web (e.g., YouTube, STEAM, VR Institute of Health and Exercise) and coded required body movements (e.g., upper = 1; lower = 2; whole body = 3) and METs (e.g., light PA = 1; moderate PA = 2; vigorous PA = 3; achieving 97% of interrater agreement). Descriptive statistics were used to analyze frequencies (percentages) and relationships (crosstab).
Analysis/Results: More than two thirds of VR games (68.4%) primarily focused on upper body movements, while less than one third (30.6%) and only 1% of VR games demanded whole body and lower body movements, respectively. Findings of METs revealed more than half of VR games (57.1%) were related to moderate PA and less than one third of VR games (29.6%) were associated with light PA. About one tenth of VR games (13.3%) were categorized as providing vigorous PA. No associations were found between body movement and METs, χ2 (4, N = 98) = 2.88, p > 0.05.
Conclusions: The findings indicated that most of the VR games require upper body movements and meet criteria for moderate PA intensity. Given VR games can be used for PA and health promotion strategies, these findings may provide meaningful insights and provide comprehensive understandings about selected body movements and PA intensities to VR users, practitioners, and researchers. More whole body- and vigorous PA-related VR games need to be developed as they can assist in achieving recommended PA guidelines. In addition, it is imperative to consider the exercise frequency and exercise duration using VR as an intervention tool to promote health and well-being in children and adults, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic era.
Online Group Resistance Training Improves Beginners’ Muscular Fitness
Istvan Kovacs, Timothy Houk, Brady Sileo, Slippery Rock University
Background/Purpose: Pandemic restrictions have placed an emphasis on the importance of quality fitness instructions via online delivery methods. While individuals were encouraged to exercise regularly, the focus was mostly on cardiorespiratory training at moderate-to-vigorous intensity. Due to the closures of fitness centers, many Americans exercised at home, but for novice clients, options for resistance training remained limited. Traditionally, resistance training for beginners requires a strength training professional who designs and supervises the activities in a well-equipped gym. In what format can an online strength training program be delivered safely and effectively to beginner lifters? This study was designed to examine the improvement rates during a community-based online group resistance training program.
Method: An eight-week, three workout per week strength training program was administered over Zoom video/audio feed to twelve healthy adult volunteers, who classified as beginners in strength training (age: 55.33 ± 7.8 yrs., 8 female). The program utilized various dumbbell-, resistance band-, and bodyweight exercises. Participants were supplied with one pair of lightweight dumbbells, one heavier dumbbell, and a set of resistance bands. Throughout the program, upgrades in weights were available. Particular attention was placed on exercise selection for safe and easy at-home-learning of proper techniques. Workout sessions addressed the entire body with both multi- and single-joint movements, such as lateral raises, bicep curls, goblet squats, etc. During the first weeks of the program, training sessions consisted of two sets of 8-10 repetitions of 8 exercises. Later in the program, three sets of 10-12 repetitions of 10 exercises provided progressive overload. Individual feedback was given by analyzing self-recorded videos of exercise techniques submitted to the instructors, and by instant feedback during the training sessions. Pre- and post-test exercises that are safe for adult self-testing were administered at the beginning and at the end of the program: 30-second chair squat, curl-ups on cadence, maximum repetition push-ups (regular or modified by choice), and maximum repetition seated bicep curls (both left and right). Resistance for the bicep curls were selected by the participants. Paired-sample T-test was used to calculate differences between pre- and post-test scores.
Analysis/Results: The following four of the five tests resulted in significant improvements (all p<0.05): chair squat from 21.90 ± 6.05 to 25.50 ± 4.93; push-ups from 7.89 ± 7.78 to 17.11 ± 7.62; left biceps curl from 19.09 ± 12.38 to 28.64 ± 15.56, and the right biceps curl from 22.33 ± 11.71 to 31.75 ± 15.72. The curl-up test did not show significant improvement differences between pre-test and post-test scores.
Conclusions: Even with limited availability of equipment, a beginner strength training program can be safely and effectively delivered online. Our study proved that by applying specific safety precautions, careful exercise selection, and applying basic training principles such as learning proper technique, progressive overloading, individualization, balanced training, and adequate recuperation, beginners experience improvement and maintain motivation throughout the entire program. For many participants, at-home, distantly supervised resistance training proved to be enjoyable and time-efficient compared to training in fitness centers.
Physical Activity and Perceived Benefits and Barriers in School Teachers
Lingsong Kong, University of Massachusetts Amherst; Xiaozan Wang, East China Normal University
Background/Purpose: The prevalence of physical inactivity among Chinese school teachers is high. School teachers serve as roles models in the development of students. Promoting the school teachers to be physically active could enhance their physical and mental health, as well as build physically active school environments for students. This study aimed to compare the perceptions of benefits and barriers to exercise among Chinese school teachers in different physical activity (PA) levels. This could help to develop strategies to improve the physical activity (PA) of Chinese school teachers.
Method: A cross-sectional study was performed on 286 Chinese school teachers (135 males and 151 females) aged 21 to 55 (34.53 ± 7.749 years). The participants completed the Chinese version of the International Physical Activity Questionnaires (IPAQ-C) and the Chinese version of the Exercise Benefits and Barriers scale (EBBS-C) through an internet survey. Low, moderate, and high PA groups were determined by scoring the IPAQ-C. The perceptions of benefits and barriers were assessed by scoring the EBBS-C. Both IPAQ-C and EBBS-C are valid and reliable instruments. Multivariate analysis of variance with Scheffe post hoc test was performed to determine if mean differences on the perceptions of benefits and barriers to exercise existed among three PA groups. The average score of each item was calculated to determine the strongest benefit and barrier responses. The statistical significance was set at P < 0.05.
Analysis/Results: There was a significant difference in the perceptions of benefits (F = 5.67, p < 0.01, η2 = 0.04) and barriers (F = 9.84, p < 0.01, η2 = 0.07) to exercise among three PA groups. Specifically, the perception of benefits was significantly higher in the high PA group (M = 92.89, SD = 13.77) than low PA group (M = 86.12, SD = 13.54). The perception of barriers was significantly lower in the high PA group (M = 28.32, SD = 5.81) and moderate PA group (M = 29.53, SD = 6.02) than low PA group (M = 32.19, SD = 6.37). The strongest perceived benefit response was “Exercise improves my mental health” and the strongest perceived barrier response was “Exercise facilities do not have convenient schedules for me” in three PA groups.
Conclusions: Chinese school teachers with low PA levels perceived lower benefits than the teachers with high PA levels, and perceived higher barriers than the teachers with moderate or high PA levels. The main perception of benefit was psychological outlook whereas the main perception of barrier was facility obstacles in Chinese school teachers. We suggest that the schools should enhance the school teachers’ perceptions of benefits through health education, and reduce the barriers to exercise by providing more accessible facilities. Further studies could examine the changes in PA levels after taking actions to improve perceived benefits and reduce perceived barriers to exercise in school teachers.
Physical Activity Involvement and Processes of Change among University Students
Istvan Kovacs, Wenhao LiuF, Slippery Rock University
Background/Purpose: Based on the Transtheoretical Model (Prochaska & Marcus, 1994), people can be categorized into five exercise stages: Stage 1, no exercise and no intention to change; Stage 2, no exercise but considering a change; Stage 3, having some change/exercise; Stage 4, performing regular exercise currently (less than six months) and meeting Federal Physical Activity Guidelines (FPAG); and Stage 5, performing regular exercise habitually (at least six months) and meeting FPAG. In addition, the exercise stages are expected to be associated with processes of change (POC), which are physical activity (PA)-promotion strategies that individuals use to change and improve their exercise level, such as enlisting social support and committing oneself. This study examined the relationship between the exercise stages and POC among university students.
Method: Participants were 208 university students (mean age = 21.10±1.61, 95 females) in the US. Exercise stages were assessed with the Exercise Stages of Change Survey (Marcus & Forsyth, 2009). Fifty-four participants (26 females) were identified in exercise stages 2 or 3, forming a Low Exercise Stage Group (LESG); 62 (28 females) in a stage-4 group (S4G), and 92 (41 females) in a stage-5 group (S5G). No stage-1 participants were identified. In addition, the POC survey (Marcus & Forsyth, 2003) was administered as well and resulted in 10 POC variables, and the score for each POC variable ranged from 1 to 5, with larger scores indicating more positive results. One-way MONOVA was run to examine how participants in different exercise stages would use POC differently. To control familywise type 1 error, each follow-up univariate ANOVA was tested at .05/10 = .005 level, and each pairwise comparison was tested at .005/3 = .0017 level.
Analysis/Results: The omnibus MANOVA test was significant, with Wilks’ Lambda = .462, F(20, 392) = 9.23, p < .001, and ƞ2 = .32. The follow-up pairwise comparisons showed significant differences (p < .001) in the following POC in favor of higher exercise stages. Increasing knowledge: S5G (3.55±1.01) vs. LESG (2.79±1.03); caring about consequences for others: S5G (3.21±.83) vs. LESG (2.62±.87); increasing healthy opportunities: S5G (3.21±.93) vs. LESG (2.51±.72); substituting alternatives: S5G (4.25±.74) vs. LESG (2.56±.80), S4G (3.61±.69) vs. LESG, and S5G vs. S4G; enlisting social support: S5G (3.47±1.00) vs. LESG (2.29±.91), and S4G (3.15±.84) vs. LESG; rewarding oneself: S5G (3.70±.74) vs. LESG (2.72±.77), and S4G (3.53±.69) vs. LESG; committing oneself: S5G (4.43±.55) vs. LESG (3.45±.73), and S4G (4.09±.61) vs. LESG; and reminding oneself: S5G (2.90±.84) vs. LESG (2.00±.73), and S4G (2.63±.78) vs. LESG.
Conclusions: The results show a strong relationship between exercise stages and POC. Of the 10 POC, three have significant differences between S5G and LESG, four have significant differences between S5G and LESG and between S4G and LESG, and one (substituting alternatives, i.e., replacing some PA with sedentary activities) has significant differences in all the three pairwise comparisons. In conclusion, the higher the exercise stage, the more frequently the PA-promotion strategies will be used.
Physical Activity Trends of Incarcerated Youth in a Sport-Leadership Program
Jared Anderson, Zachary Wahl-AlexanderF, Northern Illinois University
Background/Purpose: Participation in regular and consistent physical activity has been connected with various short- and long-term health benefits in children, adolescents and young adults. In addition to the widely recognizable physical benefits (USDHHS, 2010), steady engagement can positively impact an individual’s social (Tremblay et al., 2016), academic (Martin & Murtagh, 2017) and physiological health (Aljawarneh, Wardell, Wood & Rozmus, 2019). Due to the proliferation of evidence illustrating such advantages, the World Health Organization (2010) recommends adolescents engage in a minimum of 150-300 minutes of moderate intensity, or 75-150 minutes of vigorous intensity activity, each week. Measuring physical activity in the jail setting is extremely challenging (Camplain et al., 2020), explaining the current dearth of literature exploring activity levels of any incarcerated populations (young adults, or adults). Brusseau and colleagues (2018) examined activity trends of incarcerated adolescents over the course of seven days within the juvenile justice system. In this facility, youth spent over 87% of their day sedentarily, falling well short of the recommended 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) per day. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to to explore physical activity levels and lesson context of a sport-leadership program in a juvenile detention center. Specifically, the goals of this study were to, a) explore the percentage of time participants were engaged in MVPA, b) examine physical activity trends throughout programming and c) examine the lesson context during programming.
Method: Participants in this study were 27 incarcerated males (Mage = 19.3) all imprisoned in one medium security juvenile detention center. Over the course of 12 weeks, 20 sport-leadership sessions were live coded. During each lesson, the observer coded using the System for Observing Instruction Time (SOFIT; McKenzie, Sallis & Nader, 1992).
Analysis/Results: Over the course of the 20-lesson sport leadership program, youth were engaged in moderate to vigorous activity for just over 60% of lesson time. Additionally, youth were engaged in vigorous physical activity for a total of 23% of each session. Specific to lesson context, the instructor spent 19% of time giving instruction, 8% of time instilling knowledge and 70% of lesson time spent engaged in gameplay.
Conclusions: This study is the first to implement the SOFIT systematic observational tool to assess and quantify male youths’ activity levels and lesson context in a sport-leadership program within a juvenile detention center. Findings indicate participants engaged in just over 60% MVPA during programming. These results adhere to U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS; 2010) recommendations that students spend at least 50% of physical education class time engaged in MVPA. Elevated activity levels witnessed here are likely attributed to a robust emphasis on gameplay, instead of fitness and skill practice. Previous research demonstrates higher activity levels during gameplay (Brusseau & Burns, 2015), and limited practice time can hinder psychomotor development and skill acquisition.
Physical Activity-Physical Education Enjoyment Discordance and Segmented Daily Physical Activity
Ryan D. BurnsF, Yang Bai, University of Utah; Gregory J WelkF, Iowa State University; Wonwoo Byun, Timothy A. Brusseau Jr.F, University of Utah
Background/Purpose: Previous research has found direct associations between higher levels of enjoyment for both physical activity (PA) and physical education (PE) with higher PA in children. However, no study has examined how a disagreement or discordance in enjoyment between PA and PE associates with PA during specific segments of the day. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the associations between PA-PE enjoyment discordance and self-reported segmented daily PA in a sample of children.
Method: Participants were 1,774 (mean age = 9.5 +/- 0.5 years; 47.8% female) children from the School Wellness Integration Targeting Child Health (SWITCH) project. Child PA and enjoyment scores were collected using self-report methods. The Youth Activity Profile (YAP) assessed child PA before school, during PE, during recess, during lunch, after school, and during the evening hours. Enjoyment for PA and PE was assessed with two separate survey items utilizing 5-point Likert scale responses.
Analysis/Results: The primary predictor variables were indicator variables representing discordance between PA-PE enjoyment that were determined by differences in individual-level responses between the two enjoyment items (e.g., PA enjoyment score – PE enjoyment score). Two indicator predictor variables were derived for responses of higher enjoyment for PA relative to PE and higher enjoyment for PE relative to PA. Concordance (agreement) in PA-PE enjoyment responses was used as the referent for all comparisons. The dependent variables were raw YAP scores for segmented PA before school, during PE, during recess, during lunch, after school, and during the evening hours. A seemingly unrelated regression system was constructed to account for the cross-equation correlation in error terms between segmented PA dependent variables. Specifically, the segmented school PA dependent variables consisting of raw YAP scores for before school, PE, recess, lunch, after school, and evening were regressed onto PA-PE enjoyment discordance variables, controlling for absolute PA and PE enjoyment scores in addition to the child’s age and sex. Having a higher enjoyment for PA relative to enjoyment for PE associated with lower self-reported PA during PE (b = -0.15, p = 0.03). This association was sex specific, as higher enjoyment for PA relative to enjoyment for PE associated with lower PA during PE in males (b = -0.33, p = 0.01) but not in females (b = -0.02, p = 0.80).
Conclusions: Enjoyment for PA does not associate with higher PA during PE if male children do not also have an equal enjoyment for PE itself. These results suggest that having male children enjoy PA and PE equally may facilitate PA participation during PE. PA-PE enjoyment discordance does not associate with PA during other day segments or in female children.
Preservice Classroom Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Toward Physical Activity Implementation During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Hayley McKown, University of Idaho; Erin E. CenteioF, University of Hawaii at Manoa
Background/Purpose: Physical activity (PA) has been proven to be an effective outlet and intervention during the school day to improve children’s health and academic achievement. However, the COVID-19 pandemic changed the school day structure for children/youth all over the world. This study’s purpose was understanding preservice classroom teachers’ (PSCT) perceptions and self-efficacy towards implementing PA during the “school day” which was mainly virtual during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Method: This study utilized a single questionnaire and optional follow-up phone interviews for participants (N = 172). Participants included (PSCT) from 12 different universities (5 US regions), were 90% female, 65% Caucasian, mean age of 25, and 75% were seeking elementary certification. In addition to demographic data, the questionnaire also included three scales. The first was Teacher Efficacy Toward Providing Physical Activity in the Classroom Scale (TETPPACS; Authors et al., 2018), which measured the level of self-efficacy that participants had towards providing PA to their students. TETPPACS has three factors (psychological, institutional, and educational efficacy) and a general overall factor of self-efficacy. TETPPACS was adapted in this study to specifically capture virtual environments. The second scale was the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES; Kendzierski & DeCarlo, 1991), which measured participants enjoyment levels of PA. Third, was the International Physical Activity Questionnaire-Short Form (IPAQ-SF; IPAQ, 2005). Follow-up semi-structured interviews captured more specific and detailed information, complementary to the questionnaire data, about the participants’ perceptions toward PA implementation in a virtual setting.
Analysis/Results: Quantitative data preparation and analysis included data cleaning, descriptive statistics, frequencies, correlations, and regressions. Correlations were used as a way to understand relationships between variables, and the regression analyses were used to understand factors that might predict self-efficacy towards PA implementation. The regressions also controlled for variables such as gender, year in school, and whether or not their university offered a course related to physical education. Qualitative data were transcribed, member checked, coded, and analyzed for themes.
Correlation results showed significance between many variables and will be discussed in the presentation. Regression results revealed that PA enjoyment scale scores were significantly predictive of virtual general self-efficacy scores (Adj.R2=.164,F(14,127)=2.78,p<.05,f2=.20). PA enjoyment significantly predicted virtual psychological self-efficacy (Adj.R2 = .099,F(14,128)=2.00,p<.05,f2=.11), institutional self-efficacy (Adj.R2=.148,F(14,127)=2.57,p<.05,f2=.17), and educational self-efficacy (Adj.R2=.160,F(14,127)= 2.72,p<.05,f2=.19).
Qualitative data showed that participants felt PA had high importance during the COVID-19 pandemic and virtual settings. Feasibility of actually implementing PA in a virtual setting, however, differed between some interview participants. Additional themes will be discussed in detail for the presentation.
Conclusions: Participants with higher levels of PA enjoyment had higher self-efficacy towards PA implementation in virtual environments. This influence that enjoyment of PA has on self-efficacy helps to understand PSCT motives and attitudes to actually implement PA. Additionally, presence of a university course showed higher levels of self-efficacy towards PA implementation which is important for university course implications. Participants, overall, showed self-efficacious behaviors and perceptions towards COVID-19 virtual learning environments. Further research should examine PSCT training surrounding PA implementation in virtual environments and experiences with their teachers/mentors.
Promoting Adolescent Girls’ Physical Literacy During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Haichun SunF, South Florida/University Of
Background/Purpose: Physical literacy is defined as the ability, confidence, and desire to be physically active for life. Since 2014, the concept of physical literacy has been incorporated into the national standards for physical education in response to the decreased physical activity among children and adolescents. While it is recommended that children and adolescents participate in one hour of physical activity daily, 71% of middle schoolers in the United States do not achieve this level. Adolescent girls are found less likely to be physically active than boys with 76.8% do not meet this recommendation. The COVID-19 pandemic has further negative impact on adolescents’ physical activity engagement. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the effect of an online physical activity intervention on adolescent girls’ physical literacy development during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Method: Guided by the report of physical literacy in the United States, the intervention program was design to promote physical literacy by proving a variety of physical activity, the movement skills, and motivation in order to lead an active lifestyle. Middle school girls (n=40, 78% African American) were recruited from low-to-moderate income households in and around the City’s Opportunity Zones and in under-resourced area. Participants were randomly assigned into either the intervention group or the control group. The intervention was delivered via Zoom. Girls in the intervention group receive one hour Zoom activity three days a week. Physical Literacy Assessment for Youth Tool was used to assess adolescent girls’ physical literacy. Data were collected by trained coaches before the intervention start and at six months after the start of the intervention. Students’ performance in running (run there and back), hop, overhand throw, kicking (kick ball), and balance walk (toe-to-heel backward) were measured. Repeated measures ANOVA was conducted to determine the main effect of the treatment, time, and the treatment X time interaction.
Analysis/Results: The repeated measures ANOVA on the physical literacy test suggested that there was no significant main effect from the intervention condition for these skills. The test of within-subjects effects revealed a statistically significant effect for time on running (p< 0.005), hop (p < 0.5), and balance (p<0.001). In addition, the results showed no statistically significant effect of interaction between time and the treatment. The statistically significant difference between the pre- and post-test scores indicated that the girls in both conditions performed significantly better on running, hop, and balance on the post-test than on the pre-test.
Conclusions: The online intervention program has limited effect on increasing adolescent girls’ physical literacy. Future research is needed to explore effective ways to promote physical literacy using online platforms in situations where face-to-face instruction might not be an option.
Recreation Centers’ Physical Activity Promotion: Differences by Socioeconomic Status
David KahanF, San Diego State University
Background/Purpose: Youth are recommended to accumulate 60 min of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity daily. Schools are enjoined to supply half this amount; however, only a quarter of children and adolescents reach this threshold. Additional venues and programs are necessary to fill the gap, particularly on weekends when school is not in session. Neighborhood recreation centers offer physical activity facilities and programs for local youth; however, research has exposed socioeconomic disparities by which the condition of facilities and amenities, and the number of free programs were associated with neighborhood income. Through website content analyses, we examined differences by neighborhood income in the online promotion of recreation center accessibility, and physical activity facilities and programs.
Method: We performed content analyses pre-COVID-19 of the publicly-accessible Web pages found on the websites of the 58 recreation centers in San Diego, CA. We dichotomized websites as representing low- or high-income neighborhoods based on the median split of the median income of the surrounding neighborhood. We tallied/calculated the frequency/proportion of websites mentioning recreation center days/week and hours/week of operation, and physical activity facilities and program categories. Testing for differences by income status, we performed chi-squared tests (days of operation, hours of operation, specific facilities by type), z tests of two proportions (physical activity program categories), and a t test (mean of total facilities/center).
Analysis/Results: Besides median income ($53.8K vs. $99.5K), low- and high-income recreation center neighborhoods differed on various sociodemographic parameters: median age in years (32.6 vs. 36.8, p < .001), percentage Latinx (50.1 vs. 15.1, p < .001), and percentage White (25.2 vs. 57.0, p < .001). Low- vs. high-income recreation centers were more likely to advertise being open 7 days/week (93.1% vs. 51.7%; χ2 = 12.44, p < .001, φ = .46) but were not more likely to advertise being open ≥ 60 hours/week (χ2 = 0.35, p = .55). Overall, there were 37 unique facility types (totaling 264 facilities) mentioned; only outdoor basketball courts (69.0%) and gymnasia (50.0%) were mentioned on at least half of centers’ websites. Among facilities, only the mention of a multipurpose/ball field differed by income status (low, 34.5% vs. high, 62.1%; χ2 = 4.42, p = .036, φ = .28). Proportions of websites mentioning various physical activity programs by type and income status (low vs. high) included: youth (75.0% vs. 50.0%; p = .10), mixed youth and adult (20.0% vs. 15.0%; p = .67), and open play (10.0% vs. 65.0%; z = 3.59, p < .001). The mean number of facilities mentioned per center website differed by income status (low, 4.1 vs. high, 5.1; t = -2.01, p = .024, d = 0.54).
Conclusions: Based on website content analyses, low-income recreation centers in the 8th largest U.S. city mentioned greater accessibility (days/week open); however, high-income centers mentioned a greater mean number of facilities per center and availability of open play programs. Changes to address these inequities rely on focused allocation of fiscal resources for adding facilities and offering additional programming as well as communication of said changes through various media.
Structured Recreation During Online Recess to Boost Social and Emotional Health
Kylie Wilson, Allison Ross, Kelly Ramella, Marissa Schulke, Arizona State University
Background/Purpose: Schools play a critical role in students’ overall well-being, including social and emotional health. Now more than ever, as students return to school post-pandemic, children can benefit from consistency, support, and opportunities to engage in fun and meaningful recreational activities. Structured recreation during online recess may boost positive emotional states and present an opportunity for students to develop friendships with peers and supportive relationships with adults - contributing to social and emotional health and academic achievement. The purpose of this concurrent mixed-methods study was to determine if student enjoyment in structured recreation during online recess was associated with positive and negative moods, competence in recreation activities, inclusion (or getting along with others who are different), and connectedness with teachers and peers. We also qualitatively explored what characteristics of online recess contribute to student engagement.
Method: A structured recreation program was delivered during online recess to 5th and 6th students (n = 75 students, 99% response rate) at one elementary school in Phoenix (AZ) over 13 weeks during the 2020-2021 school year. Programming consisted of 15 minutes of bi-weekly virtual classroom sessions that aligned with the five elements of social and emotional learning (SEL) within CASEL’s SEL Framework: self-awareness, self-management, responsible decision-making, relationship skills, and social awareness. Students completed a baseline survey before the intervention, and then completed the survey immediately after each ABL session. The survey instrument included eight items from POMS (McNair et al., 1971) and FACES (Kennedy et al., 2015) to assess children’s reported emotion (e.g., feeling relaxed, stressed, liked, lonely, happy, sad, energetic, or tired) and five questions to assess levels of enjoyment, competence, relatedness to teachers and peers, and inclusive engagement with other students. The research team also documented narrative notes describing implementation of SEL elements after each session.
Analysis/Results: Students with a baseline and at least one post-intervention survey were included in analyses (n = 58). Results of a series of multiple regression models indicated that enjoyment in intervention activities significantly predicted average positive mood, connectedness to teachers, and competence, but did not predict reported average negative mood, closeness to peers, or inclusion. Researchers initially developed codes in vivo using all narrative notes, and then used inductive analysis to determine major themes. Seven themes associated with engagement in online recess emerged from the narratives throughout the year: purposeful, relevant, enjoyable, experiential, relatable, challenging, and practical.
Conclusions: Offering structured recreation during online recess can increase student emotional engagement and feelings of school connectedness. Supporting fun and active opportunities for recreation during online learning may be a simple strategy to promote the social and emotional health of students during times of crisis when in-person learning becomes interrupted.
Systematic Literature Review on the TPSR Model Processes and Products
Yanhua Shen, UNC Greensboro
Background/Purpose: The Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility (TPSR) model was developed with a view of using physical activities to encourage meaningful and transferable life skills for underserved youth (Hellison 2011). Previous literature reviews have examined TPSR-based programs in school physical education settings (Pozo et al., 2018), community-based program settings (Baptista et al., 2020), and the geographic spread and international dissemination (Gordon & Beaudoin, 2020). Based on the logic model identified by Izzo et al. (2004), Martinek (2017) highlighted the importance of examining “both process as well as product aspects” of TPRS-based programs (p. 304). However, a comprehensive examination of process elements that contribute to the success of TPSR-based programs and an overview of the product outcomes is still limited. Therefore, the purpose of this systematic literature review was to identify the process elements and the product outcomes of TPSR-based programs.
Method: Shulruf’s (2010) five methodological steps of literature screening were utilized for this study. Guided by the question of “What are the process elements and the product outcomes in TPSR-based programs?”, literature was sourced through Academic Search Complete (EBSCO), SPORT Discus (EBSCO), Scopus, and ProQuest Central databases. All the relevant articles were scanned to ensure they met the following inclusion criteria: (a) articles should be written in English and published in peer-reviewed journals; (b) articles should be either interventional or empirical; (c) articles should be grounded in TPSR; (d) articles should include the methods of data collection and analysis, and the impact or results. In the end, a total of 46 articles were identified as satisfying studies. All the articles were then imported into NVivo 12 plus, followed by a systematic process of deductive and inductive analysis of the data (Miles et al., 2014). Deductive data analysis was employed first to separate articles into two major categories that either focus on the process elements or the product outcomes of TPSR programs. Inductive analysis was then utilized to develop codes and themes within each category.
Analysis/Results: The analytic induction of the data in relation to the process and product elements of TPSR-based programs revealed seven themes. Three themes were found in the category of process elements, including Creating a Positive Learning Environment, Promoting Leadership, and Facilitating transfer. Four themes were found in the category of product outcomes, including Behavioral Outcomes, Social Outcomes, Emotional Outcomes, and Academic Outcomes.
Conclusions: This systematic literature review identified extensive youth’s behavioral, social, emotional, and academic outcomes in TPSR-based programs. However, in order to achieve the success of TPSR-based programs, practitioners should endeavor to create a positive learning environment, promote leadership, and facilitate transfer. This review suggests joint efforts and effective communications between program providers, school educators, and family members so that youth could learn and practice TPSR responsibilities consistently across home, school, and community. The review suggested future TPSR studies focusing on the investigation of youth physical and psychomotor development. In addition, the utilization of mixed methodologies that provide rigorous evidence with both qualitative and quantitative data should be encouraged for future TPSR studies.
Teacher Perspectives of Daily Physical Activity Opportunities on Student Behavior
Jason Wilson, Christian County Schools; Heather E. ErwinF, Joan Mazur, Alicia Fedewa, Gerry Swan, University of Kentucky
Background/Purpose: The purpose of this case study was to examine how a Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program (CSPAP) affects student on-task behavior from teachers’ perspectives. Specifically, the impacts of doubling recess time and implementing daily physical education (PE) on student on-task behavior were examined.
Method: Data were collected using interviews from 9 of the 33 certified staff members at an urban elementary school in the southeastern United States. The school is located in a state that requires 30 minutes of PE every day for all students in grades K-5. The school modified its CSPAP during the past two school years to include two recess periods along with daily PE for all students. Previously, this school offered daily PE and one recess period. The school administration along with the scheduling committee created time within the master schedule to accommodate the increased physical activity time. Based on these structural changes to their CSPAP, this elementary school was chosen for the case study. All interviews were transcribed for analysis.
Analysis/Results: Findings included an in-depth description of an upgraded physical activity approach at this elementary school. Three themes emerged: (1) positive effects on students’ behaviors, (2) positive effects on the learning environment, and (3) a culture of collaboration at the school. School personnel shared a common philosophy that physical activity was important and that the activity came in two forms: structured PE for 30 minutes daily and two 10–15-minute recess periods scheduled throughout the day. The increased PE activities were to be structured and lead by the PE teacher and the PE assistant. The PE teacher and the assistant follow a planned curriculum and presented learning targets to the students. However, interviews revealed there is also a strong commitment that recess was guarded for free play and time for students to use their imagination and interact with each other in unstructured play. The teachers expressed that physical activity helped to reduce classroom disruptions, increase focus, and preserve instructional time in the classroom. These findings are consistent with current research and literature suggesting that physical activity in schools has a positive effect on students. There were also challenges reported with the approach. Some teachers noted that there was a loss of instructional time due to the increased time devoted to physical activity. Others noted that it took students some time to wind down during the transition from PE or recess to class. The analysis also confirmed the congruence of teachers’ perceptions to the actual disciplinary referrals in evidence at this school.
Conclusions: The application of physical activity as a disciplinary and learning intervention at this school shows that adding physical activity could be a low-cost intervention to schools in decreasing unwanted student behaviors that may be well received by teachers and administrators. It is unknown whether the positive staff support of the CSPAP preceded the implementation of daily PE and recess or if it occurred because of the encouraging student outcomes resulting from the daily physical activity opportunities.
The Application of Ecological Theory in Behavior Change: A Systematic Literature Review
Fan Zhang, Heather E. ErwinF, University of Kentucky
Background/Purpose: The original conception of ecological theory was proposed in ecological psychology by psychologist Lewin in 1951, who believes people should study the influence of the outside environment. Unlike many other traditional theories solo focus on intrapersonal factors, it underlines the dynamic interrelationships between individuals and their circumstances. It emphasizes the different levels (psychological, social, and organizational) of influences on people’s behaviors. Based on this, scholars developed several different models like Barker’s environmental psychology, Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems model, Moos’s social-ecological perspective, and Glass and Mathew’s ecosocial model (Glanz et al., 2008; Richard et al., 2011; Rhodes et al., 2019). In the behavior change area, the multiple levels of influence from the environment have been adapted slightly to five layers that can be illustrated as a multiple layers’ circle. The core is intrapersonal level, followed by interpersonal, organizational, community, and policy levels. An examination of the application of ecological theory would provide a comprehensive framework in the broader community for us to understand behavior change and design intervention in the school setting to promote physical activities.
Method: Based on questions of “what is the origin and evolvement of ecological theory” and “how applied the ecological theory in physical behavior change area,” guided by Shulruff’s five methodological steps for literature screening, this literature searched and obtained articles in Academic Search Complete, SPORT Discus, Scopus, and ProQuest Central databases. All the articles should be related to ecological theory, written in English, and published in peer-reviewed journals. In the end, through analyzing and second screening, 27 related articles and several books were found and used.
Analysis/Results: Through analyzing, I found that ecological theory is widely applied in health-related behavior changing area, and a great part of these studies focuses on how to prevent or decrease some bad habits; these researches are based on different versions of ecological theory, most of them used the adapted ecological version with intrapersonal, interpersonal, organizational, community, and policy levels; many studies just applies a part of the components in ecological theory, they heavily or even solely focused on the environmental settings level; ecological theory could combine with other theories which focus on individual level variables to guide researches, particularly in designing and implementing interventional programs; the quantity of publications that study and carry out complete interventional programs based on ecological theory is limited, especially for the goal of promoting physical activities in school settings.
Conclusions: Through this literature review, we know that there is a gap in applying ecological theory to long-term interventional programs to promote physical activities in school settings. That case aligns with the assertion that “Bronfenbrenner wrote no methodological primer for how to conduct ecological or bioecological research” (Tudge et al., 2016) because he died in 2005. Future researches could combine mature, complete ecological theory with other models to design interventions in this field rather than just focus on physical environmental variables.
The Effect of Teachers’ Physical Activity Promotion on Children’s Participation and Physical Activity in a Recess Program in Elementary Schools
Kian Vanluyten, KULeuven; Shu Cheng, KU Leuven; Cedric Roure, University of Teacher Education; Philip WardF, The Ohio State University; Peter Iserbyt, KU Leuven
Background/Purpose: Several studies indicate that teachers rarely prompt or reinforce student physical activity (PA) beyond the physical education (PE) lesson itself (McKenzie et al., 2006; McKenzie & Smith, 2017). PA promotion can be classified as in-class and out-of-class PA promotion and both categories can be further narrowed down depending on whether the teacher adresses an individual or the whole class. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between teachers’ PA promotion and children’s voluntary participation in parkour recess and the relationship between teachers’ PA promotion and children’s moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) during PE and parkour recess.
Method: Seven teachers (two women) from seven different schools taught a 10-lesson sport education season in parkour during elementary PE. During (n=5) and after (n=5) the sport education season, the teacher organized 20-minute parkour recess sessions. The children’s regular PE teacher taught the parkour unit and organized parkour recess sessions in the school’s gymnasium. Participation during all parkour recess was voluntary, the children could freely choose to participate or stay on the playground (i.e., traditional recess). Systematic observation (SOFIT) was used to measure MVPA and teacher behavior during PE and parkour recess. SPSS was used to conduct a one-way ANOVA for analyzing teacher’s PA promotion during PE and parkour recess. Correlation coefficients were calculated in order to investigate the relationship between PA promotion and MVPA.
Analysis/Results: On average, 65% of children participated in parkour recess. There was a significant negative correlation between individual in-class (Ii) PA promotion during PE and voluntary participation in parkour recess (p<.05), while whole group in-class (Ic) PA promotion and participation was not significant. Out of class (Oc) PA promotion did not correlate with participation. Ii and Ic during PE did not correlate with MVPA during PE. In parkour recess there was no significant relation between Ii and MVPA, while there was a significant relationship between Ic and MVPA (p<.05). During Parkour recess no Oc was reported. Both Ii and Ic were significantly higher during parkour recess than during PE (27% vs 15%; p<.001, and 6% vs 1%; p<.001).
Conclusions: Teachers’ overall PA promotion in PE was almost always directed to individual children and did not affect student participation in parkour recess since it contained no promotion to participate in the parkour recess program. During parkour recess PE teachers spent more time prompting and reinforcing children than during PE, which might impact children’s’ MVPA. The negative correlation between teachers’ individual PA promotion with recess participation should be further teased out. Perhaps the teacher addressed lower skilled children in a negative way which became an aversive stimulus for them. Future research could investigate promotion and reinforcement of PA in a more systematic way to enhance participation in physical activity recess programs.
The Effects of Active Video Games on Adolescent’s Cardiovascular Fitness and in-School Physical Activity
Han ChenF, Valdosta State University; Jiling LiuF, Texas A&M University
Background/Purpose: Active video games (AVGs) have a potential to positively influence individuals’ physical activity (PA) and fitness. Motion-based x-box Kinect is one of the AVGs devices that was reported an energy cost between 4.6-6 METs. However, it is unknown whether AVGs improve adolescents’ PA and fitness better than regular physical education (PE) classes. Thus, the purpose of the study is to compare the two intervention effects (AVGs vs. regular PE) on adolescents’ cardiovascular fitness and in-school moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA).
Method: Data were collected from a public school located in South Georgia region. Two classes at sixth grade were randomly selected with a total of 40 students (n=22 for boys, n=18 for girls) volunteered the study. Before the intervention, all participants were measured on cardiovascular fitness using 20-meter PACER test as well as three day in-school MVPA using ActiGraph GT3 accelerometer. Then, 20 students were randomly assigned into AVGs and another 20 into regular PE class. Both interventions were conducted for three times per week, 45 minutes each session, and lasted for eight weeks. At the end of the eighth week, all students were measured on the cardiovascular fitness and three-day in-school MVPA tests again. Participants then switched their intervention group and participated in either AVGs or regular PE group for another eight weeks following the same procedure and had the same assessments at the end of the second eighth week.
Analysis/Results: Data were analyzed using SPSS. Repeated measure MANOVA revealed significant differences for cardiovascular fitness in the first and second interventions (p<.05). Specifically, students participated in AVGs group demonstrated greater improvements in cardiovascular fitness for the first and second interventions (both p<.05). No significant differences in levels of in-school MVPA were observed during the two interventions.
Conclusions: Aligned with previous studies, AVGs had positive impacts on adolescents’ cardiovascular fitness but not on in-school MVPA levels. We suggest physical educators consider using AVGs as a means to promote students’ cardiovascular fitness.
The Impact of COVID-19 on Physical Activity and Grit in South Korea
Hyun-Ju Oh, Ohio University-Athens; Ji-Eun Yeo, Yong In University; Julie Suhr, Sharon Perry, Ohio University
Background/Purpose: We assessed physical activity (PA) before and during COVID-19 and examined the relationship of PA to sociodemographic factors and the psychological variable grit.
Method: An online survey was administered to 320 South Koreans through convenience sampling with social networks. For the present analyses, data from 185 individuals who completed all measures of interest to our analyses and who passed embedded validity check items were included. There were 64 males; the sample ranged from 19 to 72 years of age (M=44.2, SD=12.0). Data from an open-ended question “how does COVID-19 affect your PA behavior?” were recoded into two large themes: positive (patience, finding new ways to engage in PA, seeing COVID-19 as an opportunity for more PA) or negative (pessimism, giving up, feeling unable to escape negative impacts of COVID-19 on PA). Participants’ PA level was identified using WHO PA guidelines (2020) (i.e., a minimum of 30 minutes per day for five days per week). A 12-item Grit Scale measured the extent to which individuals maintain focus and interest and persevere in obtaining long-term goals.
Analysis/Results: Of the 185 participants, 35% reported positive themes in response to the open-ended question and 65% reported negative themes. The two groups were not different in age (p=.45), gender (p=.36) or income (p=.06), although there was a trend for those with positive themes to have higher income (p=.06). The two groups were not different in grit scores (p=.11), or in BMI scores before (p=.45) or during (p=.32) COVID-19. However, the two groups were different in the percent who met WHO PA guidelines both before (25% positive theme, 42% negative theme, p=.02) and during (42% positive, 26% negative, p=.021) the pandemic. Furthermore, the two groups were different in maintenance of WHO PA guidelines from pre-COVID levels, p<.001. Of those who felt positively about PA opportunities during COVID, 23% sustained meeting WHO PA before and during COVID, 1.5% met WHO guidelines before but not during COVID, 19% did not meet WHO guidelines before but did meet during COVID, and 56% did not meet WHO guidelines either time. However, of those who felt negatively about PA opportunities during COVID, 18% sustained WHO guidelines before and during COVID, while 24% met guidelines before but not during COVID, 7% did not meet WHO guidelines before but did during COVID, and 50% did not meet them either time.
Conclusions: A majority of participants reported that their PA was negatively affected by COVID-19; 65% of participants did not meet WHO PA guidelines. However, a higher percentage of those who expressed positive attitudes about PA opportunities during COVID sustained and even increased PA to meet WHO guidelines during COVID than those who expressed negative attitudes, who were more likely to no longer meet WHO guidelines. Future studies using qualitative methods to examine potential relationships between higher-income determinants and more PA accessibility, opportunities, and practicability, especially during the pandemic in South Korea, should be conducted. Increased public health efforts and effective strategies to promote PA during the pandemic must be determined.
The Impact of State Policies Governing Physical Education on Attendance Among High School Students in the U.S
Jaehun Jung, Collin Monaghan, Northwestern State University
Background/Purpose: Delicately designed policies can bring benefits to the workplace and schools. Several state policies governing physical education (PE) have been created and adopted. For instance, there are a few states that require students to attend daily PE totaling 225 minutes per week for 6-12 grades and states that do not permit to apply waivers/exemptions from PE. These policies were created to ensure that all children have access to equitable participation in daily PE. However, the effectiveness of these policies remains unclear. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to examine the effectiveness of state policies governing PE on high school students’ PE attendance across the states.
Method: The study employed a secondary data analysis using the 2019 state Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS) dataset. For the state policies governing PE, state profiles in 2016 Shape of the Nation report were used. In total, 182491 high school students across 44 states participated in the state YRBSS questionnaire. Data regarding high school students’ PE attendance was extracted. After cleaning missing data, 126734 (69.4%) completed questionnaires were used to analysis the research questions. Two state policies were tested: 1) requirement for minutes per week that high school students must participate in PE and 2) allowance for permit to apply waivers from PE. Dependent variable was high school students’ PE attendance and binary (0 vs 1 or more days). Descriptive statistics were calculated, and a binary logistic regression was conducted to examine the likelihood of high school students’ PE attendance between the students whose states mandating and not mandating the policies.
Analysis/Results: The averaged PE attendance days among the participants was 2.69 (SD = 2.06; 95% CI [2.68, 2.70]). More than half of the participants (54.3%; n = 68836) answered that they did not attend PE classes on 1 or more days during in an average week when they were in school. For state policies governing PE, 6 states have requirement for minutes per week that high school students must participate in PE. A total of 17 states adopts the policy that do not permit schools/districts to apply for a waiver from PE. The odds of high school students’ PE attendance among the states that have requirement for minutes per week for PE were significantly greater than the states that does not have the requirement (OR= 3.02, SE=.02, 95% CI [2.92, 3.13]). The odds of high school students’ PE attendance among the states that do not permit schools/districts to apply waivers from PE were significantly greater than the states that permit to apply for a waiver from PE (OR=1.08, SE=.01, 95% CI [1.05, 1.11]).
Conclusions: High school students attend more PE when their state adopt the policies compared to the students whose states do not adopt the policies. However, since different states may have different circumstance and availabilities, many factors should be considered when state policies governing PE are being created and adopted. To create and adopt appropriate state policies, further investigation should be warranted.
The Impact of Strength and Conditioning in Physical Education on Students’ Feelings of Anxiety and Stress
Kacie Lanier, Georgia State University; Chad Killian, Unaffiliated
Background/Purpose: Mental health problems are a growing concern in children and adolescents. Specifically, 20% of the world’s children and adolescents report having a mental health condition. Physical activity (PA) can help decrease these feelings in youth. Additionally, resistance training can decrease feelings of anxiety. However, research related to the impact of strength and conditioning on feelings of stress is less clear. Students spend a majority of each day in school, which makes it important to provide youth with opportunities to be physically active throughout the school day. Physical education (PE) can play a key role in offering PA opportunities to students while also teaching them about the mental health benefits of PA. Nevertheless, studies examining the impact of PA on students’ anxiety and stress have reported mixed results and few studies have examined how participation in strength and conditioning during PE might influence students’ feelings of anxiety and stress. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine how engaging in a strength and conditioning focused PE class influenced high school students’ feelings of anxiety and stress over one class period.
Method: This study used a descriptive, survey-based approach. High school students (n = 79) from a private, Christian school in the southeast completed a validated anxiety survey and a validated stress survey at the beginning (time 1), middle (time 2), and end of their PE class (time 3). Class PA time and intensity was collected using the System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time (SOFIT).
Analysis/Results: Results from the one-way repeated measures ANOVA revealed that state anxiety significantly decreased during the class period (p < 0.001, n2 = 0.185). Further analysis showed that state anxiety scores were significantly different between time 1 and times 2 and 3 (p < 0.001), but scores were not significantly different between time 2 and time 3 (p > 0.614). Results also found that students’ feelings of stress significantly decreased during the class period (p < 0.001, n2 = 0.533). Additional analysis revealed that stress scores were significantly different between time 1 and times 2 and 3 (p < 0.001) and between time 2 and time 3 (p < 0.001). SOFIT physical activity illustrated classes spent 46%, 42%, and 47% of lesson time in moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA).
Conclusions: Results show that participating in a strength and conditioning focused PE class during the school day helped lower students’ levels of stress and anxiety despite less than 50% of lesson time spent in MVPA. This study offers preliminary insight to the positive impact strength and conditioning focused PE can have on students’ mental health. Given the unique nature of strength and conditioning compared to more traditional PE environments, further research is needed to understand the decrease in stress and anxiety despite limited PA. It will also be important to further understand how PE can support students’ mental health within diverse PE populations, contexts and content.
The Impact of Virtual Physical Activity Interventions on Depression and Anxiety Among College Students: Randomized Controlled Trial
Michele Marenus, Andy Murray, Ana Cahuas, Haley Ottensoser, Kathryn Friedman, Varun Kumaravel, Julia Sanowski, Weiyun ChenF, University of Michigan
Background/Purpose: Depression and anxiety are growing issues for college students, with both aerobic-resistance training and mindfulness-yoga exercises known to be effective in reducing symptoms and severity. However, no known research is available comparing the effectiveness of these two interventions in improving depression and anxiety simultaneously in a virtual environment during the COVID-19 pandemic. This study aimed to determine the effects of a virtual aerobic-resistance exercise intervention (WeActive) and a virtual yoga-mindfulness exercise intervention (WeMindful) on depression and anxiety symptoms in college students
Method: The participants were 78 college students who anonymously completed a Qualtrics survey including the Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale (GAD-7) and the Major Depression Inventory (MDI) at baseline and the post-test. Participants were randomly assigned to either the WeActive or WeMindful group and engaged in two 30-minute virtual aerobic-resistance exercise lessons or yoga-mindfulness lessons per week for eight weeks.
Analysis/Results: The results of ANCOVA with repeated measures indicated that both groups showed a notable decrease in anxiety with a marginal significant main effect of time (F = 3.485, p = 0.066, η2 = 0.047), but no significant main effect of group and no significant interaction effect of time with group. The two intervention groups experienced a significant decrease in depression with the main effect of time (F = 3.892, p = 0.052, η2 = 0.052). There was no significant main effect of group or interaction effect of time with group for depression.
Conclusions: College students in both WeActive and WeMindful groups experienced a significant decrease in depression symptoms and a decrease, though not significant, in anxiety as well. The study suggests that virtual WeActive and WeMindful interventions are effective approaches to managing US college student depression and anxiety during a pandemic.
The Implementation of NJ’s Recess Law (S-847) in Elementary Schools
Edward B. Olsen, Kean University; Emi Tsuda, James D. Wyant, West Virginia University; Zachary Gerken, Gabriella Smith, Ian Capp, Nestor Conforti, Kean University
Background/Purpose: On August 10, 2018, Governor Phillip Murphy of NJ signed Senate Bill 847 (S. 847) into law in response to the nation’s obesity epidemic and physical activity recommendations. The purpose of this legislation was to require public school districts in NJ to provide students in kindergarten through fifth-grade with a regularly scheduled 20-minute recess period in addition to several other provisions. For example, students cannot be prohibited from recess unless there was a violation of the district’s student code of conduct, recess minutes cannot be used to satisfy the health and physical education requirements, etc. Despite being passed into law, challenges remain when implementing physical activity policies in schools (Belansky et al., 2009; Evenson et al., 2009; Slater et al., 2012). The purpose of this study was to investigate and analyze school administrators’ experiences in implementing S. 847 in NJ public elementary schools during the 2019-2020 school year.
Method: This study utilized an explanatory sequential mixed methods research design (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011). Participants were recruited throughout NJ using a maximum variation approach. A total of 230 and 20 school administrators participated in Phase 1 (survey) and Phase 2 (semi-structured interviews) of the study. Survey data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, and interview data were analyzed using the constant comparative method. The Theoretical Domains Framework (Cane et al., 2012) informed the survey and interview questions. Application of this theory provided a comprehensive paradigm in which to thoroughly understand the web of factors and elements behind behavior change. Trustworthiness of the interview data was accomplished through triangulation, member checking, an audit trail, and intercoder reliability.
Analysis/Results: Phase 1 results showed that participants have positive support for the bill and confidence in its execution. For example, 85.7% of the participants indicated they meet the 20-minute daily recess requirement. Time demands, inadequate facilities, and high student-to-teacher ratio were the primary barriers. Major facilitators were adequate outdoor facilities, adequate equipment, and a positive climate and culture towards physical activity. Phase 2 results showed that while participants philosophically supported the bill, they struggled to fully understand all the provisions. The participants identified several major resources that were essential to implementing the recess bill including personnel, facilities, time, and budgets/funding. The participants did not believe taking recess time away from students was an effective way to address their poor behavior and academics, which aligns with the bill’s provisions. Finally, the participants revealed that the passage of the bill led to academic and behavioral improvement for students, forced teachers to rethink their practices when using recess as a consequence, and gave principals the legal authority to support recess.
Conclusions: Recess is an important part of a child’s school day. Senate Bill 847 is a population-based approach that mandates children in grades K-5 are afforded the opportunity to play and benefit from recess. Challenges remain when implementing physical activity policies in schools. Federal/state funding, physical activity and supervisor training, and online modules are needed to enhance the implementation physical activity policies.
The Importance of Active School Wellness Teams in Rural Schools
Joey A Lee, Karisa Dreyer, University of Colorado Colorado Springs
Background/Purpose: Schools are challenged with meeting federal regulations aimed at promoting healthy eating and physical activity (PA) environments for students. Local school wellness teams play an important role in developing and implementing school wellness policies and programs. Given the limited resources available to schools in rural areas, the capacity for wellness teams to lead and implement wellness efforts may be limited. The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of local school wellness teams on the implementation of wellness policies and programs in rural schools.
Method: Rural Colorado schools serving students in the k-8 grade range were invited to participate in the study. School wellness teams completed two project surveys. The school wellness team function and structure survey collected information about the use of established wellness team best practices, such as meeting frequency and role representation (e.g., administrator, parent, and student). Wellness teams were categorized as “active” if they reported implementing ≥75% of the wellness team best practices. In the second survey, wellness leaders reported on their school wellness policies and healthy eating and PA programmatic efforts. Teams also reported barriers and facilitators to implementing wellness efforts in the survey. Descriptive statistics were used to examine differences in wellness policy and program offering between schools with active and inactive wellness teams. One-way ANOVAs were used to examine differences in minutes of school day PA opportunities provided to students between schools with active and inactive wellness teams. Qualitative thematic analysis was used to identify themes representing facilitators and barriers to school wellness efforts. Themes were generated separately for active and inactive wellness teams and compared post-hoc.
Analysis/Results: Nineteen schools participated in the study. Eight wellness teams were categorized as “active” and eleven as “inactive.” Results of the one-way ANOVAs examining differences in the minutes of school day PA opportunities provided to students revealed that schools with active wellness teams offered more weekly PA minutes to elementary (279.4 min/week vs. 266.8 min/week) and middle schools (240.8 min/week vs. 229.0 min/week) students compared to schools with inactive wellness teams, but the results were not statistically significant (both p>.05). Descriptive analysis revealed that schools with active wellness teams offered 2.5 times more healthy eating programs and implemented 66% more initiatives to engage family and community members in school wellness programming compared to schools with inactive wellness teams. No differences in before and after school wellness program offerings were observed. Qualitative analysis revealed that active wellness teams reported more facilitators and fewer barriers to implementing wellness efforts compared to inactive wellness teams. Administrative support was identified as a facilitator for both groups, whereas limited time, staff, and funding were identified as barriers by both groups. Additional barrier-related themes identified for the inactive wellness team group included difficulty sustaining wellness efforts, administrative support, conflicting cultural values, and limited access to community resources.
Conclusions: Activating school wellness teams by providing schools with training and resources to support local wellness teams may assist schools with meeting federally required wellness mandates to support and promote student health.
Time Trend and Demographic Disparities in Adolescents’ Obesity Prevalence, Sedentariness, and Physical Activity: Evidence From the 10-Year Longitudinal Data
Yangyang Deng, Graduate Student; Sam Yli-PiipariF, University of Georgia
Background/Purpose: Obesity is a chronic population-wide health problem associated with elevated risks of chronic diseases, e.g. type 2 diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular diseases. Physical activity (PA) has been recognized as a powerful preventive intervention for most of the pre-existing chronic conditions that increase the risk of mortality. Although a negative relationship between PA and weight gain is well demonstrated, the examination of the long-term change patterns in recent 10 years is of a great interest. Thus, the first aim of this study was to examine the time trends and demographic disparities of adolescents’ obesity prevalence and PA across time.
Method: A total of 5,075 (2,606 boys, 2,469 girls, Mage = 14.47 ± 1.70) 12- to 17-year-old adolescents from the 2007-2016 NHANES cohort study dataset were included in the sample (sample information available at https://wwwn.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes/Default.aspx). Outcome variables were body mass index (BMI), sedentary time, moderate to vigorous intensity PA (MVPA), and demographic information (i.e., age, gender, and poverty ratio).
Analysis/Results: Secondary data set collected federally by NHANES was analyzed. Results showed that adolescents’ obesity prevalence increased from 2007 (14.6/19.2%) to 2016 (16.9% /22.3%), and adolescents’ overweight /obesity was the most prevalent among Hispanic boys (9.6% /6.5% increase) and girls (10.8%/9.9% increase). Multilevel mixed-effects linear regression model analyses showed a significant increase in BMI (0.24kg/m2) and sedentary time (33.44 min/day) but no statistically significant changes in MVPA. In addition, we found that girls’ weight gain (23.37-24.27 kg/m2) was 5 percentage points bigger than boys’ weight gain (23.37-23.49 kg/m2). Poverty ratio and age were significantly associated with BMI (β=-0.389, p<0.01; β=0.70, p<0.01), suggesting that older adolescents and adolescents with less financial resources experience greater weight gains.
Conclusions: The findings suggest that the greatest public health risk pertains to Hispanic and low-income adolescents as the prevalence of obesity is most dramatic in these demographics. No significant time trends were found in MVPA across years 2007 to 2016. This study provided a useful insight into the trend of the most recent 10 years highlighting health disparities and a need for effective interventions. Future interventions should be tailored to different subpopulations to improve the effectiveness and reach of interventions.
Trends in Physical Activity During a 5-Week Outdoor Adventure Camp
Samantha Dyer, University of Nevada, Reno; Ryan D. BurnsF, University of Utah; Nora Constantino, University of Nevada, Reno; Peng ZhangF, East Stroudsburg University; You FuF, University of Nevada, Reno
Background/Purpose: It is currently unknown if improvements in physical activity are consistently maintained across multi-week outdoor summer day camp in children. The purpose of this study was to examine the weekly time trends in sedentary behavior and physical activity across a 5-week all outdoor summer day camp in a sample of children from Nevada.
Method: Participants were a sample of children (N = 140; age = 8-12 years; 70 female) attended a 5-week summer camp in Sierra Nevada region of the US in 2021. The major theme of the camp is outdoor adventure and fitness promotion. This research employed a repeated cross-sectional study design because there was a different group of campers each week. Participants were expected to have no physical disabilities that would render them unable to participate in group hikes and/or outdoor games, they were also expected to have various levels of physical fitness. The camp comprises various types of activities such as outdoor hiking in the morning, children had team-building activities, exercise, and sport games in the afternoon. All activities were led and monitored by 4-6 teachers. Physical activity was measured using ActiGraph GT3x+ wrist worn accelerometers (ActiGraph, Florida, USA). Each camper wore the accelerometer for the entire time they were at camp, from 9am to 4pm, Monday through Friday. Evenson’s cut point algorithm was applied in the calculation.
Analysis/Results: An omnibus one-way Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) test with follow-up one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) tests were used to examine weekly time trends in % of accelerometer wear time in sedentary behavior (%SED), percent of wear time in light physical activity (%LPA), percent of wear time in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (%MVPA), and average daily step counts. The MANOVA model was statistically significant (Wilks’ l=0.22, p<0.001). Follow-up one-way ANOVA tests showed statistically significant time trends in %SED (F=5.16, p<0.001), %LPA (F=6.10, p<0.001), and step counts (F=3.79, p=0.006). Bonferroni post hoc tests revealed significantly higher %SED during Week 5 compared to Week 2 (D=10.31%, p=0.001, d=1.03, large effect), significantly lower %LPA during Week 5 compared to Week 2 (D = -6.14%, p < 0.001, d = 0.45, medium effect), and significantly lower steps per day during Week 4 compared to Week 1 (D=-3800 steps, p=0.004, d=0.81, large effect) and during Week 5 compared to Week 1 (D=-5590 steps, p<0.001, d=1.20, large effect). There were no significant time trends in %MVPA after alpha level adjustment (p>0.01).
Conclusions: The results of this preliminary study contribute to the existing literature on children’s physical activity trend during an outdoor adventure camp. Children in the outdoor adventure camp tended to be less active and more sedentary across five weeks, may be due to the facts that the dry weather and temperature is getting higher across weeks, in the meanwhile, it has been identified that camp teachers’ motivation decreased, which may have also contribute to campers’ decreased physical activity. Further studies should employ longitudinal designs and modify the intervention to help determine the effects of the outdoor adventure program on children’s physical activity.
Using Narrative Vignettes to Explore Physical Activity Experiences at School
Jaime M. McMullenF, University of Northern Colorado; Collin Brooks, University of West Georgia; Cassandra Iannucci, Deakin University; Xiaoping Fan, University of Northern Colorado
Background/Purpose: Aligning with internationally accepted recommendations associated with a whole-of-school approach to physical activity promotion, and in addition to the traditional offerings that already exists (i.e., physical education, club sports, etc.), schools are being asked to provide opportunities for young people to be active throughout the school day (Institute of Medicine, 2013). These recommendations suggest that there should be opportunities for young people to be physically active before and after school, during the school day, with staff engagement and parent/community involvement. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to describe the physical activity experiences of young people attending secondary schools in Finland, Ireland and the United States who employ a whole-of-school approach to physical activity promotion. One school in each country was identified based on its adoption of a national physical activity initiative (i.e., Finland – Finnish Schools on the Move; Ireland – Active School Flag; United States - Let’s Move Active Schools).
Method: The lead author spent three days at each school (Tuesday-Thursday) from approximately 30 minutes before school until 30 minutes after the last bell. Data were collected by observation with field notes, photos, and interviews with key stakeholders (i.e., students, teachers, principal and parents/community members).
Analysis/Results: The data were analyzed inductively, with notes being made related to key perceptions, events, facilities and behaviors associated with the physical activity experiences of students at each school (Miles, Huberman, & Saldaña, 2019). Results are presented as analytic narrative vignettes (Erickson, 1986) that represent how young people experience physical activity at school (and outside of school) based on all data collected across the three days. The results of this study provide insight into how young people perceive opportunities to be physically active at school and their experience of these opportunities. The vignettes, two representing each setting, provide a glimpse into available physical activity opportunities for young people at school, and how young people may (or may not) experience physical activity during the school day. Stakeholders from these schools, including the students, are very aware of the available opportunities to be active at school, and have various reasons for either choosing to participate in them or not.
Conclusions: While many physical activity opportunities appear to exist at each of the three schools, the extent to which students take advantage of these opportunities remains unclear. Future research in this area should consider how schools can design and implement physical activity opportunities that are appealing to all students in secondary schools in an attempt to get more kids, more active, more often throughout the school day.
Wellness Trends Among College Freshmen
Julene Ensign, Nancy Daley-Moore, Abby Sauer, Truman State University; Jordan Lewis, Hixson Middle School
Background/Purpose: Given the need to increase levels of wellness among college freshmen, this study sought to quantify students’ perceptions of their personal degrees of physical, relational, spiritual, occupational, and financial wellness. Additionally, to identify qualitative factors that enhance or constrain students’ perceived levels of wellness, the following research questions were addressed: (a) How do freshman students’ perceived levels of physical, relational, spiritual, intellectual, and financial wellness change over the course of their first semester of college?, and (b) What practices, factors, and resources do students perceive to inhibit or facilitate levels of wellness?.
Method: After receiving IRB approval, researchers at a midwestern university employed a mixed-methods approach that began with an invitation for all freshmen students to participate in a baseline survey before the beginning of the academic year (n = 263). During the fall semester, all freshmen students were again invited to participate in a congruent midterm survey (n = 159). This instrument elicited demographic information and asked students to rank their responses from strongly disagree to strongly agree relating to each of the aforementioned dimensions of wellness (10 questions/category). To provide additional richness and depth of results, participants who self-selected also completed a one-hour structured focus group interview.
Analysis/Results: Results indicated significant decreases in physical (t(275) = -1.91, p = .028), relational (t(201) = -2.18, p = .015), and intellectual wellness (t(291) = -2.44, p = .008) with a significant increase in spiritual wellness (t(218) = 4.36, p < .001). Financial wellness remained statistically unchanged. Qualitative themes emerged related to the quality of students’ personal support systems, individual behavior patterns related to hobbies and habits, the effects of an individual’s mindset, and COVID-19’s impact on wellness.
Conclusions: Factors that enhanced students’ perceptions of wellness included the presence of strong support systems that helped maintain personal wellness amid a variety of dynamic stressors and issues and the presence of healthy, growth mindsets. Learning to navigate the independence and autonomy that a traditional college experience affords provided opportunities for creating personal routines and structure for some but was overwhelming for others. Similarly, the pursuit of leisure activities and hobbies provided an outlet for decompression and balance for some but led others toward poor lifestyle habits and choices that, ultimately, undermined perceptions of wellness. In addition, the presence of COVID-19 and its effects on campus protocols, traditional student-life rhythms, and personal health status presented a tremendous challenge. Implications indicate that freshman students need help developing skills to build and maintain robust support systems. Students who perceive close connections with others may be less likely to struggle with issues connected to personal wellness, and introductory freshman seminar courses could serve as avenues for students to build relationships and support systems with peers as well as provide awareness related to various wellness resources that exist within a traditional campus community.
What Is the Impact of Physical Education on Students’ Feelings of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression?
Kacie Lanier ([email protected]), Georgia State University; Chad Killian, Unaffiliated; Kathryn Wilson, Rebecca EllisF, Georgia State University
Background/Purpose: Mental health issues are a growing concern in children and adolescents with 20% reportedly living with a mental health condition. Research has demonstrated that physical activity (PA) can be effective at reducing feelings of anxiety, depression, and stress in adults and youth. Physical education (PE) provides students with opportunities to accumulate PA throughout the school day. It also represents an ideal school environment to support students’ mental health through PA. However, it is currently unknown the extent to which PE participation might influence students’ anxiety, depression, and stress. The purpose of this scoping review was to identify and summarize research that has been conducted in relation to PE’s impact on K–12 students’ feelings of anxiety, depression, and/or stress.
Method: This review followed the PRISMA-ScR guidelines for scoping reviews. The Academic Search Complete, APA PsycInfo, ERIC, and SPORTDiscus databases were searched for peer-reviewed, English-language, research articles.
Analysis/Results: Twenty-eight articles met the inclusion criteria for this review. A total of 12 articles examined PE students’ anxiety levels, 3 examined depression, 5 examined stress. There were also 4 studies that examined both depression and stress, and 4 studies that examined anxiety, depression, and stress levels. The included articles used a variety of research methods, designs, and measurement tools to study students’ feelings of anxiety, depression, and stress in relation to participation in PE. A caring, task-involved climate and positive motivational profiles (e.g., higher level intrinsic motivation, competence, relatedness, autonomy, etc.) were more likely to decrease feelings of anxiety, depression, and stress while ego-involving climates and negative motivational profiles (e.g., higher levels of amotivation, external motivation, introjected regulation, etc.) were more likely to increase these feelings. Participation in yoga resulted in an inconsistent impacted on students’ feelings of anxiety, depression, and stress.
Conclusions: This review demonstrated that participation in PE had a variable impact on students’ anxiety, depression, and/or stress levels. This could be because of the generally low levels of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity with PE classes, the complex nature of the school ecology, the social nature of PE and the potential bullying that takes place in the gym, low student motivation levels, and barriers that prevent the implementation of quality PE programs. The results of this review can also be attributed to the limitations of the included articles. A majority of the articles lacked a clear definition of anxiety, depression, and stress and a physical activity measurement. Additionally, only one qualitative article and two mixed method articles were identified. Future research that incorporates more rigorous methodology and takes into account environmental factors of the school, social influences, and the quality of PE programs is needed in order to establish a more reliable understanding of the relationship and potential impact of PE and students’ mental health.
WV CARDIAC Project: Children’s Health Data and Family Health History
Emi Tsuda, James D. Wyant, Eloise M. ElliottF, Christa Lilly, Erika D. Van Dyke, Emily Murphy, Olivia Jane Mackey, Lee Pyles, West Virginia University
Background/Purpose: The Coronary Artery Risk Detection in Appalachian Communities (CARDIAC) Project is an initiative to combat children’s health challenges in West Virginia. One of the main efforts of CARDIAC is to conduct a school-based health screening to assess the risk factors of children. The purpose of this study was to report the 2019 health data and family history of fifth-grade children in WV.
Method: A total of 544 students from 17 counties in WV participated in the study (Mage=11.05 yrs, SD=.39; Female n=303). Children’s height and weight were measured to calculate their body mass index (BMI) and its percentile. The BMI percentile was used to categorize their weight status (CDC, 2021). Blood pressure data (systolic and diastolic; adjusted for height, age, and gender to calculate percentiles; abnormal = 95th <) and the presence of acanthosis nigricans (AN) on the neck or axilla (present or absent) data were also collected. The parents/guardians of the children completed a survey which asked: (a) child’s demographic backgrounds, (b) child’s family health history, (c) child’s health-related behaviors (e.g., physical activity, screen time, servings of vegetables and fruits), and (d) parents’ or guardians’ perceived weight and health status of their child.
Analysis/Results: Descriptive statistics showed that 46.5% of children are overweight or obese, and 20.2% of children have elevated blood pressure. Acanthosis Nigricans was observed among 6.8% of children. Regarding the demographic backgrounds, the mother’s highest education was related to children’s health data; Chi-square analysis showed the significant differences in BMI category, χ2 (1, N=469)=22.54, p=.032, and blood pressure risk, χ2 (1, N=395)=17.03, p=.002 (more mothers obtain high school graduate degree, not college or higher, among obese children [post hoc adjusted p<.002] and children with risk in blood pressures [post hoc adjusted p<.005]). Children who have AN tend to live in homes where someone smokes, χ2 (1, N=533)=17.71, p< .001. Also, more children who have a positive family history of diabetes have AN, χ2 (1, N=522)=9.39, p=.025, post hoc adjusted p < .006. One-way ANOVA illustrated a significant difference in physical activity engagement in a week among BMI category, F(3, 532)=3.935, p=.009 (overweight and obese children are less physically active). Moreover, 96.9% of parents who have an overweight child and 30.7% of parents who have an obese child perceived their child’s weight to be normal.
Conclusions: Close to half of the children in WV are at high risk for poor health outcomes. However, limited statistically significant relationships were found between children’s health risk factors and both parent-reported family health history and child health-related behaviors. Incorporating objective measures of health-related behaviors may be an essential consideration for future studies. Finally, we suggest physical education and health professionals invite parents to participate in opportunities to better understand the healthy habits of their children and family (e.g., lead activities before, during, and after school, and sit on the school’s wellness committee). Involving parents in decision-making processes and asking their ideas for enhancing children’s involvement in healthy eating and physical activity habits may be other valuable approaches.
Young Adults’ Enjoyment and Motivation in Exergaming and Aerobic Dance
Zan GaoF, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities; Kun Tao, Huaihua University
Background/Purpose: Exergaming has been evident to be a novel and interesting channel to enhance young adults’ enjoyment and motivation while engaging in physical activity, yet no known research has been conducted to compare its efficacy versus traditional content-identical exercise modality. In response, this project investigated mean differences in young adults’ self-efficacy, enjoyment and self-determined motivation in different content-identical exercise modalities (exergaming aerobic dance vs. traditional aerobic dance).
Method: Forty young adults (20 females; Mage=20.38) were recruited from a Chinese university and completed two separate 12-minute dance sessions: 1) non-stop exergaming aerobic dance (Xbox 360 Kinect Just Dance - Just Sweat around the World); and 2) traditional aerobic dance led by an experienced instructor. Participants’ self-efficacy, enjoyment and self-determined motivation (intrinsic motivation, integrated regulation, external regulation, amotivation) were measured by a battery of validated questionnaires (Gao et al., 2012; Guay et al., 2000) during each session. The MANOVA with repeated measures was used to detect mean differences in these outcomes between the two dance sessions. The significance level was set at 0.05.
Analysis/Results: Significant differences were identified between dance sessions for the overall model, Wilks’ Lambda = 0.437, F(7,33) = 6.069, p < 0.01, β2 = 0.563). In detail, participants had significantly higher enjoyment toward exergaming dance (3.54 ± 0.56) compared to aerobic dance (3.31 ± 0.60), F(1,39) = 3.59, p = 0.05, β2 = 0.08. In terms of self-determined motivation, exergaming dance showed significantly higher intrinsic motivation (6.11 ± 0.98) comparing to aerobic dance (5.62 ± 1.32), F(1,39) = 3.82, p < 0.05, β2 = 0.09. No other significant differences were detected for other outcomes.
Conclusions: Findings suggest that exergaming dance may lead to higher perceived enjoyment and intrinsic motivation among young adults compared to traditional aerobic dance. The findings have practical implications for physical activity promotion, as young adults might be more likely to engage in game-like exercise when more enjoyment are perceived and/or they are more intrinsically motivated toward the activity.
Sociocultural & Social Justice
Anti-Fat Attitudes Among Physical Educators: A Scoping Review
Luciana Zuest, Towson University; Andrea Salazar, California State University, Chico
Background/Purpose: Weight stigma, which is discrimination based on body size, can damage young people’s health and well-being (Puhl, 2011; Puh & Latner, 2007). Researchers have documented the pervasiveness of weight stigma directed at children and adolescents by peers, teachers, parents, and health care providers (Pont et al., 2017; Puhl & Lessard, 2020; Rukavina et al. 2008). Sadly, physical education has been indicated as a vulnerable space for young people with larger bodies due to widespread weight bias, stigma, and discrimination (Pausé, 2019; Sykes & McPhail, 2007; Tinning, 2020). This study undertakes a scoping review of empirical research examining anti-fat attitudes among physical educators (i.e., preservice teachers, in-service teachers, and university faculty). Specifically, this study sought to determine the extent, range, and nature of research activity concerning anti-fat attitudes among physical educators, the findings from those studies, and the gaps in the existing literature.
Method: Following the PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews guidelines (Tricco, 2018), we used five databases to identify studies published in English between 1985 and 2021. Upon retrieving 21 publications, we conducted a content analysis to determine the country of origin, study focus, participants, data sources, analysis method, and theoretical framework of each study (charting the data). Afterward, we critically appraised each study to identify common findings and knowledge gaps regarding anti-fat attitudes among physical educators.
Analysis/Results: Studies from 11 countries were classified into four groups according to their focus: a) to examine physical educators’ attitudes towards fatness (n=7; 33%), b) to compare physical educators’ anti-fat attitudes with other groups (n=5; 24%), c) to investigate associations between anti-fat attitudes and other variables (n=5; 24%), and d) to assess the impact of interventions on physical educators’ anti-fat attitudes (n=4; 19%). Most studies were quantitative (n=19; 90.5%) and two utilized mixed-methods (9.5%). All studies demonstrated some measure of negative attitudes towards fatness within their samples, and only one study explicitly reported using a theory to guide their investigation.
Conclusions: Anti-fat attitudes are prevalent among physical educators and remain a barrier to creating inclusive climates for young people with diverse bodies. Given the prevalence and adverse consequences of weight stigma, it is surprising that only four studies have reported on interventions aimed at improving anti-fat attitudes in physical educators. Therefore, designing, implementing, and evaluating interventions to reduce weight bias, stigma, and discrimination in physical education is warranted and an urgent task.
Effects of Ethnic Identity and Motivation to Be Physically Active in Schools in Hawaii
Nathan Kahaialii, Keven Prusak, David Barney, Carol Wilkinson, Brigham Young University
Background/Purpose: Intrepid, fearless warriors paddled canoes across vast stretches of the Pacific Ocean to inhabit the many islands of Polynesia. Despite their idyllic lives, the islanders also faced recurring tribal conflicts and wars. For centuries, Hawaiians lived in relative isolation and anonymity, cultures and identity intact. Eventually, however, life in the islands would drastically change with continued arrival of foreigners. Acculturation and ethnic identity erosion has had a dramatic effect on all forms and especially traditional forms of physical activity leading to a host of physical ailments and chronic disease.
Deci and Ryan’s (1989) self-determination theory of motivation was used to examine motivational indices toward western and traditional Hawaiian forms of PA as they relate to self-selected ethnic identity. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between ethnic identity, motivation profiles, and physical activity rates within Hawaiian communities, specifically with Hawaiian adolescents (between 6th and 8th grade) in Hawaii in a westernized education setting.
Method: Participants (n = 301, 136 females) comprised of sixth grade (n = 76), seventh grade (n = 139), and eighth grade (n = 86) students from a public school (n = 252), and a private school (n = 49) both located in the Hawaiian Islands. Students participated in a 20-minute game during regular PA classes followed by the completion of a 33-item survey assessing ethnic identity (via MEIM-R (Phinney & Ong, 2007), self-determined forms of motivation (via SIMS Guay, Vallerand, & Blanchard, 2000) and a list of 15 possible extracurricular activities including traditional Hawaiian activities. Pedometers were used to assess level of PA during class. All response variables and subscale means and standard deviations were calculated. Correlation analysis was used to examine strength and direction of selected variables. MANOVA was used to examine significant differences among group variables (gender and ethnic identity) for selected variables (motivational indices, ethnic exploration, ethnic commitment, and steps). Follow-up comparisons were made as indicated via one-way ANOVA and Tukey’s HSD for gender and ethnic identity.
Analysis/Results: MANOVA tests revealed a significant gender (Wilks l = .934, p = .018) and ethnic identity effects (Wilks l = .046, p < .001). Post hoc comparisons revealed both gender effects for all response variables except IDR. Significant ethnic identity effects for certain motivational indices (AM and SDI), ethnic exploration, and ethnic commitment but not steps.
Conclusions: Hawaiian students who explore their culture and are committed towards their ethnic identity are more likely to be positively motivated towards PA. Hawaiian Studies are needed to help strengthen Hawaiian student ethnic identity. The Hawaiian culture goes beyond the glimmering tourism of luaus, flower leis, and aloha, but it is also more than a culture of being physically active warriors. Other ethnic identities and attitudes toward PA are also discussed.
Life History of an Exemplary African American PETE Faculty Member
Richard F. Jowers, The University of Mississippi; Matthew D. Curtner-SmithF, The University of Alabama
Background/Purpose: The life history approach has been touted as crucial in the fight against the marginalization of physical educators because it gives voice to those who may otherwise be silenced. Despite calls for scholars to conduct more life history research with marginalized physical education teachers and teacher educators, little has been completed in the United States and more is needed that examines marginalization due to age, social class, race, ethnicity and ableness. We were interested in describing the effects of marginalization through race. The purpose of the study, therefore, was to construct the life history of a veteran exemplary African American physical education teacher education (PETE) faculty member. The specific research questions we sought to answer were (a) to what extent did the participant experience marginalization in his community and working life? (b) to what extent was the participant’s life influenced by microaggressions? and (c) to what extent was the participant’s life affected by stereotype threat?
Method: The theoretical lens we employed during the study was eclectic in that we drew constructs and concepts from critical race theory and stereotype threat. The participant was Dr. Andrew Lewis, a retired African American PETE faculty member from the College of Charleston in South Carolina. We collected data through formal interviews, informal interviews, and the gathering of documents and artifacts.
Analysis/Results: Analytic induction and constant comparison were employed to reduce the data to meaningful themes. Lewis’s counter-story indicates that he experienced a significant amount of marginalization and prejudice as a result of the political system that was in place in the Deep South when he was born, the remnants of that same system later in his working life, and the resurgence of it at the end of his career. He was somewhat sheltered from the worst effects of institutionalized racism in his early life due to the strong sense of community in his neighborhood, schools, and the undergraduate college he attended. In addition, Lewis was subjected to different forms of microaggression and stereotype threat by students, faculty, and administrators during his working life. Chief among these were the implication that he didn’t belong at the College of Charleston as a professor or an administrator because, as an African American, he did not have the intellect or leadership skills to carry out these roles. Lewis dealt with these different types of racism by drawing on and emulating the behaviors modeled by several of his teachers and professors. He was further inspired to fight back against racism by events that he observed during the civil rights movement of the 1960s.
Conclusions: Dr. Lewis’s life history can inspire the thoughts and actions of African American faculty who are marginalized and on the receiving end of microaggressions and stereotype threats. It also has the potential to influence those in powerful positions to make systemic changes in higher education, and those in the majority who perpetuate stereotypes of African Americans or deal in microaggressions to at least consider the damage they are doing.
North American Rodeo: From Celebratory Roundup to Iconic Sport Form
Demetrius W Pearson, University of Houston
Background/Purpose: This sociocultural and historical analysis highlights some of the salient issues related to race/ethnicity, equity, and social justice pertaining to the origin and evolution of North American rodeo. The presentation will focus on the evolutionary aspects of contemporary rodeo. Unbeknownst to many, rodeo can be traced back to the Hispanic semiannual roundup of nomadic mustangs and cattle. This vaquero (Mexican cowboy) occupational activity known commonly as “herding” led to the branding, earmarking, and castrating of bulls. These tasks became celebratory over time when family members gathered to watch vaqueros engage in these activities, as well as other quasi-athletic competitions. This ultimately led to their most revered festive athletic pastime: charrería or ro-day-o (Pearson, 2021). The latter term is from the Spanish word rodear, meaning to surround or encircle. Unfortunately, the Mexican fiesta and much of the Hispanic rodeo legacy has been marginalized and omitted due to prejudice (LeCompte, 1985). Their fairs and fiestas were deemed trivial by Anglo historians. As a result, [they] “failed to appreciate their cultural merits and instead identified them with frivolous propensities of Tejanos” (DeLeon 1983, p. 34). Ironically, Anglo fairs were much like the Mexican fiestas and were the precursor to American Wild West Shows and rodeos.
Method: A qualitative research methodology was employed utilizing an ethnographic approach. This included diverse data collection techniques including semi-structured interviews, non-participant observations, document/artifact examinations, and an extensive archival literature review. The use of multiple data collection sources helped frame the study and enhanced both reliability and validity, thereby serving as a form of data source and methodological triangulation (Brown & Holloway, 2013; Pitney & Parker, 2009).
Analysis/Results: The study suggests North American rodeo is an outgrowth of the Hispanic fiestas of the early19th century in Mexican Texas. Several contemporary rodeo events are akin to those of the charrería and indicative of the roots of rodeo including colear el toro (tailing the bull) or the coleadero, which is like steer wrestling, and manganas a caballo, an event similar to calf roping. Not only were certain events adapted and incorporated into anglicized rodeos, so were cattle herding equipment and apparel (e.g., saddles, spurs, chaps, lariats, etc.). Thus, the prole (working class) North American sport of rodeo emanated from a Hispanic cultural celebration.
Conclusions: Although differences exist between contemporary North American rodeo and charrería, they both reflect a proletariat oriented sport form that has reached iconic stature internationally via various aspects of life (e.g., film, fashion, entertainment, art, literature, and lore). However, the Hispanic rodeo archetype has yet to receive the celebrity acclaim he is due. Allen (1998) aptly summed up the omission: “Interestingly, and despite his importance in the origins and evolution of the rodeo folk festival, the Mexican American cowboy is the one character who lacks a full-scale artistic treatment in English language” (p. 177). Racism is said to be a major reason for the marginalized status, a factor that has plagued African American involvement and depictions within livestock management and rodeo.
PETE Alumni Perspectives of Culturally Responsive Teaching Self-Efficacy
Sara B. FloryF, Craigory Nieman, Rebecca Wylie, University of South Florida
Background/Purpose: Preparing preservice teachers to address cultural incongruence has been a challenge for teacher educators for decades (Ladson-Billings, 1995, 2008; Nieto, 2010). In the field of physical education, many researchers have examined the influence of race (Azzarito & Solomon, 2006), socioeconomic status (Quarmy & Dagkas, 2013), and urban school status (Cothran & Ennis, 1999). Additionally, researchers have examined how physical education teacher education (PETE) programs address issues of social justice, and in the U.S. especially, PETE programs are falling short (Ovens et al., 2018; Walton-Fisette et al., 2018). These factors prompted us to evaluate a PETE program where students had courses, teaching experiences, and assignments that specifically addressed issues of social justice and culturally responsive teaching. The purpose of this mixed-methods study was to examine the culturally responsive teaching self-efficacy of recent graduates.
Method: Recent graduates (from 2013-2019) of a PETE program located in a metropolitan area of the southeastern United States were asked to complete the Culturally Responsive Teaching Self-Efficacy Scale (CRTSE; Siwatu, 2007) and demographic questions via Qualtrics. This scale contains 40 statements on a 100-point Likert Scale to reflect general teaching practices, as well as more culturally sensitive teaching practices. Alumni could indicate their willingness to participate in a follow-up interview if they had teaching experience in an Urban school. Of the 85 alumni contacted, completed surveys were received from 43 participants, for a response rate of 50.6%. Of those 43 participants, 13 volunteered to complete a 45-60 minute follow-up interview on their experiences teaching in an urban school.
Analysis/Results: Interviews were transcribed and analyzed using constant comparison and inductive analysis (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) by all three researchers. This analysis resulted in the emergence of several themes geared toward barriers to having higher self-efficacy for culturally responsive teaching, such as feeling confident to interact with ELL students and parents. Using descriptive analysis to examine the CRTSE scale statements among both the interviewees (N = 13), and participants who were not interviewed (N = 30) highlighted areas of low self-efficacy for culturally responsive teaching. For example, statement #22, regarding “praising ELL students in their native language” (Siwatu, 2007), was one of the lowest scored statements among interviewees (M = 62.61, SD = 36.14) and non-interviewees (M = 77.24, SD = 26.51).
Conclusions: PETE programs need to critically examine the experiences preservice teachers have interacting and communicating with ELLs and their parents prior to induction. For this PETE program specifically, the isolated nature of the ESOL Strategies and Competencies course and lack of opportunities to interact with parents hindered alumni’s CRTSE. A more robust understanding and additional opportunities for the application of culturally responsive teaching methods for working with ELLs in physical education and their families is needed to enhance CRTSE.
Projection on Sports Management Related Job Market Demands in USA
Ran Wei, Yuanlong LiuF, Western Michigan University
Background/Purpose: The sports industry has become one of the top ten industries in the U.S. with a market size growth of about 45.8% in the past decade and projected to be 83.1 billion in 2023 (Chen et al., 2013; Gough, 2019). Rapid industry development and market growth have attracted much attention and interest from the public and the younger generation to get involved in the sport fields. In recent years, U.S. higher education has experienced enrollment decline. It was projected that there would be a drop of 15% of the national college-aged population before 2030 (Grawe, 2018). However, sports management (SM) programs in U.S. higher education has experienced substantial development in last a half century (Weese, 2002), with over 30 new SM programs started annually since 2010, totaling 623 programs in 2019 (DegreeInSports, 2020). Consistent increase of the market demands in the sport industry has been the driving force to the development of SM programs in higher education. Thus, the purpose of this study is to explore the demographics and demands in sport related job openings in order to support the contemporary SM graduates’ career planning in higher education.
Method: “Sport,” “exercise,” “fitness,” “recreation,” and “athlete” were searched as keywords to collect the projected employment and unemployment rate (UR) data from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (USBLS). Eight job categories (agents and business managers of artists, performances, and athletes (ABMA), recreation and fitness studies teachers, postsecondary (RFTP), athlete and sports competitors (ASC), umpire and officials (UO), exercise physiologists (EP), fitness trainers and aerobics instructors (FTAI), athletic trainers (AT), coaches and scouts (CS)) were selected. Cross-sectional approach was employed to collect all 50 states’ paralleled data from CareerOneStop. Correlation analysis was applied to examine relationships between UR and each annually occupational employment percent change (AOEPC). One-way ANOVA was employed to examine whether significant AOEPC differences exist among the eight jobs.
Analysis/Results: Based on the USBLS 2016-2026 employment projection, over 770,000 SM related job openings were projected with an average 11.25% increase annually. Compared with other occupations, FTAI has the highest number of national job openings (55,000) and UO with the highest national AOEPC (18.70%). Correlation results indicated significant relationships between each state UR (M=3.3%, SD=0.984) and AOCPE on AT (M=18.70%, SD=10.539, r=-.283, p=0.042), CS (M=11.39%, SD=6.910, r=-.367, p=0.007) and RFTP (M= 4.15%, SD= 7.223, r=-0.275, p=0.048). One-way ANOVA results revealed significant differences on each type of projected annual job openings (F(7, 301) =20.856, p<.0001). Post Hoc tests showed annual job openings on CS (M=789.200, SD=911.124) and FTAI (M=1133.077, SD=1268.432) were significantly higher than the other six occupations.
Conclusions: Compared with the 3.3% of overall UR, the increasing SM related job opening indicated SM is a promising field for more prospective college-aged students to pursue when considering their career development. As the ongoing COVID-19 may shake the accuracy of projection, what SM educators can do is to prepare students with more diverse knowledge, skills and ability to fit into different roles in SM related occupations, which would keep them outstanding in the job market.
Promoting Diversity and Inclusion With Social and Emotional Learning in Physical Education: International Investigation
Seunghyun Baek, University of North Carolina at Greensboro; Ben DysonF, University of North Carolina, Greensboro; Donal Howley, University of North Carolina Greensboro; Yanhua Shen, UNC Greensboro
Background/Purpose: There has been the increased attention amongst researchers and practitioners internationally on how Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) is delivered in Physical Education (PE) (Wright et al., 2020). SEL can be implemented more sustainably when it is supported by equitable learning environments where diversity and inclusion is acknowledged (Gregory & Fergus, 2017). Thus, the purpose of this study was to explore international teacher educators’ perspectives of promoting diversity and inclusion with SEL pedagogies in Physical Education Teacher Education (PETE).
Method: An international comparative case study design (Penn, 2019) was adopted to explore teacher educators’ perspectives. In total, 18 teacher educators were recruited from 10 different countries. Each participant was interviewed using a video-conferencing system called ‘Zoom’ (Gray et al, 2020). The qualitative data analysis was conducted following transcription, organization of raw data, creation of descriptive codes followed by inferential coding (Miles et al, 2014). To enhance trustworthiness of the study, triangulation, peer debriefing, and clarification of the researcher positionality was conducted (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011; Tracy, 2020).
Analysis/Results: Four themes were drawn from the data analysis:
Embedding diversity elements across different phases: “We’re going to recruit intentionally so that we get diversity within our programs. … I think that the teaching force generally needs to better reflect the students that we’re teaching” (Luke, USA); “So the students have experiences in things like outdoor education, dance, creative movement. Because if they don’t, they’ll never teach them in their own teaching. So, a broad range of experiences” (Mark, New Zealand).
Perspective-taking and critical self-analysis: “I think through use of image and story most people will feel some empathy or sadness, and then using that to extrapolate to get them to think about how they behave, how they interact with underpinning this” (Kyle, Australia); “It’s a starting point to reflect on our behavior and perhaps on what we want to do in physical education and that the whole session is fruitful for everybody” (Simon, Germany).
Creating a safe space for open discussions: “A lot of our current frameworks and current models don’t consider equity and inclusion. … So, we talked further about that as an entire classroom. And it opened up a space to have really difficult conversations, but somehow everyone felt safe in doing that” (Elly, USA); “When you are teaching about Olympic Games, … we will discuss political situations. Then you will discuss inclusion situation. … I think it’s social and emotional learning skills as well.” (Ana, Brazil).
Introducing culturally responsive frameworks and pedagogies: “You talk about theoretical frameworks and … who they were as preservice teachers, who their kids were, what that gap was between those two cultures, and then what they could do about it. … by pulling in that culturally responsive framework” (Luke, USA).
Conclusions: The findings in this study indicates that PETE programs across different countries are getting more invested in promoting equitable learning experiences with SEL pedagogies. Future research should investigate how PE teachers incorporate diversity and inclusion into their SEL practices in school.
The Influence of Christian Faith on the Athletic Identity and Racial Identity of Black Male Adolescent Student-Athletes
Brandon Jamar Crooms, Trinity University
Background/Purpose: Research also indicates that there is a relationship between athletic identity and racial identity of Black male collegiate student-athletes (Bimper, Harrison, 2011; Harrison et al., 2002). According to Harrison and colleagues (2013) race and athletics has a potent influence on African American male identity. The inability for African American males with a high athletic identity to fulfill the athletic role related to their race can lead to psychological and social issues (Harrison, 2013). Although the Christian faith is acclaimed by people from different ethnical and racial backgrounds, other factors such as class, race, and gender can influence the way individuals internalize their religious belief (Brega & Coleman, 1999; Mattis & Jagers, 2001). African Americans typically embrace the value of religion, its liberating power, the reliance of God, and practical principles in life (Herndon, 2003; McAdoo, 1999). Experiences of race-related encounters for many African American males in college has caused them to search for emotional support, spiritual guidance, and meaning in life (Dancy, 2010; McAdoo, 1999). Nevertheless, there remains a gap in existing literature on the impact of the intersectionality of race, athletics, and Christian faith on the lived experiences of Black male adolescents. Considering the complexity and intricacies of Black male adolescence, the relationship of Christian faith, sports, and race warrants exploration.
Method: A phenomenological qualitative study grounded by critical race theory and identity were used to understand the experiences of a selected group of participants (N=21). Semi-structured individual and group interviews were administered to investigate the relationship of Athletic Identity, Racial Identity, and Christian Identity of Black male Adolescent Student-Athletes.
Analysis/Results: The themes are presented as: (1) Active Faith, (1a) The Source, (1b) Prayer, (1c) Desire for Spiritual Development; (2) Christian Inspiration, (2a) God’s Plan and Purpose, (2b) Scriptures, (2c) Religious Motivational Quotes, (2d) Value and Meaning; (3) Racial Inspiration; (4) Spiritual Capital; (5) Intersection of Identities, (5a) Athletic Identity & Racial Identity, (5b) Athletic Identity & Christian Identity, Racial Identity & Christian Identity; (6) Identity Conflict, (6a) Internal Identity Conflict, (6b) External Identity Conflict.
Conclusions: Findings suggests support for the spiritual needs of Christian Black male student athletes with culturally relevant systems of practice to enhance their student-athlete development.
Sport & Coaching
Coach Experiences During a Pandemic: Emotions, Labor, Exhaustion, and Coping
Todd E. Layne, University of Memphis; Kelly L. Simonton, University of Wyoming; Boone Brown, Marko Pavlovic, University of Memphis
Background/Purpose: Research on coaches and their emotional experiences tied to the labors of coaching have been limited (Hinojosa-Alcalde, et al., 2020). This area of research is particularly important for occupations such as coaching because it requires time in addition to their teaching (or other) responsibilities. Research does indicate that teachers, in general, are invested in their coaching duties (Ryan, 2008). Coaches today do work in more demanding environments than previously seen before. Not only are they expected to spend a large amount of time in preparation and practice, but the priority on winning is high. In more recent years, research on coaching has examined a variety of emotional categories (i.e. stress, burnout, emotional labor and exhaustion) (Richard, Washburn, & Hemphill, 2019; Hinojosa-Alcalde, et al., 2020; McNeill, Durand-Bush, & Lemyre, 2020). During the COVID-19 pandemic, coaches experienced increased responsibility on an already demanding job. In line with the already emotionally demanding occupation that coaching is, the pandemic has significantly shifted coaches’ roles and taken some of the focus away from developing players and teams. This study intended to capture several coaches’ experiences from the beginning to the end of their sport season. The purpose of this study was to understand coaches’ emotions via their coaching beliefs, goals, and day-to-day experiences, however, from the lens of coaching during a national public health pandemic. In addition, we intend to explore the events that increased their emotional response as well as learn about the different coping strategies they employ to deal with the current situation.
Method: This study utilized a qualitative analysis via two zoom-call recorded interviews. Current head coaches (middle and high school) of teams participating in the spring season were eligible to participate. Coaches were asked to volunteer to participate in two interviews, one at the beginning of the spring semester and one towards the end. Each interview lasted approximately 30-45 minutes. In addition, coaches were asked to complete critical incident forms to provide additional information on their experiences.
Analysis/Results: A six-step analysis approach was followed (Richards & Hemphill, 2017) beginning with organizing data by time point and completing open and axial coding. A constant comparison method was used to compare data (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Final analysis resulted in general themes that reflected both pre-season and post-season perceptions of the coaches. Themes included eagerness to play and togetherness, reduction of behavioral problems, additional responsibilities, and enhanced coaching ability. As a result of the pandemic, coaches emphasized the overall positivity of being together as a team and having the opportunity to compete.
Conclusions: Secondary school coaches are faced with challenges for each new season. With the recent COVID-19 pandemic, coaches experienced difficulties never seen before. Through it all, coaches learned how to adapt and respond to these situations with a goal of being together as a team and competing once again. These experiences will prepare coaches for future unexpected changes that can occur within a typical sport season.
Coaching Environment and Coach Stress Among NCAA Division 2 Coaches
Dee Gerlach, MooSong Kim, Northeastern State University
Background/Purpose: Coaching is a highly stressful profession with burnout among coaches becoming an increasingly prominent concern among administrators, and most importantly, among coaches themselves (Kelley & Baghurst, 2009). For example, coaches at the collegiate level considered a stressful occupation due to competitive by nature and self-imposed and external pressure to win (Capel, Sisley, & Desertrain, 1987). Furthermore, colleage coaches in NCAA Division II may have different coaching environments that are associated with coach stress compared to coaches working in NCAA Division I (e.g., teaching classes in and out of playing season, lack of budget and staff, etc.). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the factors that create stress and burnout among NCAA Division II college coaches.
Method: Head coaches (N = 412) were recruited at the NCAA Division II level. Types of sports teams that participants coach were team sports (e.g., men’s and women’s basketball, baseball, and softball) (N=300), individual sports teams (men’s golf, women’s golf, men’s tennis, and women’s tennis) (N=60), and dual sports teams (men’s and women’s golf and men’s and women’s tennis (N=52). Participants completed questionnaires assessing coaches’ stress using the Coaching Issue Survey consisting of four dimensions of coach stress (i.e., Win-Loss, Time-Role, Program-Success, and Athlete-Concerns) (Baghurst, 2009).
Analysis/Results: The Coaching Issue Survey showed acceptable internal consistency (i.e., Cronbach’s alpha values ranging from .74 to .89. A three-way MANCOVA yielded a significant main effect for types of sports, Wilks’ Lambda = .949, F (8, 610) = 2.03, p < .05, = .03, coach’s academic duty, Wilks’ Lambda = .956, F (4, 305) = 3.53, p < .01, = .04, staff members, Wilks’ Lambda = .901, F (12, 807) = 2.71, p < .01, = .03. However, there was no statistically significant interaction effect among those independent variables. Follow-up ANCOVAs for the types of sport main effect revealed significant differences in program success, F (2, 327) = 4.73, p < .01, = .03 and win-loss, F (2, 327) = 3.77, p < .05, = .02. As for follow-up ANCOVAs for coach’s academic duty, there were statistically significant differences in athlete concerns, F (1, 327) = 4.81, p < .05, = .02, time role, F (1, 327) = 13.47, p < .001, = .04, and program success, F (1, 327) = 7.39, p < .01, = .02. Lastly, the follow-up ANCOVAs for staff members showed significant differences in program success, F (3, 327) = 5.02, p < .01, = .05.
Conclusions: These findings indicated that NCAA 2 Division coaches’ stress levels would be related to types of sports teams, additional academic duties (e.g., teaching academic courses), and having full-time staff members. Furthermore, NCAA Division II coaches’ circumstances (e.g., additional academic duties, types of sports teams, and lack of staff members) were related to different sources of coach stress (e.g., time role, win-loss, athletes concerns, and program success). Thus, this study highlighted the importance of creating better coaching environment for NCAA II Division coaches.
Factors Influencing College Selection Process of NCAA Division I Student-Athletes
YuChun Chen, Western Kentucky University; Amanda Clark, Louisiana Tech University
Background/Purpose: The investigation of college selection factors has existed for decades; however, a majority of the research conducted on NCAA Division I student-athletes was either on a single sport or with freshmen only. The purpose was to identify (a) the key factors influencing the college selection process of DI student-athletes of all classification and from multiple teams, and (b) any significant differences by age, classification, ethnicity, gender, team affiliation, revenue/non-revenue sport, and years of playing experience.
Method: Participants were 159 student-athletes from 14 teams at a southeastern university. Pauline’s (2010) 53-item Influential Factors Survey for Student-Athletes – Revised and six demographic questions were used to collect data.
Analysis/Results: The majority of the participants were 21 years old (n = 43, 27.0%), freshman (n = 41, 25.8%), White or Caucasian (n = 106, 66.7%), female (n = 90, 56.6%), from the softball or women’s volleyball team (n = 19, 11.9%), and playing their respective sport for 1-5 years (n = 34, 21.4%). As a group, school offers your specific major of interest, reputation of coaching staff, and amount of athletic scholarship offered were ranked as the top three influential factors, while ethnic and/or gender ratio of the university, high school coach, and have friends at the university were the least influential factors. Cronbach’s (1951) Alpha revealed an acceptable to excellent level of reliability (.75 < α < .91) on the five categorical factors, and evidently financial aid factors had the highest mean score (3.95 ± .86), followed by academic factors (3.82 ± .75), coaching staff factors (3.66 ± .79), athletic factors (3.43 ± .72), and social atmosphere factors (3.20 ± .69). Lastly, MANOVAs detected significant differences on the categorical factors by gender and revenue/non-revenue sport. Specifically, (a) the male participants placed significantly more emphasis on the athletic factors than the females, (b) the females were significantly more influenced by the financial aid factors than their male counterparts, and (c) the participants in revenue sports valued the athletic factors significantly higher than those in nonrevenue sports.
Conclusions: This study was limited to the small sample size, which could be overcome by collecting more data from other Division I universities in the region and/or across the country. Besides, the sample was not representative, especially on the teams that had 50% or less response rate. Future research may collect similar data during off-season. A final limitation was that the university did not offer every sport at the colleagiate level. This study only included 11 out of the 24 sports that NCAA offers (three sports had both women’s and men’s teams). In order to make comparable analysis, future research may collect data from other sports that are more prevalent in other regions of the country such as lacrosse, wrestling and swimming. Coaches and athletic administrators may use the findings as a reference for universities that are in a similar size, play at a similar level of competition/conference, and offers a football program along with the other sports that are prevalent in the southeastern region of the country.
Pitfalls of a Comprehensive Sport School on Student Perceptions of School Climate
Jesse Mala, University of Mary Hardin-Baylor; Nneka A Arinze, The University of Connecticut
Background/Purpose: Comprehensive sport-focused schools are established in China, Europe and North America and are primarily for elite athlete development. Sport-focused schools in the United States are less prevalent, and typically operate as expensive private boarding schools with annual tuition rivaling college tuition. However, public sport-schools can provide equitable, no-cost sport opportunities for low-income students of color. Providing such an option offers students of color living in poverty, the chance to derive the benefits of sport participation (i.e. health, social and academic benefits), without the financial barriers. However, minimal research has been conducted among public-sport schools in the U.S. While school sport participation is linked to positive school climate related outcomes (Mala et al., 2020; Martinez et al., 2016), there has yet to be research exploring students’ experiences and perceptions of school climate in sport-focused schools. Furthermore, positive outcomes derived from sport are not automatic (Coakley, 2011), but contextually based (Fry & Gano-Overway, 2010; Whitley et al., 2016). Improperly managing sport can lead to negative outcomes including ridicule by peers, favoritism by coaches, racism, and burnout (Bean et al., 2014; Camiré & Trudel, 2010; Dworkin, 2007). Thus, this study examines the quality of sport in sport-focused schools, and grants insight into the various factors from sport, and within the school that contributes to, or mitigates positive school climate perceptions. The purpose of this study was to examine student perceptions of school climate, and the role of sport in school climate, among students enrolled in a public sport-focused school that serves children in poverty.
Method: Utilizing a mixed-methods approach, a school climate survey was administered to 71 students enrolled in a sport-focused school. Out of the 71 participants, 22 students were randomly selected to engage in focus groups.
Analysis/Results: Descriptive statistics revealed a mean school climate score of 13.11 (SD = 2.75), out of a total 18 points. No significant differences in scores were found between sex, race, and grade level. Focus groups revealed positive and negative aspects of sport, and school that spoke to the various dimensions of school climate. Students spoke to receiving character education through sport, and developing positive peer and coach relationships, which may have enhanced perceptions of the teaching and learning dimension. However, students also perceived how the schools emphasis on competitive sports prioritized success in sport over academics, through inconsistent rule enforcement with stellar athletes, and by the hiring of unqualified teachers who were experienced collegiate athletes.
Conclusions: Accounting for the contextual factors in sport through reinforcing character education, and by supporting positive relationships, sport-focused schools may enhance student perceptions of school climate. However, an overemphasis of competitive sport can negatively impact student perceptions of school climate, which is related to negative students outcomes (i.e. lower academic achievement, absenteeism, drop-out). Sport-focused school leaders must be aware of the benefits and pitfalls of sport, in order to optimally promote positive student outcomes. Sport-focused schools serving children of color within districts of poverty must avoid emphasizing interscholastic competition, which may exacerbate existing negative perceptions of school climate and brood negative student outcomes.
Preparation of African American Athletes for Life After College
Gabrielle Wells, Johnson C. Smith University; Robert Lindsey, Johnson C Smith University
Background/Purpose: Research has yielded mixed results in the examination of the effect of sport participation in the lives of high school student-athletes. Although no recent statistics are reported concerning high school student-athletes and their career expectations, Bjornson’s (2017) study demonstrated that factors contributing to these low academic standards include time management, developmental needs, and socialization skills. Thus far, relatively little information is known about the preparation of athletes for life after college. Therefore, the purpose of the study was to examine the preparation of athletes for life after college.
Method: A convenient sample of student-athletes from classes at a small southeastern private historically black college and university was utilized in the study. Career readiness was measured using a Modified Student Athlete Career Situation Inventory (Cammack, 2007). The responses on the questionnaire ranged from 1 to 5 on a Likert scale with 1 being Strongly Disagree to 5 being Strongly Agree
Analysis/Results: Demographic data from the questionnaire was analyzed using descriptive statistics. Independent t-test and ANOVA were utilized to determine the differences between the demographic categories and the preparation of athletes for life after college questions, alpha = .05. Students reported means above 4.0 for the following questions: Question 6, “I have a strong interest in at least one career opportunity”, M = 4.26, Question 9, “Excelling in academics is as important to me as excelling in my sport, M = 4.32, “Being an athlete has influenced my thinking about what I might want to do for a career”, M = 4.19, Question 23, “I have a good sense of careers that interest me”, M = 4.07, and Question 25, “I am happy with my current career interests”, M = 4.16.
Independent t test revealed a significant difference in that Males scored higher than females on Question #8, I would be willing to explore the high school’s career information, (t = 2.64, p = .013), Question #20, In choosing a career path, I am more concerned about what is easiest to manage with my athletic commitment than about what really interests me(t = 2.61, p = .014), and Question #24, I am more concerned with just graduating, rather than being focused on a particular career field(t = 2.09, p = .045).
Analysis of variance revealed that Seniors scored higher than the others in regards to Question #25, I am happy with my current career interests(F = 3.328, p = .034). Analysis of variance also revealed that Freshmen scored higher than the others in regards to Question #30, I feel that in my sport, I am encouraged more to achieve success in academics than in athletics(F = 2.79, p = .059).
Conclusions: Results from this study are similar to others in that Males scored higher than Females in regards to questions on the preparation of athletes for life after college. However, more studies are needed among historically black colleges and universities. Recommendations are made to further examine the preparation of athletes for life after college among African American college student athletes.
Stress Response in Performing Artists
Lawrence JudgeF, Ball State University; David BellarF, University of North Carolina at Charlotte
Background/Purpose: The purpose of this study was a cross-sectional examination of psychological and physiological changes of ballet dancers during the Nutcracker series of performances.
Method: This was a cross-sectional cohort study. Professional and amateur, male and female dancers, ages 6yrs and up, who participated in the Nutcracker series were recruited from the Fort Wayne Ballet company. The cohorts were divided into 3 groups: 6-12, 13-18 (in high school), 18+ (out of high school). Exclusion criteria were: no pre-existing medical conditions (i.e. juvenile idiopathic arthritis) or non-dance participants. Early morning fasting saliva samples and blood samples were collected, and psychological instruments Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale -21(DASS-21), Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS, PANAS-C) were administered the day before and after the Nutcracker performance series. Salivary (cortisol) and serum (creatine kinase M- isoform, bone alkaline phosphatase) biomarkers were analyzed using commercially available enzyme-linked immunoassay kits.
Analysis/Results: The negative affect score from the PANAS (Cohorts 2 & 3) increased pre to post 18.95 to 21.13 (p = 0.04). The DASS 21 - Depression score decreased 4.1 to 3.2 (p = 0.04). Salivary cortisol decreased 1.81 mcg/dL to 0.5 mcg/dL, (p=0.02), Creatine Kinase M-isoform increased from 34 to 39 u/l (p=0.0021). Creatine Kinase isoform M increased from 34.2 U/L pre to 39.2 U/L post (p=0.003). Bone alkaline phosphatase decreased from pre to post (7.8 ng/ml vs 34 ng/ml) however the change was not statistically significant (p=0.23).
Conclusions: The depression score as measured in DASS 21 decreased while PANAS negative affect score increased, suggesting other negative emotions (i.e. upset, scared, etc) increased throughout the study period. The decrease in cortisol suggests an anabolic state indicating that the dancers’ fitness for the performance was appropriate. This also suggests that the exercise was not excessive and/or caloric intake was adequate. The prevention of potential overuse injuries requires a slow and gradual loading over an extended time to allow tissues to adapt to higher functional needs. Periodization techniques and nutritional strategies are needed to avoid overtraining these young performing artists.
Voluntary Turnover of NCAA Division I Swimming Coaches
Kelsie Saxe, Lauren Beasley, Rob HardinF, University of Tennessee; Elizabeth Taylor, Temple University
Background/Purpose: This study explores the experiences of National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), Division I swimming coaches voluntarily exiting the profession and transitioning into another career. This research responds to Darvin’s (2020) call for further research regarding coaches who voluntarily exit the profession. Darvin’s (2020) findings show that female assistant coaches are voluntarily exiting the profession due to recruiting toxicity, destructive leadership, burnout, and non-nuclear family balance. This study extends research in this area by bounding the study to one sport to gain more in-depth data specific to swimming coaches, and extending it to both genders as well as head coaches. Additionally, the study extended Darvin’s (2020) work by exploring the participant’s experiences in their new profession compared to their previous career in coaching.
Method: Data were gathered through semi-structured qualitative interviews (Patton, 2015). Purposive sampling through the research team’s professional network was used to solicit participation in the study. The criteria for participation included being a former Division I swimming coach within the past five years from the date of the interview with current employment outside of coaching. The interviews were approximately one hour in length and were conducted via video teleconference. The interviews were recorded and then transcribed. Member-checking was then used to ensure accuracy of transcripts.
Analysis/Results: A thematic analysis was completed following Braun and Clark’s (2006) six steps: familiarization with the data, generating initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining the themes, and producing the report. In-vivo coding, actual words and terms the participants used (Strauss, 1987), were identified as initial codes (Saldana, 2015). A second round of coding was completed to group the in-vivo codes into overarching themes (Braun & Clarke, 2006). The research team then met after this individual coding was complete for peer debriefing to discuss any discrepancies in codes and come to a full agreement on all codes to finalize the themes (Saldana, 2015). Results show that former coaches experience the stages of change as described in the transtheoretical stages of change model. This model depicts five steps: pre-contemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance.
Conclusions: The results of this study add to the current literature regarding voluntary coach turnover in collegiate sports. Darvin’s (2020) research exemplified many reasons why female assistant coaches leave the profession, and this research extends the literature by showing that the coaches are working through the transtheoretical stages of change model when deciding to voluntarily leave the profession. This model begins in pre-contemplation and moves through contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance. Therefore, this research sheds light on the reasons coaches are leaving as well as demonstrates the process of change that coaches experience when making this decision. These results are critical for athletic directors, administrators, and head coaches to be aware of in order to retain employees and potentially intervene in the early stages of change model before a coach takes action to voluntarily leave the profession.
Youth Athlete’s Perceptions of Climate, Emotions, and Their Personal/Social Development
Marko Pavlovic, University of Memphis; Kelly L. Simonton, University of Wyoming; Laura P Casey, University of Memphis
Background/Purpose: The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships between youth athletes’ perceptions of the coaching climate and need support offered by coaches on their personal/social development emotional experience in competitive soccer. Accordingly, there is a need for research that investigates instructional approaches for coaches that effectively promotes positive climate and culture when working with youth athletes. Specifically, strategies that prioritize the athlete’s personal development along with their athletic progression. This study aimed to explore how coaching climate my influence athletes’ personal and social development and emotional experiences through a mixed methods approach.
Method: Youth athletes (N= 50; 60% male) from four competitive soccer teams (2 high school and 2 middle school; 1 boy and girl team in each) served as participants. All participants completed a quantitative survey assessing their perceptions of the coaching climate (Smith et al., 2008), emotions during soccer (Simonton et al., 2021), potential for burnout (Raedeke & Smith, 2001), team commitment (Vallerand, 1997), and perceived development of personal and social skills (MacDonald et al., 2012). Follow up semi-structured focus group interviews for each team were also completed based on survey results. First, a 2x2 (gender by grade) multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) and hierarchical regression were used to analyze the quantitative portion. Focus group interviews were transcribed and coded to corroborate and extend survey findings.
Analysis/Results: MANCOVA results revealed significant main effects for gender (Wilk’s Λ= .436, (F(8, 49)= 7.911, p<.001, ηp2= .564) and for grade level (Wilk’s Λ= .646, (F(8, 49)= 3.351, p<.001, ηp2= .354). Post hoc results showed, male athletes reported higher perceptions of ego climate (F= 45.038, p< .001), whereas female athletes reported higher perceptions of the mastery climate (F= 11.073, p= .002), enjoyment (F= 6.072, p= .017), and personal and social skills (F= 14.881, p< .001). MS athletes overall reported less ego (F= 6.488, p= .014) and anger (F= 22.607, p< .001) than HS athletes. Lastly, HS girls reported lower ego climate then their male or middle school counterparts. Qualitative analysis revealed three major themes including, a) the importance of emotional experiences, b) social and emotional development goals, and c) the importance of team/coach relationships. Both MS and HS girl’s teams reported the social/emotional importance and positive atmosphere having the most impact on their involvement and willingness to play. Furthermore, social team goals proved to be important for the boy’s teams, through increased emphasis on team objectives, responsibility, and holding players accountable. Lastly, tremendous significance of team/coach relationships was reported from all groups. Regardless of sport outcomes, the coaches’ character and behavior can impact athlete’s perceptions of personal and social development.
Conclusions: This research suggests that positive emotional experiences and social goals were a higher priority for the girls. Also, male HS teams were more focused on competition with less consideration of personal and emotional priorities but reported high social accountability. Ego climate was experienced more for the boys’ teams, especially for the HS team. In addition, girls coaches seemed to have more success offering personal/social development and enjoyment for participating in the sport.
Teaching & Learning
PETE Student’s Perceptions of Nontraditional Teaching Experiences in Community Partnerships
Daniela M Susnara, Jacob T. Peterson, Riley White, Ella Maggio, The University of Alabama
Background/Purpose: As out-of-school time (OST) programs (ie. after-school, summer programs) become more popular across the United States, it is critical to consider where physical activity, and further, where physical education fits into programming. When OST programs are thoughtfully structured, they have the ability to provide additional resources and enrichment for the local community. Programs crafted through university-community partnerships can strengthen these outcomes. The purpose of this research was to explore the perspectives of physical education teacher education (PETE) students participating in one OST swimming program. The research questions include: a) what OST components are necessary to replicate “traditional” PETE field experiences, b) what are the perceived positive outcomes of teaching in an OST program, c) and what are the perceived challenges of teaching in an OST program.
Method: Participants included four PETE students (3 undergraduate students and 1 alternative masters student). Each student acted as a swim instructor in the same 4-week OST program. Each instructor took part in a 30-45 minute semi-structured interview (Roulston, 2010). The instructors also took part in weekly written reflections during the program. Last, one graduate research assistant observed the PETE students daily and took detailed observation notes on their teaching practices, interactions with children and community partners, and informal conversations. All of the data was analyzed inductively based on the Theoretical Framework for Community Engaged Scholarship. Open and axial coding of each source was complete with descriptive codes applied throughout followed by the development of themes (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Constant comparison between each data source occurred, and the researchers completed peer debriefing to limit bias potential.
Analysis/Results: Four themes emerged that aligned with Theoretical Framework for Community Engaged Scholarship. First, PETE students particularly valued the teaching experience in the OST program because of the connection it allowed them to make in the community. Second, the structure of the OST program gave the PETE students autonomy to try new teaching styles and activities, while also offering support and guidance. Additionally, students believed the duration and length of the program provided them with the time and consistency to reflect on their teaching and make changes. Last, the students believed the experiences they had in the OST had an impact on their teaching philosophy and impact their practices moving forward.
Conclusions: Universities are in a unique position to partner with community organizations, especially those offering OST programming. Not only do these partnerships have a positive impact on the children, families, and community, but they also have a positive impact on the university personnel and students implementing the program. Results show PETE students teaching in OST programs have the opportunity to practice their teaching, but also experience additional positive outcomes they otherwise might not have access to in the “traditional” classroom field experience. Given these findings, suggestions can be made regarding future directions for PETE field experiences, specifically, PETE departments should be open to establishing authentic partnerships with community OST programs to provide additional opportunities for PETE students.
A Functional Movement Warm-up’s Effect on 9th Graders’ Movement Quality
Lynda Butler-Storsved, Elon University; Pam Brown, The Univ Of North Carolina At; Diane L. GillF, University of North Carolina, Greensboro; Christopher Rhea, University of North Carolina Greensboro
Background/Purpose: Musculoskeletal pain and injury experienced by adolescents leads to behavioral, physical, and psychological consequences. Adolescents with recurrent pain are also more likely to carry these issues into adulthood. Dysfunctional movement, a suggested contributing factor, appears to increase as adolescents experience puberty. The purpose of this study was to investigate dysfunctional movement among a group of 9th-grade physical education students and to determine if a standardized, functional movement warm-up (FMWU) would improve movement quality more than a regular physical education warm-up.
Method: Forty-four 9th-grade students were randomly assigned to a FMWU group (n = 22) and a regular warm-up (RWU) group (n = 22). The FMWU group completed the assigned warm-up 3 times per week over the course of 9 weeks except for one week only including one session, for a total of 25 total sessions, while the RWU group completed a regular dynamic warm-up. The Functional Movement Screen (FMS) was used to assess movement quality pre and post.
Analysis/Results: The results indicate a high rate of dysfunction among the group of ninth-grade participants. Composite FMS scores of ≤ 14 have been suggested to indicate increased injury risk in adults and the FMS mean score for our 9th-grade participants was 12.20 (SD = 1.56). Additionally, 45.5% of participants had at least one asymmetry and 93.2% scored a 1 on at least one FMS task. A mixed-design (Group x Time) analysis of variance (ANOVA) on the total composite scores revealed a significant group by time interaction, F (1, 42) = 11.27, p = .002. Paired samples t-tests for the FMWU group revealed significant improvement for the total composite score, deep squat (DS), rotatory stability (RS), and scores of 1. All other measures of movement trended positively for the FMWU group except the inline lunge (ILL), which remained the same. The RWU group slightly or significantly worsened in the DS, ILL, active straight leg raise (ASLR), hurdle step (HS) and the total composite score did not change.
Conclusions: The findings of this study suggest there is a high rate of dysfunctional movement among 9th-grade adolescents and an intentionally designed FMWU is an efficient way to address movement quality in physical education.
A Phenomenological Inquiry Into High School Teachers’ Experience of Social and Emotional Learning
Janna Jobel, University of Ottawa
Background/Purpose: Three high school teachers volunteered to explore Social and emotional learning (SEL) in their daily classroom practices. Many different definitions of SEL exist, but most center around the development of awareness of self and others (Eklund et al., 2018). Awareness is defined as “The quality or state of being aware, consciousness” (Oxford University Press, n.d.). What does it mean to help a student become more aware, more conscious, of themselves and others? A phenomenological inquiry is the study of the structures of consciousness and examines lived experience, making it a meaningful way to examine the primary research question: in what ways does a high school teacher experience SEL? Research demonstrates that a school-wide approach to SEL positively affects students’ mental health, but research and resources in the past have been limited primarily to the elementary and middle school context (Bear et al., 2017). What research does exist at the high school level suggests that the approaches in elementary grades are often ineffective in high school classrooms, offering little guidance to high school practitioners trying to engage students in SEL (Yang et al., 2018; Williamson et al., 2015).
Method: 25 teachers with state-mandated SEL objectives were invited via email; three volunteered to participate. Using an approach inspired by Max van Manen’s (2016) hermeneutic phenomenology, which recommends 3-5 participants to allow for in-depth inquiry, each teacher was observed twice and interviewed twice. The first interview gathered anecdotes of their experiences of engaging students in SEL in the classroom. The second interview with each teacher gathered further anecdotes and expounded upon the significance of these moments. After each interview a summary was written, key quotations identified, and thematic elements noted. The structures of consciousness, four existentials: a sense of space, time, body and human relation were used to (re)present teachers’ lived experience via vignettes. The themes illustrated in the vignettes were then researched in phenomenological literature.
Analysis/Results: Each teacher emphasized different SEL skills in their daily practice. Alice focused on metacognition. Jeremy engaged in explicit discourse on identifying and developing the necessary skills to have a happy and healthy life. Mark believed building trust is the most central tenet of education, and that without trust there is no relationship-building; without relationship-building, no learning occurs.
Conclusions: SEL in daily practice is deeply rooted in the teacher’s self-awareness, and how they interpret their role as teacher. The ways teachers go about engaging students in SEL will depend upon their own sense of self as a teacher, their own ability to reflect on their goals and aims as a teacher, and the ways in which they interact and respond to students. These three teachers shared their sense of self, and (re)presented experiences of engaging students in SEL, and how though this may look different externally, there are similar components, struggles, and inspirations that all teachers experience when striving to be more aware, more conscious of themselves within their teaching role, and of facilitating the same process within the students in their classrooms.
A Treatment Fidelity Checklist for School Physical Education Intervention Research
Weidong LiF, The Ohio State University; Ping XiangF, Texas A&M University; Tang Yan, Shanghai University of Sport
Background/Purpose: Treatment fidelity is “the ongoing assessment, monitoring, and enhancement of the reliability and internal validity of a study,” consisting of: a) treatment integrity, the degree to which interventions are implemented as planned or intended, and b) treatment differentiation, the degree to which conditions differ in critical dimensions (Borrelli, 2011). It mediates the effect of interventions on program outcomes. Researchers in physical education have increasingly recognized the importance of assessing treatment fidelity in curricular interventions. However, no conceptual framework and valid and reliable measurement are available to guide and assess treatment fidelity in K–12 school physical education. Based on the conceptual framework by Borrelli (2011) in public health and a five-element conceptual framework by O’Donnell (2008) in general education, therefore, the purposes of this study were to propose a conceptual framework, and then develop and validate a checklist to assess treatment fidelity in K–12 school physical education.
Method: By reviewing the literature, we proposed a conceptual framework of treatment fidelity and developed a checklist to assess treatment fidelity in physical education. The 18-item Treatment Fidelity Checklist consists of five categories with various indicators by which articles will be evaluated: Study design, training teachers, treatment delivery, receipt of treatment/student responsiveness, and treatment differentiation. A number of attributes within each of the five categories are coded as presence, absence, or non-applicable, which are important for the preservation of treatment fidelity. If the treatment fidelity information provided in the article meets the criteria, it will be coded “present” with a number “1” for that particular item. If the treatment fidelity information provided in the article does not meet the criteria, it will be coded “absent but should be present” with a number “0” for that particular item. If the particular treatment fidelity information is not applicable to the article, it will be coded as “non-applicable” with a number “2” for that particular item. This checklist was sent to four experts for validation who were asked to rate the importance of five categories and their corresponding indicators on 1-5 point Likert scale and provide any comments/feedback. Those experts had publications related to treatment fidelity in the field. The checklist was revised based on experts’ ratings and comments/feedback. Then the interrater reliability was established by two researchers. They coded one intervention study together. Disagreements were discussed and a 100% consensus was reached. Further clarifications were made to the checklist. Then the two researchers independently coded 13 articles. Data were used for calculating the inter-rater reliability. All 14 articles coded were randomly selected intervention studies.
Analysis/Results: Experts’ ratings and feedback supported face and content validity of the checklist. The inter-rater reliability was calculated by the formula: total disagreements/(total disagreement + total agreements). The overall coefficient was .88.
Conclusions: This is the first study to propose a framework of treatment fidelity and develop and validate a checklist to assess treatment fidelity in the field of physical education. The findings showed the 18-item checklist was valid and reliable to assess treatment fidelity for intervention research in the field of physical education.
A University Physical Education Teacher Education Case Study—Preparing Preservice Physical Education Teachers for Induction
Collin Brooks, ELIT Group; Jaime M. McMullenF, University of Northern Colorado
Background/Purpose: A physical education teacher’s career is composed of a sequence of stages that are impacted by various criteria. Upon completing a university degree, preservice physical education teachers enter into the induction stage of the teacher career cycle, which encompasses the early years of a physical education teacher’s career (Fessler & Christensen, 1992). This stage is considered a crucial transitional stage that involves uncertainty and self-skepticism (Fessler & Christensen, 1992). Occupational socialization is a theoretical framework that examines the socialization process of preservice physical education teachers by providing context their experience at universities (professional socialization) and their experience as physical education teachers (organizational socialization), including induction (Lawson, 1983a, 1983b). Further, occupational socialization is regarded as a theoretical framework to design Physical Education Teacher Education (PETE) Programs (Richards & Gaudreault, 2017). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore preservice physical education teachers’ perceptions of readiness for induction at one university.
Method: This study employed a single instrumental qualitative case study design (Stake, 1995) where eight preservice physical education teachers’ perceptions of readiness for induction were examined. When cases of interest are focused on people, such as one university’s preservice physical education teachers, and programs, such as one PETE program, a single instrumental case study design can be implemented (Stake, 1995). Data sources for this study included semi-structured interviews, field notes retrieved during student teaching placements, and course outcomes from university methods courses.
Analysis/Results: All data sources were considered when attempting to understand the participant’s professional socialization experiences and how they related to preparation for induction. The data were analyzed using categorical aggregation and direct interpretation methods (Stake, 1995). After the initial aggregation of data, individual codes were placed with similar codes to create patterns. Themes were established by combining patterns to form a collective idea from all data sources. The use of multiple sources of data, an audit trail, and a substantial description were used in an attempt to establish trustworthiness. Three themes were evident across all data sources: (a) the importance of field placements, (b) prepared for planning, and (c) preparation for sociopolitical issues.
Conclusions: Preservice physical education teachers perceived themselves as well prepared for planning which aligns with the focus of the majority of PETE programs in the United States (Taliaferro et al., 2017). However, some socialization experts argue that the sociopolitical issues found in the environmental context of teaching physical education, such as understanding the realities of teaching, are just as important as learning to deliver lesson content (Richards et al., 2013). Interestingly, most participants did not feel fully prepared to face some of the sociopolitical realities of teaching physical education, such as confronting veteran teachers on best practices. Providing additional research on induction physical education teachers’ perceptions of professional relationships with veteran teachers could add valuable insight into further preparation for preservice physical education teachers.
An Analysis of Differences in Preservice Teachers’ Teacher Identity
Jingwen Liu, California State University, Fullerton; Xiaofen D. KeatingF, The University of Texas at Austin
Background/Purpose: Teacher identity (TI) plays a vital role in preservice teachers’ career choices, values, and pedagogical choices. Studies in other subject matters found that TI development was related to personal factors, such as gender, class standing, and religious beliefs. However, research on this topic among preservice physical education teachers (PPETs) is scarce and has focused on using qualitative methods. This study aimed to fill this research gap by examining the differences of TI using a quantitative method. It is hypothesized that male, non-Christian, and senior PPETs would report a stronger TI than female, Christian, and junior PPETs.
Method: A total of 462 PPETs (256 males, 206 females, Mage = 21.50 years, SDage = 3.20 years) completed an online survey on Qualtrics. The sample included 125 freshman and sophomore, 142 junior, and 195 senior students. About half of the participants identified themselves as Christians (n= 251), while others reported other religious affiliations such as Catholic or non-religious (n= 211). The online survey included the Preservice Physical Education Teachers’ Teacher Identity Scale (PPET-TI Scale). The scale has been validated among PPETs, which includes three subscales: self-definition, teaching goals, and perceived professional responsibilities. Demographic questions about age, gender, religious beliefs, and class standing were also included in the online survey.
Analysis/Results: A three-way ANOVA was conducted to examine the differences among gender, class standing, religious affiliation, and the interactions in overall PPET-TI. There was a significant main effect of gender, F(1, 450) = 15.20, p <.001, and religious affiliation, F(1, 450) = 6.69, p = .01. A three-way MANOVA was then conducted to examine the above differences in the three subscales. Gender differences was found in all subscales, including self-definition [F(1, 450) = 8.87, p =.003], teaching goals [F(1, 450) = 15.57, p <.001], and perceived professional responsibility [F(1, 450) = 5.44, p =.02]. Religious difference was found in the subscale of professional responsibility [F(1, 450) = 7.90, p =.005]. Class standing and interactions between gender, class standing, and religious affiliation did not yield significant results.
Conclusions: Despite that physical education remains a male-dominant field, female PPPETs in this study reported a stronger TI than males. In addition, previous studies found tensions between Christian identities and TI in terms of teaching goals and professional responsibilities. However, in this study, Christian PPETs’ reported a stronger TI and a higher likelihood to fulfill professional responsibilities than those of other religious affiliations. The results reject all hypotheses based on findings in previous studies, which warrants a closer examination of gender- and religion-related issues in PPET-TI in future studies.
Believe in You Social and Emotional Learning Journals: A Pilot Study
Erin E. CenteioF, University of Hawaii at Manoa; Jeanne Barcelona, Wayne State University; Kevin J. MercierF, Adelphi University; Aaron Hart, OPEN; John T. FoleyF, State Univ New York-Cortland
Background/Purpose: The social and emotional health of youth is important, especially after students experienced the COVID-19 pandemic. The purpose of this study was to understand the influence that the Varsity Brands Believe In You Empowerment SEL journals had on students SEL behaviors over a 10 week period during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Method: After IRB approval, six secondary schools were recruited to participate in a quasi-experimental designed intervention. However, due to issues with online learning and COVID-19 only one school in each the intervention and the control group (delayed intervention; 2 schools total) participated. Students enrolled in physical education (PE) within each school participated in the study (n = 166; Intervention = 88). The intervention group had a mean age of 15.1 years (60% female), while the control group had a mean age of 14.48 years (58.6% female).
Students in each group took a survey at week 1 (baseline measure), week 5, and week 10. Students who were in the intervention group started the curriculum after week 1, while the delayed intervention group began the curriculum in week 5. The survey consisted of 23 knowledge questions that covered the 5 CASEL SEL competencies [self-awareness (SA), self-management (SM), social awareness (SOA), responsible decision making (DM), and relationship skills (RS)]. Additionally, three previously validated scales were used to measure students’ emotional regulation (ER), self-management (SMS), and self-efficacy (SE) (Panorama, 2015).
Analysis/Results: A series of quantitative analyses were conducted to determine significant differences of five SEL knowledge variables and three SEL scales over time. A series of ANCOVA’s were conducted, controlling for time 1 variables, age, and gender, to determine differences between the intervention and control groups from weeks one and five. Then a series of paired sample t-tests were run to determine differences in the intervention group from weeks one through ten. Finally, a series of repeated measures ANCOVA’s were run, controlling for age and gender, to determine differences between weeks one, five, and ten of the delayed intervention group.
In the first series of ANCOVA’s that examined the difference of SEL knowledge (SA,SM,SOA,DM,RS) and SEL scales (ER,SMS,SE) between the treatment and control groups SA(F=13.91,p<.01), SM(F=6.14,p<.01) & RS(F=5.50,p<.05) saw significant differences over time compared to the control group. The second series of analyses looked only at the treatment group and analyzed to determine significant differences in mean scores of SEL variables between weeks one and ten. ER saw significant differences (t=2.5,p<.01). The final set of analyses conducted were with the delayed intervention group and examined the difference in mean SEL scores over the three time periods. Again, ER saw significance with an interaction of time and gender (F=4.162,p<.01).
Conclusions: In a short period of time, OPEN SEL journals have shown the potential to have a positive influence on students SEL behaviors. More research should be conducted over a longer period of time, in-person, and with an experimental design to better understand the effects of the OPEN SEL journals and their implications with student SEL behaviors.
Blind Spots: K–12 Teachers Informing PETE Program Evaluation
Adam Keath, Winthrop University; James D. Wyant, West Virginia University; Junhyung Baek, Gyeong-In National University of Education; Tom Watterson, Western Carolina University
Background/Purpose: In the face of a constantly changing educational landscape, current physical education teachers are key stakeholders to inform PETE programs of current trends in the classroom. Mentor teachers that supervise student teachers in particular have been identified by PETE programs as high quality role models for preservice physical educators. Mentor teachers are also critical sources of information in identifying programmatic strengths and weaknesses. Jones and colleagues introduced the concept of using stakeholder think tanks as a way to identify practice based needs of PETE programs and provided a framework of evaluating feedback based on program outcomes (Jones et al., 2019). For this study, we sought to identify areas of weakness in practice related to student teachers’ instructional and professional behaviors.
Method: This study used an explanatory sequential mixed methods design to identify themes in mentor teachers’ experiences working with physical education student teachers (Ivankova et al., 2006). The quantitative phase of data collection consisted of a cross-sectional survey of mentor teachers asking them to rate trends of student teachers strengths and weaknesses relative to the PETE initial teacher standards (SHAPE America, 2017). The qualitative phase focused on identifying weaknesses through long form survey responses and focus group interviews. Mentor teachers discussed potential causes for weaknesses in this area and brainstormed ideas that the PETE program could implement into the curriculum to address these weaknesses.
Analysis/Results: The three primary themes that emerged were professional expectations, classroom management and planning and preparation. Focus group interviews brought out multiple perceived causes for these weaknesses including generational cultural differences, lack of experience in early field placements and a narrow focus on PETE outcomes. Program recommendations included deliberate inclusion of activities to increase involvement in professional development and advocacy, including additional field experience opportunities early in the PETE program, and the addition of coursework that provides overviews of multiple instructional models.
Conclusions: The results of this study provide valuable insights into the current trends in the physical education classroom and while results may be contextual to each program the major finding should be the value that mentor teachers’ perceptions can have in program evaluation. PETE program coordinators should be deliberate in establishing and cultivating partnerships with K–12 practitioners for program improvement.
Challenges and Future Directions of Social and Emotional Learning in Physical Education: International Investigation
Seunghyun Baek, University of North Carolina at Greensboro; Ben DysonF, University of North Carolina, Greensboro; Yanhua Shen, UNC Greensboro; Donal Howley, University of North Carolina Greensboro
Background/Purpose: There has been a growing body of evidence on Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) in education (Dyson et al., 2019; Taylor et al., 2017). The purpose of this study was to explore teacher educators’ views of challenges and future directions of Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) in Physical Education (PE) from an international perspective.
Method: 18 teacher educators recruited from 10 different countries (Australia, Brazil, Cyprus, China, Finland, Germany, Ireland, New Zealand, South Korea, USA). Based on a qualitative case design (Stake, 2005; Merriam, 2015), data were collected through in-depth interview with a video-conferencing system called ‘Zoom’. The data were analyzed using a systematic process of qualitative data analysis by Miles et al. (2014), which are transcription, organization of raw data, creation of descriptive codes followed by inferential coding. To enhance trustworthiness of the study, member checks, peer debriefing, and clarification of the researcher positionality were conducted (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011; Miles, et al., 2014; Tracy, 2020).
Analysis/Results: The findings indicated that teacher educators recognized the challenges of SEL in PE as follows.
Nebulous understandings of SEL: “They’re just nebulous terms to many teachers. We can develop social and emotional learning. Okay. So, what does that look like?” (John, USA).
Time constraints: “Of course, you achieve social and emotional learning, but that takes time” (Zen, Australia).
Student and Teacher Buy-in: “To successfully implement social and emotional learning in schools, the teachers have to buy-in social and emotional learning first” (Zhang, China); “One of the obstacles is if kids have never seen that as part of PE before” (Ken, USA).
Lack of Assessment: “We believe it’s a good thing, but at the point of time, we have to assess it to see what’s really going on” (Andreas, Cyprus).
In terms of the future directions, teacher educators suggested as follows.
Providing good examples of SEL: “I guess one of the contributions of research would be to provide really good examples of what different places are doing in the name of social and emotional learning” (Jack, New Zealand).
Promoting SEL in teacher professional development: “And I think that there will be a lot of progress to make once the new curriculum comes in and teacher professional development around that, and we start educating teachers towards that” (Jay, Ireland).
Building bridges for international discussion on SEL: “I think as an international presence, we also need to come together, identify together what the social and emotional learning needs are, and work together to find ways to meet students and families and communities where they’re at to help foster and improve that” (Maya, USA).
Conclusions: This study represents international teacher educators’ perspectives of the potential challenges coming from implementation of SEL in PE and their recommendations to enhance the future works of SEL in both academic and practical aspect. This research further provides global implications to bolster SEL implementation in school PE programs in the future.
Coaching and Physical Activity as a Function of Student-Coaches’ Skill Level in High School in a Basketball Sport Education Season
Toon Dehandschutter, Peter Iserbyt, KU Leuven
Background/Purpose: Sport education is a curriculum and instruction model in physical education during which students work together in small, persisting teams (Siedentop et al., 2019). In sport education, coaches work alongside the teacher to support team members’ learning through ‘guided practice’ (Siedentop & Tannehill, 2000).Several researchers have noted the need for a detailed examination of student-coaches in action (Araujo et al., 2014). D’Arripe-Longueville and colleagues (2005) found that in high school, learners paired with skilled coaches performed significantly better than learners paired with novice coaches for the breaststroke turn.
Studies describing physical activity during a sport education season are limited, especially with high school students (Hastie et al., 2011). Hastie and Trost (2002) found that MVPA levels averaged 63.2% of lesson time in a sport education hockey season with middle school children, which was above the recommended 50% (SHAPE America, 2015).
This pilot study investigated student-coaches’ behavior and their players’ moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) as a function of coaches’ skill level during independent team practice in a high school sport education basketball season.
Method: One high-school class (7 girls, 14 boys) participated in this study and was taught a 14-lesson sport education season in basketball. Based on 3v3 game play performance and a 10-item basketball content knowledge questionnaire, students were labeled as higher -and lower skilled and put in three mixed-ability teams. In every team, higher- and lower-skilled students alternated the role of team coach each lesson. Prior to each lesson, coaches received a lesson plan and completed an online training with a quiz to assess their mastery of the lesson content. All coaches were audio- and videotaped during independent team practice. Coaching was reported in terms of duration (proportion of independent team practice time) and frequency (count per 10 minutes). Players’ MVPA was collected using systematic observation by trained observers. Inter observer agreement was 86% for coaching behavior and 89% for MVPA based on 15% of the sample.
Analysis/Results: Higher skilled coaches spent on average 15% of the allocated team practice time coaching, lower skilled coaches 10%. Higher skilled coaches had higher frequencies of refereeing (1.2 vs 0.6), cueing (5.5 vs 1.6), feedback (18.5 vs 12.2), and demonstrations (0.6 vs 0.1). Average MVPA under higher skilled coaches (57%) was not significantly different from MVPA under lower-skilled coaches (65%).
Conclusions: Although all coaches received training, higher skilled team had more content-related interactions compared to lower skilled coaches who had higher frequencies of motivating statements. Future research should continue to investigate the effectiveness of coaching protocols for student coaches, especially lower skilled ones. In this study, MVPA was above the 50% benchmark due to working in small teams and using small-sided games (Launder & Piltz, 2013). Future work should investigate MVPA levels during other segments of the lesson such as game play.
Developing Resilience and Enhancing Appraisals of Mattering for Teachers
Shannon A Pennington, K. Andrew R. RichardsF, Alyssa Trad, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; karen Lux GaudreaultF, University of New Mexico; Kim C. GraberF, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign
Background/Purpose: Marginalization and low perceived mattering among elementary-level, non-core subject teachers (e.g., art, music, physical education) inspired the Project for Developing Resilience and Enhancing Appraisals of Mattering (DREAM) framework (Pennington et al., 2021). Grounded in role socialization theory (RST; Richards, 2015), Project DREAM can be used to structure continuing professional development (CPD) experiences to increase resilience and perceived mattering. The framework consists of four interrelated components (i.e., emotion regulation and display, caring and listening, relationship building, advocacy), each of which guide CPD activities. Participants learn foundational strategies and skills which have shown to be effective in the literature (e.g., Mansfield et al., 2016; Schussler et al., 2016). The purpose of this study was to understand the influence of prior and current socialization experiences on elementary-level, non-core subject teachers’ engagement in and experiences with a Project DREAM CPD program.
Method: Participants (n = 8) were elementary art (n = 1), drama (n = 1), music (n = 2), and physical education (n = 4) teachers who were recruited from a small city in the U.S. Midwest. Professional development providers facilitated six CPD sessions, each two hours in length, guided by the DREAM framework. Sessions included short lessons on the DREAM components, small and large group discussions, reflection, goal setting, and skill practice (e.g., mindfulness activities, role play). During initial and final sessions, participants completed pre- and post-program surveys that included previously validated instruments to measure marginalization, perceived mattering, resilience, stress, burnout, and emotion regulation. Individuals were interviewed after the first three CPD sessions and again after the final session, with each interview lasting approximately 30-45 minutes. During the sessions, teachers were given worksheets to capture their reflections and notes. Between sessions, they were asked to complete discussion prompts via email to reinforce a previous topic or introduce a new one. Observation notes were taken and the research team met to debrief between sessions.
Analysis/Results: The research team met to discuss their initial impressions of the study and write brief summaries prior to analyzing interview transcripts, session documents, discussion prompt responses, and field notes. Initial analysis revealed three primary themes: teachers did not know how to respond in frustrating situations, participating with teachers of other marginalized content areas was supportive, Project DREAM enhanced teachers’ abilities to advocate and better handle marginalizing situations. The results suggest that teachers often lack the skills and knowledge to address socio-emotional stressors but can develop those skills through a CPD experience with teachers of like circumstances.
Conclusions: A CPD experience aligned with the Project DREAM framework provides space for teachers of marginalized subjects to create community and develop skills needed to address marginalization and other stressors (Pennington et al., 2021). When teachers possess the skills to manage stressful moments caused by marginalization, they are likely to become more resilient and thus remain happier in the profession (Jennings et al., 2013; Pennington et al., 2021). Reinforcing resiliency skills can cause a positive shift in how teachers view themselves and their roles.
Development of Common Content Knowledge Tests and Future Directions
Emi Tsuda, West Virginia University; Philip WardF, The Ohio State University; Yaohui He, East China Normal University; Obidiah Atkinson, Ohio State University; Suzan F. AyersF, Western Michigan University; Ali BrianF, University of South Carolina; Insook KimF, Kent State University; Junyoung Kim, Missouri State University; Bomna KoF, East Carolina University; Yilin Li, The Ohio State University; Jim Ressler, Northern Illinois University; Jose A Santiago, Sam Houston State University; Debra Sazama, University of Wisconsin La Crosse; James D. Wyant, West Virginia University; Xiuye Xie, Missouri State University
Background/Purpose: Standard 1.a of the National Standards for Initial Physical Education Teacher Education (PETE; SHAPE America, 2017) indicates the importance of developing common content knowledge (CCK) in physical education preservice teachers (PST). However, there are few valid and reliable tests to measure PST’s CCK. In 2019, a group of scholars developed CCK tests for seven secondary level (badminton, basketball, flag football, soccer, tennis, softball, and volleyball) and three elementary level (gymnastics, locomotor skills, and ball skills) physical education content areas. The purpose of the study was to report the validity and reliability of the CCK tests for each content area.
Method: Five steps were taken to develop the tests. First, two content experts for each area determined the scope and relative weight of the content using a table of specifications. Second, the same two content experts developed multiple-choice test items. Third, five in-service physical education teachers reviewed the test items to establish content validity for each test (n=50). Fourth, each test was pilot tested by 10 PST to examine face validity (n=100). Fifth, the tests were administered to a range of 61 to 129 PST to validate the measures (total n=920; female n=323).
Analysis/Results: Four elements of Rasch modeling (Rasch, 1980) were used to examine the validity and reliability of the tests: unidimensionality, model-data fit, item/person reliability and separation, and a wright map. The results of unidimensionality illustrated that all the items in the 10 tests were within the range of -.4 to .4 for the standardized residual contras one plot, except one item in the soccer test. Model data fit analyses (infit and outfit) confirmed that all the items except two items in the locomotor skills test were within the range of .5-1.5 for mean square residuals. Item separation and reliability were good at 2.0 in badminton, soccer, and softball and excellent at 3.0 for basketball, flag football, tennis, volleyball, gymnastics, locomotor skills, and ball skills tests. Item separation and reliability were acceptable at 1.5 for badminton, basketball, flag football, tennis, volleyball, gymnastics, locomotor skills, and ball skills tests and good at 2.0 for soccer and softball. Wright maps confirmed that the measures include a wide range of difficulty items and participants’ knowledge levels. The final numbers of items ranged from 28 to 41 across the 10 tests.
Conclusions: Obtaining valid and reliable measures are critical for practice and research in the field. Practically, these measures can facilitate teacher educators’ curricular decisions (Devrilmez et al., 2019). Also, teacher educators can adopt these tests to provide evidence of PST’s learning relative to content knowledge and the effectiveness of their instruction in their PETE programs, which also can be used to provide evidence for Standard 1.a. From a research perspective, the tests allow researchers to identify the gaps in PST’s CCK knowledge at the national level and to determine areas to intervene.
Engaging Preschoolers in Structured Physical Activity Time: A Cross-Age Peer Tutoring Implementation
Carla VidoniF, University of Louisville; Myung-Ah Lee, Indiana State University
Background/Purpose: Despite the growing need to promote physical activity (PA) in early childhood (EC) being supported by the Society of Health and Physical Educators America (SHAPE America, 2020) and the World Health Organization (WHO, 2020), the literature has shown limited evidence of quality of PA programs in preschools (Ali, Pennell, Sacko, & Schenkelburg, 2020; Vidoni, Lorenz, & Paleville, 2014). One possibility to remediate this situation is to invite preschoolers to engage in regular physical education (PE) classes in elementary schools. Peer tutoring (PT) stimulates a cooperative environment where both tutors and tutees can benefit from social interactions, cognitive and motor skill development (Ward & Lee, 2005). The purpose of this study was to gain a better understanding of possible outcomes from engaging preschoolers in cross-age PT during PE classes.
Method: Participants were 20 preschoolers (11 girls and nine boys), 20 third graders (15 boys, five girls), and one PE teacher from a public elementary school who had implemented PT into his program for the last two years. The PT program occurred once a week throughout the year. The peer tutors’ training occurred every PT session during the first 20 minutes of the 50-minute PE class. Before each PT session, the PE teacher explained the lesson routines, goals, and tasks such as workstations, locomotor activities, lesson focus (e.g., manipulative skills, dance, etc.), and how to demonstrate and provide feedback. Different sources of data were collected: (a) field notes, (b) teacher interview, and (c) social validity questionnaire for third-grade students, and (d) social validity questionnaire for the PE teacher. Social validity questionnaires were used to assess the participants’ perception of the of PT program.
Analysis/Results: Field notes and transcribed interview data were analyzed through a systematic process of inductive analysis (Lincoln and Guba, 1985). Accumulated data confirmed similar findings, and themes were generated. In addition, social validity questionnaires (Cooper, Heron & Heward, 2019) were analyzed. Three themes emerged from data analysis: (a) building relationships and responsibility, (b) development of motor skills, and (c) support and appreciation from the EC teacher.
Conclusions: The results showed that most participants enjoyed playing with peers in different age groups. Most preschoolers showed more improvement in locomotor skills than in manipulative ones. However, some third graders’ engagement and enjoyment varied. In terms of enjoyment and responsibility, the PE teacher suggested that this PT program would be more suitable for fifth graders as tutors rather than less mature students. Some third graders demonstrated disengagement while tutoring young peers. Instead, they played by themselves during activities. Additionally, the EC teacher was present during all lessons, engaged in some activities, and implemented several PA tasks more intentionally.
Exploring Physical Education Teachers’ Acceptance and Use of Online Instruction
Chad Killian, Unaffiliated; David N. Daum, San Jose State University; Tyler Goad, Emporia State University; Christopher Gentry, California State University- San Bernardino
Background/Purpose: The use of online instruction in K–12 physical education (PE) proliferated during the COVID-19 pandemic. This transition to remote teaching was required to ensure continuity of student learning within the subject area. Even though recent expansion of online instruction in PE (i.e. through the use of blended learning or virtual course electives) was occurring before the lockdowns, teaching online was likely a novel experience for most PE teachers. Nevertheless, with many schools opting to establish virtual academies, offer hybrid learning options, and a potential for ongoing lockdowns, it will be important to understand the online teaching experiences of PE teachers to support effective teaching within the current and future educational environment. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore K–12 PE teachers’ acceptance and use of online instruction.
Method: A total of 137 California teachers participated in an online survey distributed via email through the California Association for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (CAHPERD) listserv and via CAHPERD social media account. A total of 63 male, 72 female, and 1 gender non-binary PE teachers completed the survey and responses from each schooling level (K-5, 6-8, 9-12) were well balanced. Participants were encouraged to provide detailed responses to 8 open-ended questions, which serve as the data for this study. Data were initially coded using a standard interpretive approach grounded in inductive analysis and constant comparison methodology. During subsequent deductive analysis, the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (Venkatesh et al., 2003; Killian et al., 2019) served as the guiding framework to facilitate further categorization of responses.
Analysis/Results: Four main themes were generated. First, compulsory online teaching during the pandemic lockdowns provided opportunities for growth. Teachers expressed being new to online learning but acknowledged being forced to transition to remote modalities allowed them to build a key area lacking in their instructional skillset. As a result, these teachers noted the potential value of adding technological skills to their teaching toolbox. The second main theme was challenges with student engagement and assessment. Most of the participants indicated they taught synchronous classes and experienced difficulty motivating students to participate during lessons. They also had trouble identifying and administering appropriate assessments. Lack of support was developed as the third main theme. Teachers felt marginalized during online teaching due to disengaged students, disinterested parents, and indifferent administrators who were more concerned with other subject areas. Many also felt they needed more technology support than was provided by their schools. The final them illustrates how teachers were ultimately dissatisfied with the experience. Participants noted they experienced added stress and diminished enthusiasm for teaching. They mostly missed the gymnasium, the students, and being able to be physically active as part of their job.
Conclusions: Lack of facilitating conditions, steep effort expectancy and limited performance expectancy contributed to the difficulty of participants’ experiences teaching PE online. To help PE teachers accept and effectively use online instruction and to ensure students receive appropriate opportunities to learn, teachers need meaningful support, knowledge, and skills required to provide enriching online instruction.
Exploring Physical Education Teachers’ Knowledge and Experiences About Trauma-Informed Practices
Douglas W. Ellison, Kent State University
Background/Purpose: Over 56 million students attend elementary and secondary schools in the United States (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2018). Approximately 50% of those children will witness and/or experience a traumatic event by the age of 17; 26% by the young age of 4 (National Center for Mental Health Promotion and Youth Violence Prevention, 2012). In today’s society, trauma is real and prevalent, which calls for physical education teachers to be prepared to support these students, even if those students are not easily identifiable. However, how do teachers provide support when they have not been educated on trauma, toxic stress? How to identify students who have these experiences and create a safe and positive learning environment? Regardless of the circumstance, physical education teachers need to speak with students to learn more about them and establish a trusting relationship. Ultimately, the most significant thing a teacher can provide to a student who experienced a traumatic event is a genuine sense of care and concern.
Method: The 27 teacher participants were licensed teachers in a midwestern state teaching physical education in K–12 school settings. Multiple narrative research data sources were used in this study, including interviews with teachers, and a social identity profile and teacher demographics survey were also completed. Multiple investigators were involved in data collection and analysis to minimize potential biases. To enhance the credibility of findings, informal and formal member checks were employed. Transcripts were initially coded inductively and then deductively using Van Marter-Souers and Hall (2019) Fostering Resilient Learners and Nodding’s (2003) Ethic of Care as guiding frameworks.
Analysis/Results: Results indicate that the teacher participants with a strong ethic of care had central values that led to creating an environment where all students felt valued and important in their gymnasiums. The teachers utilized relationship-building strategies to enhance the development of student empathy. By developing empathy and a sense of responsibility within their students through activities that incorporated emotional regulation strategies, teachers were able to cultivate flexible and adaptable environments where opportunities existed for meaningful connections to be made between teacher and student. The teachers in this study described a philosophical change in their approach to teaching that had evolved from a more technical approach to pedagogy to a pedagogy grounded in the Ethic of Care.
Conclusions: As Noddings (2003) argues, “the student is infinitely more important than the subject” (p.20). The teachers in the present study perceived a shift in their pedagogy from subject-specific to student-specific, which is essential when establishing trauma-informed learning environments focused on the whole child. In the gymnasiums of the teacher participants, the concept of caring was the goal in and of itself. It was taught intentionally through the physical education curriculum to ensure that opportunities existed for students to learn, grow, and thrive in healthy, safe, engaging, supportive, and challenging environments.
Exploring Secondary Physical Education Teachers’ Use of Research
Denis Pasco, University of Bourgogne Franche-Comte; Anne Bonnard, Besançon School District; Cedric Roure, University of Teacher Education
Background/Purpose: Evidence-based practice which refers to the use of the best research evidence to improve professional practice has emerged in the field of education as a way to bridge the gap between scientific research findings and educational practice (Davies, 1999). Benefits of evidence-based practice have been identified in the research literature including (1) the identification of ‘What works?’ in relation to educational programs and interventions, (2) the alignment between research evidence and instructional strategies, (3) rational decision making and, (4) positive effects on student outcomes (Hornby, Gable & Evans, 2013; Connolly, Keenan & Urbanska, 2018). Based on these results, efforts are being made in educational policies world-wide to increase evidence-based practice in order to foster students’ learning (Cain, Wieser & Livingston, 2016). Internationally, physical education curriculum embraces cognitive (knowledge), motor (skills) and affective (attitudes/values) outcomes associated with an active, healthy and responsible lifestyle (UNESCO, 2014). While these outcomes are largely informed by research, we still lack of a clear understanding about physical education teachers’ use of this research. Therefore, the goal of this research was to specifically explore physical education teachers’ use of research.
Method: The research was designed within a research-practice partnership involving researchers from a pedagogical lab at the university and, practitioners and authorities from a local school district located in a Northeast region of France involving 72 000 secondary schools students. Physical education teachers (N=140; 43% female) belonging to the school district completed the “Survey of practitioners’ use of research” (NCRPP, 2016) investigating teachers participation in research activities, attitudes towards research, conceptual research use and acquisition effort. The survey was sent to physical education teachers through an online platform. Data were collected in June 2021.
Analysis/Results: Results revealed that physical education teachers, (1) are rarely exposed to research during professional development activities within the school district, (2) never participated in research activities since they have worked in the school district, (3) consider that, even if there is a disconnect between the research world and the educational world, research can address practical problems facing schools and provide results that can help leaders to improve educational outcomes and, (4) demonstrate a conceptual use of research but do not put so much effort in acquiring research. Impact of teacher gender, teaching experience, teaching context and teaching certificate on these results were also examined.
Conclusions: This study stresses the need to develop a research in teaching and learning in physical education that address practical problems facing physical education teachers and which help to close the gap between knowing and doing in physical education. Research-practice partnership (Coburn & Penuel, 2016) may be a way to pursue this goal.
Impact of Secondary Organizational Socialization on Mid-Career Faculty Members’ PETE
Jamie J. Brunsdon, The University of Memphis; Matthew D. Curtner-SmithF, The University of Alabama
Background/Purpose: In the last decade, scholars have begun to investigate how sport pedagogy faculty members’ (FMs) perspectives and practices concerning the teaching of physical education and physical education teacher education (PETE) are influenced by secondary organizational socialization (i.e., the impact of the university culture and conditions). The ultimate goal of these researchers is to improve FMs’ preparation, workplace climates, and implementation of PETE. Our goal was to add to this small body of work. The study’s purpose, therefore, was to describe the impact of secondary organizational socialization on mid-career FMs’ delivery of PETE. The specific research questions we attempted to answer were: (a) How did FMs deliver PETE? and (b) What factors supported and undermined FMs as they delivered PETE?
Method: We used key concepts from occupational socialization theory to guide the study. Participants were four mid-career sport pedagogy FMs who had worked in universities in the United States for between seven and 15 years. They were purposefully selected because the universities at which they worked varied in terms of location, focus, and size. The FMs completed formal semi-structured interviews, supplied documents that illustrated the type of PETE they implemented, wrote their ideal PETE program in the format of their choice, and provided film of themselves engaging in PETE.
Analysis/Results: Analytic induction and constant comparison were employed to reduce data into meaningful themes. The study revealed that the FMs delivered PETE based on the behavioristic, traditional/craft, and critical-inquiry orientations to teacher education. The key cultural components that shaped the FMs’ delivery of PETE were sport pedagogy colleagues, administrators, preservice teachers, and the focus of the university. The main conditions that supported or undermined the FMs’ implementation of PETE were resources, the quality of cooperating teachers and school placements, and the influence of national and state standards for teacher education. Additionally, the internal bureaucracy surrounding teacher education had an adverse impact on FMs’ PETE. FMs employed three coping strategies when faced with negative and unfavorable cultures and conditions. These were strategic compliance, strategic redefinition, and finding a new position. In contrast, the FMs fully complied with positive and favorable cultures and conditions.
Conclusions: The study has practical implications for those training sport pedagogy doctoral students, the doctoral students themselves, senior sport pedagogy FMs, and administrators. Specifically, FMs preparing doctoral students could use the stories provided to help prepare their charges for the cultures and conditions they might experience and the variety of responses their perspectives and practices might receive when they transition to their first positions. We also suggest that the collective stories provided in this study might help other mid-career FMs reflect on how they are coping with their work environments and perhaps inspire them to make attempts at strategically redefining negative elements of their cultures or conditions. Finally, we hope that the study might be a catalyst for more reflection by administrators and senior sport pedagogy FMs about the cultures and conditions they help create and the degree to which they endorse or oppose the ever growing bureaucracy that is enveloping teacher education.
Influence of Quality High School Physical Education on Physical Activity
Xiaoxia Zhang, Joonkoo YunF, East Carolina University
Background/Purpose: The health benefits of physical activity across lifespan has been well documented (Reiner et al., 2013). A population-based study revealed that physical education participation during school ages is more likely to increase physical activity levels in adulthood (Ekblom-Bak et al., 2018). However, there is limited understanding of the underlying mechanism in this relationship between physical education and physical activity. One of the plausible explanations can be quality of physical education experiences will increase students’ physical literacy (i.e., well-established skills, knowledge, motivation, and social skills for active lifestyles), and physically literate individuals are more likely to engage in a lifelong physical activity. Indeed, a direct goal of physical education is to equip students with physical literacy. Therefore, the primary purpose of this study was to examine how the quality of physical education in high school is associated with future physical activity engagement in young adulthood and whether physical literacy plays a mediator role in this relationship.
Method: A total of 163 college students (50.3% females; 56.4% freshmen; 76.1% White; Mage = 20.27±2.35) were recruited from six universities in the U.S. They filled out an online survey measuring the quality of physical education in high school (i.e., policy and environment, curriculum, appropriate instruction, and student assessment), leisure-time physical activity (LTPA; Godin, 2011), and physical literacy (i.e., knowledge and understanding, self-expression and communication, sense of self and self-confidence; Sum et al., 2016). A path analysis was performed to test the associations between quality of physical education (exogenous variable) and LTPA (endogenous variable) with physical literacy as a mediator.
Analysis/Results: The Goodness of Fit indices revealed the proposed mediation model was appropriate, c2/df = 1.43, p = 0.11; CFI = 0.99; IFI = 0.99; TLI = 0.99; RMSEA = 0.05. A total of 7% of variance in LTPA was explained by the proposed model. The quality of physical education had a direct and significant association with LTPA (β = 0.23, p < 0.05) and with physical literacy (β =0.17, p < 0.05). Although there was a positive association between physical literacy and LTPA (β = 0.11, p > 0.05), the mediation effect of physical literacy was not detected between quality of physical education and LTPA.
Conclusions: The findings illustrate the direct association of quality high school physical education with physical activity engagement as well as physical literacy in young adulthood. However, the mediated relationship of physical education with physical activity through physical literacy is inconclusive. This finding suggests high school physical educators and practitioners should improve the quality of physical education by a) establishing quality school policy and environment climate, b) using the grade-level and comprehensive curriculum, c) providing appropriate instructions, and d) applying aligned student assessment with learning objectives. Future studies are warranted to continuously examine the underlying mechanism of the relationship between physical education and physical activity.
Instructional Alignment in Preservice Teachers’ Unit Plans
Peter Iserbyt, KU Leuven; Jacalyn LundF, Georgia State University; Fien Lux, KU Leuven
Background/Purpose: Effective teaching is characterized by the alignment of intended learning outcomes, assessments that allow teachers to check whether these outcomes are met, and instructional practices that support students in learning these outcomes (AIESEP, 2020). Evidence suggests that aligned instruction significantly improves student learning (Cohen, 1987). Research with preservice teachers (PSTs) has shown a lack of alignment between assessments and goals (Lund & Veal, 2008); development of affective goals and assessments were especially problematic. To date, limited studies have been conducted on instructional alignment in physical education (AIESEP, 2020). The available evidence suggests instructional alignment is poor in Australia and the Netherlands (Borghouts et al., 2017; Georgakis & Wilson, 2012). The purpose of this study was to investigate the instructional alignment between goals and assessments in PSTs’ unit plans for teaching individual sports in physical education.
Method: Participants in this study were 31 PSTs (21 female, 10 male) from one physical education teacher education(PETE) program in Flanders, Belgium. Prior to entering the PETE program, all students completed a 180 ECTS undergraduate (i.e., bachelor) program in Movement Sciences. A total of 31 unit plans each consisting of four to eight lesson plans (n=129) were developed for teaching individual sports in middle and high schoolphysical education. The sample included units in gymnastics (n=11), rope-skipping (n=2), track and field (n=5), dance (n=4), parkour (n=2), swimming (n=4), and self-defense (n=3). The authors developed a coding protocol to assess alignment between unit goals and assessments. This protocol was face -and content validated by experts in sport pedagogy. A coder training procedure was completed by two coders and inter observer reliability was 100%, calculated based on 20% of the total sample.
Analysis/Results: Across all 31 unit plans, a total of 145 unit goals were analysed. On average, 4.7 unit goals were written per unit. Psychomotor goals were most prevalent (n=66, 46%), followed by affective (n= 52, 35%), and cognitive goals (n=27, 19%). Fifty percent of the unit goals were inappropriate, meaning they were written as a task students should do or as a goal for the teacher. Only 9% of all unit goals were measurable and feasible. About 65% of psychomotor unit goals were assessed, and half of these (50%) were strongly aligned. Eight percent of cognitive goals were assessed and were strongly aligned. For the affective goals, only 6% was assessed with moderate-to-strong alignment.
Conclusions: Overall, results from this study suggest that PSTs fail to systematically align goals and assessments in their planning documents. PSTs struggle to write unit goals that are measurable and feasible, thus hindering the development of aligned assessments. These findings underline the necessity of teacher education programs to implement instructional alignment as a teaching practice in methods classes and school placements.
Investigating Physical Educators’ Adoption of Models-Based Practices
Paul Malinowski, Ben D. Kern, Tristan L. WallheadF, Andrea Burrows, University of Wyoming
Background/Purpose: Models-based practices (MBP) broadly refer to physical education (PE) pedagogies that are identifiable by their specific theoretical foundations and features related to teaching and learning (Metzler, 2011). Many PE scholars consider MBP to be more appropriate for promoting student learning in each of the three learning domains (i.e. psychomotor, cognitive, and affective). Despite this proposition, Casey et al. (2021) recently argued that there is a distinct distance between the hope for MBP and the happening of the practice of MBP. While many physical education teacher education (PETE) programs educate preservice teachers on the “how” and “what” of MBP, teacher socialization literature has revealed a pattern of adaptation or discontinuation of what was learned during PETE within the professional teaching context. Research has indicated that PE teachers’ dispositions toward change influence their likelihood to adopt innovative practices, though no research has specifically examined dispositions with regard to MBP adoption and adherence. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine the individual and social/contextual factors that influence inservice physical educators’ adoption and use of MBP.
Method: This study utilized a mixed-methods, sequential explanatory design and qualitative analysis was grounded in Occupational Socialization Theory. Participants (n = 15, 8 female) were recruited from a larger study in which a survey was distributed to a nationally representative sample of physical educators from each of the five SHAPE America regional districts (N= 830). Participants completed the Teacher Change Questionnaire-PE (TCQ-PE; Kern & Graber, 2017) followed by an in-depth interview to determine the contextual factors that influenced their decisions of how and why they adopt MBP.
Analysis/Results: Constant comparison methodology was used to analyze interview data (Strauss & Corbin, 2015) and preliminary analysis resulted in three major themes: a) MBP adoption is traceable to various contextual factors, b) principals as MBP washout negators, and c) MBP induced demarginalization fosters MBP adherence. Data from the TCQ-PE identified participants as change-disposed (CD; n = 7), non-change disposed (NCD; n = 2), or neutral (N; n = 6).
Conclusions: Findings suggest that teachers’ adoption of MBP in the absence of research interventions and continuing professional development is influenced by a variety of contextual factors, including teaching colleagues, PE department supervisors, teaching workshops, and PETE programs. Principals may be relatively detached from teachers’ initial decision to adopt MBP, however, principals’ responses to MBP implementation may prevent washout of MBP and further encourage teachers’ long-term adherence to MBP. The possible demarginalizing effects of MBP implementation may also facilitate teachers’ continued use of MBP. As determined by the TCQ-PE, teachers that are CD may be more likely to use MBP during organizational socialization. Results from this study may highlight potential avenues for future MBP dissemination efforts to explore.
Learning Biomechanics Through Physical Education: A Day of STEM Fun
Emily D. Clapham, University of Rhode Island; Karie Lee Orendorff, Montana State University
Background/Purpose: Physical education is a unique opportunity for interdisciplinary lessons such as STEM topics. This research examined the infusion of biomechanics in a 8th grade physical education setting in celebration of National Biomechanics Day (NBD).
Method: Fourteen 8th grade children (age 12-14 years; 9 female, 5 male) participated in National Biomechanics Day activities specifically designed for a middle school physical education class. As a group, students first participated in physical activities designed to emphasize principles related to forces (Human Bowling, Balance Poses, Sumo) and life science principles related to neuromuscular control of movement (You’re Getting on my Nerves). Students were then divided into 2 smaller groups in order to rotate through 2 additional sessions designed to quantify/analyze movement. In the first session, students learned to analyze movement using simple methodology such a 1) recording the progression of balance using agility balls and 2) using vertical jump measuring equipment. In the second session, students visited the Motion Analysis Laboratory for an interactive demonstration of sophisticated methodology used to analyze movement such as 1) motion capture, 2) forceplates, and 3) electromyograms (EMG). Prior to participating in the activities, students completed an 8 question quiz (pre-quiz) designed to assess prior knowledge related to vectors, forces, net force, biomechanics equipment and the neuromuscular control of muscle contractions. Students completed the same quiz again (post-quiz), once all activities had been completed.
Analysis/Results: A one-way MANOVA with 2 levels of time and an a´priori alpha level of 0.05 was performed to assess change in pre-test scores as a result of participating in the NBD activities. Most children had knowledge of forces and vectors prior to participating in the NBD activities. Most students were unable to answer questions related to neuromuscular control and application to real world activities on the pre-test.We hypothesized that physical education activities that explicitly emphasized elements of physical and life sciences would help provide 8th grade students with a more meaningful understanding of the content. By using physical education activities as a pedagogical tool; we hypothesized that students would enjoy learning and would make meaningful, real-world connections between biomechanics and everyday interests. Most children had knowledge of forces and vectors (Q1-Q3b) prior to participating in the NBD activities. However, for questions related to neuromuscular control and application to real world activities (Q4-Q6), most students were unable to answer on the pre-test. Test scores on those questions improved significantly after completing the activities. Overall, students improved their total score by 65.9%. When asked which National Biomechanics activity they preferred the most 85.7% (n=12) of students reported one of the physical education activities.
Conclusions: By using physical education class to understand the science of movement, children were able to improve their knowledge of interrelated STEM areas. Physical education class is a viable option for integrating interdisciplinary lessons in STEM subjects.
Lessons From One PETE Program’s Online Transition During COVID-19
Brandon B. Foye, Boston University
Background/Purpose: In recent years, colleges and universities, including the field of kinesiology, have been shifting programming online for a multitude of reasons (Bryan, 2014). Empirical research, however, examining the effectiveness of online courses in PETE programs or the experiences of undergraduates in these online courses, is limited (Sato et al., 2019).
In the spring of 2020, the arrival of the COVID-19 pandemic forced colleges and universities across the country to transition suddenly from in-person to remote models of instruction. This unforeseen transition was particularly challenging in the physical education teacher preparation field, where many learning activities occur in experiential, social settings. This study examined how one university physical education teacher education program navigated this challenge in the spring of 2020. Perspectives were provided by university faculty, university students and cooperating teachers who were hosting university students in field placements at the time of the transition.
Method: Eight members of a northeastern PETE community (two university faculty members, three university students and three cooperating teachers) participated in semi-structured interviews, conducted via Zoom videoconferencing software following the spring 2020 semester. Questions centered around their processes of and experiences with online learning in PETE. Interview data underwent thematic analysis, with Kolb’s (1984) theory of experiential learning and Ravitch’s (2020) flux pedagogy serving as the frameworks through which participant responses were contextualized.
Analysis/Results: The program transitioned to synchronous online classes, in response to the pandemic. University faculty spoke of a learning curve associated with this new modality. Faculty members reported embracing a greater role as a “moderator” and a lesser role as a “teacher”. Additionally, in lieu of a traditional field experience, students were asked to create instructional videos. The videos were uploaded to the “PantherPE” webpage, a shared YouTube account which allowed public access to all of the videos. These videos were then advertised to K–12 physical education classes throughout the region.
Participants identified two significant benefits of transitioning to the online model. First, university students learned an innovative pedagogical skill by gaining experience with crafting instructional videos. Secondly, the creation of the PantherPE webpage fostered an increased sense of camaraderie among the members of the local physical education community. Two important disadvantages emerged, as well. All three levels of participants expressed concerns surrounding a lack of experiential education that was missed. In this format, university students lacked exposure to common aspects of a field experience, such as observing classroom management strategies and behavior modification techniques. Additionally, university students were particularly sensitive to their diminished opportunities for interpersonal relationship development with the K–12 students and the greater school community.
Conclusions: While limited to a single case, this study identifies both advantages and disadvantages of conducting PETE classes in an online model. As such, further research on the topic is critical to providing future practitioners with insights into the affordances and constraints of teaching in an online setting.
Lessons Learned From an Online Sexual Health Education Program
Cathy McKayF, Kim Hartzler-Weakley, Hayden Bartley, James Madison University
Background/Purpose: The purpose of this study was to seek to understand and describe the experiences of preservice physical and health education teacher education students taking part in the published Vision of You (VOY) sexual health education program in relation to enhancing confidence and shaping perceptions of teaching sexual health related content. The VOY program is an interactive, self-paced online sexuality education program that uses engaging videos, animation, and gamified learning modules to provide information and skills related to sexually transmitted infections, contraception, abstinence, healthy relationships, adolescent development, identity, communication, and consent, all under the umbrella of skills-based instruction and behavior change.
Method: To explore how the participants made sense of their experiences with VOY, this qualitative study utilized a phenomenological approach. Participants were 18 undergraduate students enrolled in a health content course (Mage=20.88; 50% female, 100% Caucasian, 100% third year students) at a university in a Mid-Atlantic state. The health content course is required during the second semester of the physical and health education teacher education program. The VOY curriculum was embedded within the health content course, and took place during typical class meetings, as well as outside of class assignments. Data for this study were collected in the form of reflective writing responses. After data were collected, thematic development was undertaken inductively using a three-step analytic process: immersion in the data, bracketing the data, and determining emergent themes.
Analysis/Results: Analysis revealed four themes related to the participants’ experiences with the VOY program. In the first theme, “I feel better prepared to teach sexual health in my classroom”: Preservice teachers’ views on VOY as a training and instruction tool, participants described their shift in confidence in teaching sexual health content. The second theme, “It does not have to be some huge, awkward thing”: Preservice teachers’ getting comfortable with the uncomfortable, concerned participants’ newfound feelings of comfort with sexual health content. The third theme, “VOY changed a bias in my head I didn’t know I had”: Preservice teachers’ new knowledge and understanding of inclusive sexual health education, dealt with the participants’ new, more inclusive perceptions of sexual health content that rejected binary thinking. Finally, the fourth theme, “It shows that real people deal with this stuff all the time”: The benefits of interactive videos and games in the VOY platform, highlights participant reflections on the engaging and interactive VOY platform.
Conclusions: Based on these findings, the meaning of the VOY program to preservice teachers was evident in the data, which supports the value of VOY as a mechanism for learning and engagement, with clear implications for practice. Future research should examine the VOY program through the quantitative lens, should be conducted at a variety of PHETE programs across the US, and should extend to inservice teacher experiences with the content.
Navigating Uncertainties Together: A Collaborative Self-Study of First-Year Faculty Members
Mijoo Kim, Towson University; Kelsey Higginson, Minot State University
Background/Purpose: The transition from doctoral student to university faculty can be difficult since responsibilities for research, teaching, and service may differ from the training received in their graduate programs (Colbeck, 1998; Payne & Berry, 2014). Self-study is an emerging method for educators to study and improve their own practice and can be beneficial to those transitioning from student to teacher. Self-study cannot be effectively done without collaboration (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 2009) as this provides a critical lens for educators to explore and evaluate the connections between their emerging identities and their pedagogies (Bullock & Ritter, 2011). The purpose of this ongoing self-study was to investigate the transition from doctoral student to first year assistant professor of two physical education teacher educators through the following research questions:
To what extent and in what ways are we as new faculty members able to apply what we learned in our physical education teacher education programs in our new roles and contexts?
What challenges do we as new faculty members face during our transition, and how do we respond to these?
How do we as critical friends support and challenge one another to grow as we engage in ongoing reflection and discussion about our teaching practices?
Method: The participants of this study were colleagues during their doctoral studies at a large Midwestern research university. Both spent their first years as assistant professors at small regional teaching universities, one in the Southwest and one in the Upper Midwest.
Following the examples of other collaborative self-studies in the field of physical education (e.g., Fletcher, Ní Chróinín, & O’Sullivan, 2016; Ressler & Richards, 2017), data was collected from three sources: (a) weekly journals, (b) video chat conversations, and (c) email exchanges. Journal entries focused on the intent, alignment of beliefs and actions, changes, or student reactions in teaching and on conflicts between desired ways of teaching and assigned university methods. Video chat meetings focused on sharing experiences and feedback. Emails followed each video chat and gave our impressions from the conversation and considerations that occurred afterwards. At the end of the first year of study, we used a thematic analysis approach (Given, 2008) to look for recurrent patterns across the data.
Analysis/Results: We faced diverse challenges as new faculty members, which were further complicated by entering the profession during a global pandemic. Preliminary findings include insecurities and uncertainties about building community and communication with students, colleagues, and administration given limited interaction with them, establishing teaching authority, and maintaining classroom management. We shared our struggles and successes as we tried to apply our training with diverse students in both face-to-face and remote contexts. Through critical conversations we discovered we had similar emotional battles and offered each other both practical support and encouragement.
Conclusions: This work has the possibility of resonating with other emerging teacher educators who may find strength or new ideas from this collaborative self-study. This study can also add to the limited, but growing, body of knowledge about the process of becoming physical education teacher educators.
Physical Education Student Teaching Placements: Program Graduate Perceptions
LeAnn E. Olson, Kason O’Neil, East Tennessee State University
Background/Purpose: The purpose of this study was to gather perceptions of student teaching placements from completers of a physical education teacher education (PETE) program from the southeast US. The student teaching practicum is widely regarded as the most formative experience in a teacher preparation program and proper placements are critical to the development of quality physical educators. Program implementation, pedagogical practices, context factors, and mentor qualities as perceived by former teacher candidates about their student teacher placements were explored.
Method: A purposeful sample of 12 PETE program completers from the years 2015-2019 were selected and sent a recruitment email with link to a questionnaire regarding perceptions of student teaching experience. The questionnaire presented participants with quantitative Likert scale items using Likert pertaining to placement, program congruency, and observation of quality of practices utilized by the mentor teacher. Qualitative open-ended questions had participants reflect on mentor qualities and information about the context of the placement. Open coding was utilized to classify responses to analyze phenomena.
Analysis/Results: Quantitative Likert scale results demonstrated that graduates felt that the teaching methods used in their elementary placements were more congruent than secondary with what was taught in their PETE program (83.3% vs. 41.6% of respondents above neutral) and that more quality physical education practices were utilized at the elementary level (83.3% vs. 49.9% of respondents above neutral) than at the secondary level placement. Having autonomy during the student teaching experience was the highest reported positive mentor quality, followed by good feedback and guidance. For context, the amount of equipment was seen as a positive at elementary placements and a negative at the secondary level. Graduates at elementary placements also felt like physical education was valued at their schools. The size of the facility was noted as a positive at the majority of secondary placements.
Conclusions: Most graduates felt they had experienced higher quality instruction, mentorship, and a better context at the elementary level placement. More research is needed to determine if this is regional or more wide-spread, as well as, developing and implementing ideas to strengthen secondary level physical education practices and mentors. Limitations include this is data from only one program in one region and also that this is perception data and may be skewed based on unrelated factors.
Physical Education Teachers Technology Self-Efficacy and Integration
Alex Adams, Austin Peay State University; Don Belcher, Middle Tennessee State University
Background/Purpose: Technology in education strives to parallel the high-tech world we live in. When students’ learning environment reflects the ways in which they engage the world, they will excel in their education (Christen, 2009). Physical education teachers (PETs) have reported many barriers to using and integrating educational technology (e.g., Hill & Valdez-Garcia, 2020). PETs perceived self-efficacy (SE) may play an important role in their ability to integrate technology. The purpose of this study was to explore in-service PETs self-efficacy to integrate technology into their teaching.
Method: Eighty-three in-service PETs (Male=31.3 %, Female=68.7%), from around the United States, completed an online version of the previously validated Computer Technology Integration Survey for Physical Education (Krause, 2017). Analysis focused on relationships of participant’s SE and technology use.
Analysis/Results: Results indicate a relationship with the level of mastery experiences (r=.48, p<.001), technology training (r=.45, p <.001), social persuasion experiences (r=.28, p<.001), and (vicarious experiences (r=.28, p<.01), to participants’ technology SE (M=3.70, SD= .94; 1-5 scale). Participant’s specific technology training and use are presented, with corresponding correlations to indicate how well SE relates to use.
Conclusions: Participant’s SE was lower than physical education student teachers (Krause, 2017) but similar to PET education faculty (O’Neil & Krause, 2019). PETs may be well equipped to use educational technology after student teaching but may need more training to keep up with the ever-changing world of technology. Professional development opportunities for PETs should focus on providing mastery experiences over vicarious and social persuasion experiences. Furthermore, some educational tools (i.e., Plickers) are valued and used more when PETs have an adequate level of specific educational technology training. Future research should focus on measuring the effects of a professional development workshop on PETs SE.
Physical Educators’ Longitudinal Reflections on Teaching Virtually Amidst a Pandemic
Brandon B. Foye, Boston University
Background/Purpose: Teaching physical education online is a concept that has existed for more than two decades (Daum & Buschner, 2018). Despite its steady growth, online physical education (OLPE) has suffered from a lack of empirical research to guide its development (Johnson et al., 2021). In the spring of 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic forced schools across the country to adopt remote teaching models; many schools opted to pursue online models. While some argue that the education that occurred during the pandemic is most accurately classified as emergency remote education (Bozkurt et al., 2020), this study is rooted in the belief that regardless of classification, any physical education classes that are taught online have the potential to inform the future of OLPE and should be investigated as such. The purpose of this study was to gain the perspectives of a sample of K–12 physical educators who taught virtually during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Method: Fourteen New England K–12 physical education teachers engaged in semi-structured interviews conducted over Zoom videoconferencing software in June 2020, March 2021 and June 2021. Questions centered around the teachers’ experiences with OLPE, in addition to their perceptions surrounding these experiences. Data underwent thematic analysis, utilizing a series of open coding, axial coding and category construction. Kolb’s (1984) theory of experiential learning and Whittle et al.’s (2020) emergency remote teaching environment frameworks helped shape the findings.
Analysis/Results: Pedagogical approaches varied drastically from the spring of 2020 to the 2020-2021 academic year. Whereas teachers relied heavily on asynchronous content during the initial implementation phase of online teaching, participants widely reported incorporating synchronous aspects into their classes during the 2020-2021 school year. In some cases, participants taught exclusively synchronous content, while others utilized hybrid approaches. Overwhelmingly, participants reported a preference for teaching synchronously.
In the spring of 2020, participants expressed concerns about students’ academic accountability, as well as their levels of interpersonal socialization. Participants reported increased optimism the following year about these two realms, for a variety of reasons related to administrative and community support, and increased opportunities for social interaction afforded by synchronous learning environments. Throughout the duration of the study, participants spoke of challenges of teaching sport activities virtually; and this regularly led to them relying on fitness-based curricula. Also, participants reported placing a greater emphasis on the cognitive domain than typical.
Conclusions: The drastically different approaches the participants took in the spring of 2020 and the 2020-2021 academic year allow for practical identification of pedagogical approaches that were perceived as effective and those that were perceived as ineffective. The perceived successes and challenges can be considered by future OLPE instructors to help inform their own pedagogies. Furthermore, the experiences of these participants underscore previously existing concerns surrounding OLPE: challenges surrounding the ability to address state and national standards related to responsible social interaction; in addition to OLPE’s ability to address physical activity concepts that expand past personal fitness. Given these concerns, it is recommended that OLPE stakeholders continue to intentionally and mindfully experiment with methods for addressing these concerns.
Preservice Physical Education Teacher Preparation for Health-Related Fitness Testing
Xiaolu Liu, Eastern New Mexico University; Xiaofen D. KeatingF, The University of Texas at Austin
Background/Purpose: Preservice physical education teachers (PPETs) will need to implement health-related fitness tests (HRFT) in K–12 physical education programs in the future. Given that PPETs are still in the university, it is the optimal time for physical education teacher education (PETE) programs to address PPETs’ needs for HRFT preparation. Identifying barriers and necessary preparation for PPET learning of HRFT in PETE programs provides urgently needed information for policymakers, program developers, and PETE educators to design and integrate specific curriculum content, field experiences, and professional development to improve such training. However, research on PPET preparation for HRFT is scarce. This study explored PPET preparation for HRFT in PETE programs from the perspectives of PETE program faculty members.
Method: A qualitative research method was applied, and a phenomenological approach was used for the study. A purposive sampling strategy was employed to recruit PETE faculty members in the state of Texas, where fitness testing is mandated by the state law. Seven faculty members (N female = 4, N male = 3) from five PETE programs participated in this study. Semi-structured interviews were implemented as the main way for data collection. The interview questions were generated based on the findings by Gawrisch et al. (2019). In addition, a pre-interview survey, documents, and a follow-up survey were utilized to collect supporting data. To ensure trustworthiness and credibility, four strategies including data triangulation, member checking, peer debriefing, and audit trails were applied.
Analysis/Results: Horizonalization and clusters of meaning development were used to analyze data and generate themes. Specifically, all audio-taped interviews were transcribed, and open coding was employed to categorize substantial codes into themes with internal relations identified among all data sources. The perspectives from seven PETE faculty members through in-depth interviews, online surveys, and document analysis emerged in four themes: (a) Required courses are the primary means for preparing PPETs to use HRFT, but barriers (e.g., a lack of time devoted to HRFT content) existed; (b) PETE faculty members modeled the use of HRFT. However, cooperating teachers can negatively influence faculty members’ role in HRFT preparation; (c) PPETs explored the use of HRFT in PETE programs through peer teaching and testing activities; and (d) there was a lack of field-based experiences in local schools for HRFT.
Conclusions: PETE programs provide coursework and opportunities for PPETs to gain content knowledge and hands-on experience with HRFT. However, there are problems. Notably, the lack of time to focus on HRFT content in the courses, the offsetting effect of cooperating teachers, and the limited field-based practical opportunities concerning HRFT implementation should be well addressed by PETE programs. Future research can focus more on PPETs’ perceptions about the preparation, using both quantitative and qualitative methods to gain deep and comprehensive insights regarding this matter which could possibly affect almost all American students.
Preferences for and Receptiveness to Continuing Professional Development Among Physical Educators of Different Dispositions Toward Change
Ben D. Kern, University of Wyoming; Wesley J WilsonF, University of Utah; Paul Malinowski, Tristan L. WallheadF, University of Wyoming
Background/Purpose: Dispositions toward pedagogical change are an important consideration in the design of continuing professional development (CPD) in physical education, and organizational socialization is known to greatly influence teaching practices, including those learned through CPD (Kern et al., 2021). While dispositions are known to predict future pedagogical change in a variety of settings, it is unclear how they are related to teachers’ preferences for and their receptiveness to making pedagogical change through CPD, given their unique social contexts. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the extent to which physical education teachers with different dispositions toward change are the same or different with regard to their preferences for the design of CPD, and what factors have more or less impact on their receptiveness to making pedagogical change as a result of CPD initiatives.
Method: A mixed methods study design was utilized to compare preferences for and receptiveness to CPD among teachers with different dispositions toward change. Twenty-four inservice physical education teachers (16 female) first completed the Teacher Change Questionnaire-Physical Education (TCQ-PE; Kern & Graber, 2017), followed by an approximately 60-minute in-depth interview. Semi-structured interviews were conducted using Occupational Socialization Theory as a guiding framework for investigation and the lens through which the qualitative data were analyzed. Prior to qualitative analysis, participants TCQ-PE data were used to categorize them as either change disposed (CD, n = 14) or non-change disposed (NCD, n = 10).
Analysis/Results: Constant comparison methodology was used to analyze qualitative data and identify themes (Strauss & Corbin, 2015), with special consideration given to similarities and differences between CD and NCD teachers regarding the unique contexts in which they work. Trustworthiness of findings were enhanced through member checks, peer debriefing, and data triangulation. Preliminary analysis resulted in the following themes: (a) CPD is High Demand/Low supply, (b) CD Teachers Seek Big Changes, NCD Seek Strong Rationale, (c) Relevance + Resources + Reputation (of presenters) = Receptiveness to CPD, (d) Barriers to and Confidence for Change are Equivalent, (e) Interests Align with School Mission & Expert Recommendations.
Conclusions: Results suggest that regardless of change disposition, physical education teachers strongly desire CPD, though related opportunities are rare and becoming less frequent. Additionally, all teachers experience similar barriers to change and their disposition appears to not impact their confidence to make change, rather their willingness to act is a primary difference. The relevance of CPD to physical educators is paramount, along with reputable presenters and adequate resources for implementation. Given these conditions exist, CD teachers are much more likely to attempt large scale change than NCD counterparts. Overall, most teachers are interested in learning about topics that align with both the missions of their schools and expert recommendations.
Preservice Physical Education Teacher’s Perceptions of Dance in Physical Education
Rachyl Jane Stephenson, Unviersity of Wisconsin La Crosse; Jeffrey Allan Colburn, University of Texas- Austin
Background/Purpose: Dance is an incredible physical activity that has the potential to improve fitness levels, social interaction, self-discovery, self-expression, and contribute to developing physically literate individuals. While dance has been part of written curriculum, and national and state level standards, its implementation in both preservice and inservice teaching has been limited. Preservice teachers express apprehension towards learning dance in teacher education courses, and therefore the profession of physical education needs to obtain insight on how to provide more experiences for preservice teachers to foster positive perceptions and attitudes towards dance in order to increase the likelihood of those individuals to incorporate dance into their curriculum and instruction when they eventually become inservice teachers. This study employed Occupational Socialization as a conceptual framework to explore preservice physical education teachers’ perceptions of dance in physical education. The aim of this study was to investigate how childhood and professional training experiences influenced preservice physical education teachers’ perceptions of dance in physical education.
Method: A qualitative, phenomenological study was utilized with 43 preservice physical education teachers at a central Wisconsin University to gain an understanding of participants lived experiences surrounding dance in physical education. Data was collected through autobiographies over four different semesters. The autobiographies were completed as an assignment within a physical education teacher education program course.
Analysis/Results: The data was examined through a collaborative qualitative analysis approach. The findings are presented thematically. Results were categorized into three major themes: (a) preservice teachers recognized changes in their perceptions and conceptions of dance in physical education, (b) preservice teachers expressed a growth of comfort and confidence with teaching dance through coursework experiences, and (c) preservice teachers acknowledged the role of dance within their current and future lived experiences. Within the three main themes, twelve subthemes, and two sub-subthemes emerged.
Conclusions: The results suggested that through intentional integration of dance as a full course in teacher training, preservice teachers’ perceptions of dance were changed in a positive direction. While participants had a lack of dance within their own physical education experiences as children, the variety of exposures within their physical education teacher education programming, their comfortability and confidence increased. With these new found values of dance within physical education, these preservice teachers now look forward to providing dance experiences for their own students in the future.
Principals’ Perceptions of and Support for Physical Education: A Socialization Perspective
Christopher John Kinder, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign; K. Andrew R. RichardsF, Amelia Mays Woods, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Background/Purpose: Occupational socialization theory (OST) has been extensively applied to understand the lives and careers of inservice teachers. The environment in which one teaches has been identified as important for understanding work of physical education teachers. While some schools value and support physical education, in others teachers may feel marginalized. A variety of different sources might influence a physical educators’ feelings of marginalization and principals in particular have been identified as important for setting the tone on how physical education is perceived within a school. With this in mind, it is probable that a principals’ prior socialization experience also frames the extent to which they perceive and support physical education. Nevertheless, little is known about the factors that lead some administrators to value physical education and others to perpetuate marginalization. Accordingly, guided by OST the purpose of this study was to understand public school principals’ perspectives of and support for physical education within their schools.
Method: Qualitative data were collected through individual interviews with 29 school principals (9 elementary, 20 secondary) and 15 physical educations teachers (6 elementary, 9 secondary) from one Midwest state that offers daily physical education. Each telephone interview lasted approximately 30-45 minutes in length and followed a semi-structured format, which allowed for flexibility with theoretically-driven follow-up questions. In addition, school websites and relevant policy documents were collected.
Analysis/Results: All data were analyzed using a multiphase interpretive approach grounded in inductive and deductive analysis. Through the data analysis process, trustworthiness was promoted through data triangulation, peer debriefing, and the maintenance of an audit trail. The findings indicated that (a) positive experiences in secondary physical education or athletics were detrimental to current receptivity, (b) the importance of learning to communicate needs effectively and address issues within the appropriate parameters, and (c) administrative decisions are mostly business-related, not personal.
Conclusions: While prior socialization experiences may have significantly influenced the principal’s perspectives of physical education, several decisions (e.g., granting access to resources, increased allocation of time) were dependent on external factors associated with state-wide requirements. Future research should seek to examine how inservice physical education teachers may gain further support from an administrators’ perspectives. In sum, most principals were generally supportive of physical education and held strong relationships with the current teacher(s). Unfortunately, for many participants, the subject was not considered a top priority at this current time.
Status of Health Education in Oregon: A Survey of Health Education Teachers
Kevin Lorson, Wright State University; Jessica S Lawrence, Dove Self Esteem Project; Suzanne Hidde, Oregon Dept of Education
Background/Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine the current state of health education in Oregon from the perspective of health education teachers.
Method: The survey based on the study of health education teachers in Ohio (Raffle, Ware, Lorson, Blinsky, & Wainwright, 2019), the School Health Profiles Studies (CDC, 2019), and the School Health Policy and Practices Study (CDC, 2017). Researchers developed a database of 1,036 middle and high school health education teachers’ email addresses from a web search. Health education teachers (n=277) completed a survey in spring 2021, Responses (n=178) represented 46.7% of Oregon’s 197 public school districts, an additional 99 responses used a shared link could not be connected to a district. Participants were licensed health education teachers (88.5%) with an average of 10.2 years (SD =7.89) of teaching health education experience.
Analysis/Results: Items were analyzed using descriptive statistics. Only 24.1% (n=50) of responses stated they received a district curriculum that includes learning outcomes, a scope and sequence, and assessment plan. Teachers (n=145, 70.1%) reported their local curriculum was updated within the last five years. Participants reported their local curriculum aligns with the Oregon Health Education Standards at a rate over 85% across all standards. The Characteristics of Effective Health Education (CDC, 2019) were rated as “present” at nearly 80% rate. Considering topics included in the curriculum, 57% of the high school teachers’ responses “did not know “the topics included in the middle school curriculum while 78% of the middle school teachers’ reported they “did not know” the high school topics. When asked about Grades K-5, teachers reported they “did not know” (n=48, 43.2%) or no curriculum (n=13, 11.7%) existed. Significant positive relationships were found between the level of importance and inclusion of a topic in the middle school (r(210)=.56, p=.001) and high school curriculum (r(210)=.48, p=.001); level of confidence and inclusion of a topic in middle school (r(210)=.59, p=.001) and high school curriculum (r(210) = .45, p = .001); and level of importance and the teacher’s confidence (r(210)=.85, p=.001). Teachers reported inviting guest speakers (n=73.0%) with alcohol and other drugs, mental and emotional health, and human sexuality education the most frequent topics. Only 18.3% reported the district Whole Child or Local Wellness teams with only 8.3% of health education teachers included on these teams. Stakeholders most frequently rated with a “very high” value for health education were other health educators (39.4%), physical educators (19.2), curriculum directors (18.2%), and administrators (12.0%). When considering how stakeholders changed their support for health education over the last two years other health education teachers (25.5%), administrators (24.6%), and curriculum directors (23.4%) received higher rates of increased support while local policy makers (9.8%), parents (7.8%), and community (7.2%), were perceived more frequently as decreasing their support.
Conclusions: The results suggest the dedicating time and supports to develop local K–12 curriculum and school health committees that include health education teachers could be helpful strategies to enhance health education and partnerships to building health literacy across the whole school.
Sustainable University-Public School Partnership to Improve Preservice Teachers’ Practicum Experience
Daehyoung Lee, Lisa Paulson, Patricia Wendinger, University of Minnesota Duluth
Background/Purpose: Field practicum creates opportunities for preservice teachers to gain hands-on experience working with K–12 students and facilitate their professional development engaging with local teachers. Despite the well-documented learning opportunities, there is a limited number of physical education/adapted physical education (PE/APE) programs in Northern Minnesota that integrate early field practicum into its curriculum. The ongoing restrictions amid COVID-19 pandemic make the university-public school partnership more difficult and thus, it is critical to increase the adaptability of field practicum in the new normal. This study aimed to examine the barriers and facilitators related to the sustainability of university-public school partnership to improve preservice teachers’ practicum experience in reflection of the University of Minnesota Duluth (UMD)’s PE/APE program. This presentation will provide the audience with lessons learned regarding UMD’s partnership with local schools before and during the pandemic.
Method: Key informant interviews and supplementary surveys with 10 PE/APE preservice teachers and three local public school teachers were conducted to investigate the specific aim. Interview and survey questions emphasized on the challenges and facilitators of field practicum, current learning needs, and development of professional skills. All interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim for thematic analysis. Codes were generated to identify common themes and connections among interview data, survey responses, and field notes. NVivo 12 qualitative data analysis software was used, and IRB approval was obtained prior to data collection.
Analysis/Results: Findings indicate that practical guidelines that delineate transportation, gym/space use, safety management amid the pandemic, monitoring student progress, and communication with families especially for APE field practicum are imperative to maintain quality partnership and improve the field experience of key stakeholders (e.g., preservice teachers, K–12 students with and without disabilities, and public school and university supervisors). Additionally, preservice teachers were appreciative of and can greatly benefit from early field practicum as they better identify their strengths and weaknesses in their early learning stages as future PE/APE professionals.
Conclusions: Community-engaged service-learning model supported by the comprehensive practicum guidelines can facilitate the university-public school partnership. Further, early practicum experience can be effective at upholding students’ professional standards and ethics as future PE/APE professionals. More research is warranted to identify the effectiveness of service-learning model-based field practicum on increasing teacher readiness and self-competence in PE/APE preservice teachers.
Teacher Effectiveness With Remote Physical Education instruction 2020–2021
Erin E. CenteioF, University of Hawaii at Manoa; Kevin J. MercierF, Adelphi University; Risto MarttinenF, George Mason University; Jeanne Barcelona, Wayne State Univrsity; Heather E. ErwinF, University of Kentucky; Alex C. GarnF, Louisiana State University; Alba Rodrigues, George Mason University; Karl Richard Hennebach, University of Hawaii at Manoa; Paige Arvidson, Christine Pedder, Wayne State University; John T. FoleyF, State Univ New York-Cortland
Background/Purpose: The COVID-19 pandemic abruptly changed the physical education (PE) environment in schools. Recent data identified challenges to delivering equitable instruction across grade level, geographic region, and the type of district as well as varied levels of teacher effectiveness (Authors et al., 2021). Additional data suggested that teachers struggled with barriers including technology access, student participation, and meeting students’ needs (Authors et al., 2021). Although previous research focused on the preliminary stages of COVID-19 pandemic (spring 2020), this study sought to: 1) understand PE teachers experiences with remote instruction in the United States across the 2020-2021 school year and 2) explore differences in PE teachers experiences as the pandemic continued through the 2020-2021 school year.
Method: PE teachers (n=607; Elem=73%) from 48 states completed a survey identifying their experiences with remote instruction during fall 2020. A total of 206 teachers agreed to participate in follow-up interviews and were subsequently split into high-effectiveness and low-effectiveness towards teaching in an online environment, groups based on a self-reported rating they provided in a survey question. Using a purposeful sampling method, 40 teachers were and will be contacted between June and August 2021 to participate in interviews. Data from completed semi-structured interviews (n=12) are represented in this abstract (Note: if accepted, results from the full data set will be presented).
Analysis/Results: Interviews were transcribed verbatim and sent to participants for member checking. Data was organized and coded, using a collaborative data analysis approach (Richards & Hemphill, 2018). Four themes became prominent within the data. First, teachers had Colorful Definitions of Effective Teaching expressing perceptions that COVID did not change how they enacted effective teaching. However, follow-up explanations depicted how teachers tried to integrate assessments in a linear manner, typically assigning cognitive measures and activity tracking logs. Theme two, Student Mental Health Challenges, emerged as teachers consistently expressed stress, social and emotional health as major barrier because their students struggled through isolation, a lack of social interaction and required more support than teachers ever anticipated. Third, Overcoming Technology Challenges emerged as something that all teachers thought they did well. Some teachers cited initial uncertainty in their skills but all found they got to a point in their integration where they were comfortable and successful. Finally, the fourth theme was the Clear Uncertainty of what Lies Ahead. Even though the COVID-19 pandemic is not new, all teachers noted there was no clear plan for fall 2021 when interviewed during the summer.
Conclusions: It is important to hear teachers shared experiences throughout the COVID-19 pandemic as it provides a deeper understanding of how both teachers and their students were impacted. Results of this study suggest that providing schools and PE teachers with resources to support students’ mental health challenges will be important. Further, the study reinforces the importance of clearly defining the tenets of effective teaching because it has significant implications for curriculum implementation and student learning in the PE setting.
Technology-Related Professional Development Opportunities for PETE Faculty
Jennifer M. Krause, Taemin Ha, Brian D. Dauenhauer, University of Northern Colorado; Kason O’Neil, East Tennessee State University
Background/Purpose: Teacher educators are expected to prepare preservice teachers to successfully integrate technology into teaching (ISTE, 2018; SHAPE America, 2017; CAEP, 2016). All teacher preparation programs, including those in physical education teacher education (PETE), should integrate technology across the program, rather than a standalone technology course, and therefore, all teacher educators should be proficient (Department of Education, 2017). In 2017, 12 Teacher Educator Technology Competencies (TETCs) were established to guide teacher educators in what skills and knowledge should be developed to prepare future teachers to use technology (Graziano et al., 2017). Professional development (PD) is necessary for PETE faculty to develop these skills and knowledge, yet little is known about how PETE faculty learn to teach with and about technology or what opportunities are available. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine the PD opportunities available to PETE faculty related to the TETCs.
Method: This study involved the collection and analysis of physical education-related synchronous PD conference sessions delivered between 2018-2020. Researchers identified and analyzed sessions related to technology from conferences typically attended by PETE faculty. Then, based upon the sessions’ titles and descriptions, researchers identified which of the 12 TETCs were related to each session.
Analysis/Results: Researchers identified 18 live, synchronously delivered conference events across eight different organizations that met the criteria for the study. Within each conference event, researchers used key terms to identify sessions related to technology. The session dates, titles, descriptions, and presenters were recorded. A second research team member examined the initial list of sessions and identified those that were not in agreement. Those were then reviewed by the research team, and those without 100% agreement were eliminated. Ultimately, 129 sessions were included in the study. Then, using a deductive analysis approach, each session was examined to determine which, if any, of the 12 TETCs were related to the session title and/or description. Frequency counts of TETCs per session, per conference, and per organization were calculated. The most frequently identified TETCs among all sessions were TETC #3 (support students’ technology knowledge, skills, attitudes; N=134), TETC #4 (use online tools to enhance teaching/learning; N=102), and TETC #2 (incorporate pedagogical approaches to prepare teacher candidates to use technology; N=86). TETCs #9 (legal/ethical use of technology) and #10 (PD/networking to improve technology in teaching) were not identified in any PD sessions.
Conclusions: Results suggest many opportunities for PETE faculty to engage in PD to improve their ability to teach with technology and prepare future physical education teachers to do the same. PD has been offered to help provide teacher candidates with knowledge and skills to teach with technology, technological pedagogical skills for faculty, and online teaching and learning tools. Unfortunately, few or no opportunities were identified to aid PETE faculty in developing technology skills for differentiating instruction/assessment, global connectivity, legal/ethical use, and troubleshooting. Conference organizers may consider these results when developing conference themes/priorities to attract sessions that are needed to fill the gaps and aid PETE faculty in meeting all 12 of the TETCs.
The Effect of Specialized Content Knowledge in Reciprocal Peer Learning
Tom Madou, Fien Depaepe, KU Leuven; Philip WardF, The Ohio State University; Peter Iserbyt, KU Leuven
Background/Purpose: Reciprocal Peer Learning is an instructional model characterized by students working in pairs exchanging roles of tutor and tutee (Mosston & Ashworth, 2008). This model has proven to be effective for teaching Basic Life Support (BLS) (Madou & Iserbyt, 2020). Effective student tutoring requires different types of content knowledge. The most obvious is the knowledge needed to ‘perform’ BLS which is referred to as Common Content Knowledge (CCK) (Ward & Ayvazo, 2016). CCK can be contrasted with knowledge needed to ‘teach’ BLS which is referred to as Specialized Content Knowledge (SCK) (e.g. discriminating and addressing common errors; Ward & Ayvazo, 2016). Research in peer learning has shown that tutor training improves learning outcomes (Legrain et al., 2003). Metzler (2017) underlines the importance of SCK in this setting by stating that during peer learning “tutors must be able to identify the source of mistakes and provide good learning cues for a next attempt” (p. 300). The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of an online CCK and SCK training versus a CCK only training on learning BLS with university students.
Method: Seventy-seven undergraduate students (25 female, 52 male) in Movement Sciences at a Flemish University were randomly assigned to one of two online trainings. The first training focused on CCK on how to perform BLS technically correct according to international guidelines. The second training focused on SCK emphasizing how to detect and correct three common errors for chest compressions: incorrect hand placement, insufficient compression depth or release and incorrect compression rate. All students were required to complete their assigned training and score at least 90% on an online quiz prior to attending a 45-minute BLS lesson. In this lesson, students learned BLS through the reciprocal peer learning model taught by an experienced teacher blinded to the purpose of the study. One week later the BLS performance of all students was individually assessed using a validated protocol (Whitfield et al., 2003) combining observational data with data collected by a manikin connected to a tablet computer. Inter observer reliability between trained coders was 94% based on 33% of the sample.
Analysis/Results: Shapiro-Wilk testing showed that BLS data for each group were not normally distributed. Accordingly, the Mann-Whitney U testing was used to compare groups. For percentage of chest compressions with an adequate rate, students from the SCK group (Mdn = 92%) outperformed students from the CCK-only group (Mdn = 69%), p<.05. Also, the SCK group showed a significantly higher percentage of fully released compressions (Mdn = 88% vs. Mdn 30% p<.01). Median BLS performance was 89% for the SCK group and 85% for the CCK-only group.
Conclusions: Students in the CCK and SCK group performed significantly better on two out of three clinically relevant performance variables in chest compression compared to students in the CCK-only group. Performing quality chest compressions increases survival rates in case of sudden cardiac arrest. Results show that SCK training positively impacted learning outcomes in reciprocal peer learning.
The Influence of Workplace Stressors on Job Satisfaction of U.S. PETE Faculty
Alyssa Trad, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; Christopher John Kinder, Kim C. GraberF, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign; K. Andrew R. RichardsF, Amelia Mays Woods, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Background/Purpose: Research across the decades has documented workplace stressors associated with the teaching profession. More recently, scholars have shifted focus towards understanding how physical education teacher education (PETE) faculty members experience and perceive the workplace stressors that accompany a career in higher education. Accordingly, the purpose of this study was to understand the interactions among the workplace experience variables of perceived organizational support, marginalization, isolation, and emotional exhaustion, in influencing PETE faculty members’ perceived job satisfaction using structural equation modeling (SEM). Further, we adopted Occupational Socialization Theory (OST) in developing a conceptual framework to understand the relationships among variables.
Method: The present study was cross-sectional and correlational and part of a larger investigation related to the workplace experiences of U.S. PETE faculty members. The sample included 283 faculty members (151 female, 132 male) across 202 different academic institutions. Data were collected through an online survey and included 50 of the 90 total items examining the participant’s workplace perceptions. Preliminary analyses in preparation for latent variable modeling were conducted using IBM SPSS 27.0, whereas all latent variable analyses were conducted using LISREL 10.0. The latent variable modeling began with a concurrent CFA. Further, primary analyses used SEM to evaluate relationships hypothesized in the conceptual model.
Analysis/Results: When considered in relation to the metric underlying individual constructs, all variables correlated significantly. Across latent variable analyses (i.e., CFA and SEM), fit indices were utilized. The initial model run was considered a marginal model fit; therefore, the researchers applied a revised model for rerun. Collectively, the appropriate analysis provided evidence to support the factorial, convergent, and discriminant validity of the measurement model to advance into SEM. The test of the hypothesized model suggested an adequate model fit, C3(141) = 294.56, p < .001; RMSEA = .075 (90% CI = [.066, .085], p < .001); SRMR = .057; NNFI = .962; CFI = .969. Overall, model fit was supported by a ratio of C3/df < 3.00, RMESA and SRMR values < .08, and NNFI and CFI values > .95. While not all hypothesized relationships among the study variables were significant, in general, the findings confirm that the hypothesized influence of perceived organizational support on emotional exhaustion and job satisfaction was partially mediated by marginalization and isolation.
Conclusions: A conceptual model grounded in OST was developed to assist with understanding the relationships among the study variables and was tested through SEM. Future research should seek to build on the results of this study by employing different research methods to examine the influence of the noted workplace stressors for PETE faculty. In conclusion, this study provides insights into the influence of perceived organizational support, marginalization, isolation, and emotional exhaustion on job satisfaction of U.S. PETE faculty members.
The Status of Physical Education in Colorado
Xiaoping Fan, Texas A&M International University; Jaime M. McMullenF, Jennifer M. Krause, Brian D. Dauenhauer, University of Northern Colorado
Background/Purpose: Physical education programs give students the knowledge, physical skills, and confidence to engage in physical activity and sport, which plays a vital role in contributing to students’ physically active lifestyles (Houston & Kulinna, 2014; Peterson, 2013). To inform physical education in Colorado, the PE for All Colorado model policy provides recommendations regarding what quality physical education should look like, closely aligning with Society of Health and Physical Educators (SHAPE) America’s Essential Elements of Physical Education (Colorado Health Foundation, 2016; SHAPE America, 2015). However, there is a lack of evidence about what is actually happening within physical education programs in Colorado. Using the PE for All Colorado model policy as a guiding framework, the purpose of this study was to explore the status of physical education in Colorado. Research questions included: (a) what is the status of physical education in Colorado based on the PE for All model policy’s recommendations? and (b) what are the facilitators and barriers to implementing physical education in schools?
Method: A sequential explanatory mixed method design was utilized in this study consisting of two phases: the administration of a survey (Phase 1); and a semi-structured interview (Phase 2) (Creswell, 2009). Participants in this study were 201 physical education teachers (N=98 elementary schools, N=95 secondary schools, and N=8 K–12 schools) from urban (N=122), suburban (N=54), and rural (N=25) areas in Phase 1, and 12 teachers (N = 5 female and N = 7 male) in Phase 2. The quantitative survey data were analyzed using descriptive statistics through SPSS. Qualitative survey data (i.e., the open-ended responses) and teachers’ responses to interview questions were analyzed with open and axial coding approach, and ultimately, the survey and interview data were combined to interpret the status of physical education.
Analysis/Results: Results are presented in two sections: the status of physical education and the facilitators and barriers to its implementation. Most physical education programs met the recommendations for most components: assessment (90.0%), school funding (71.1%), etc. Some programs only partially met the following components: district funding (57.2%), waivers for physical education (Level 1), etc. Six facilitators and seven barriers related to the implementation of physical education at schools were identified. Facilitators include: requirements for physical education, adequate facilities and equipment in secondary schools, administrator support, parent support, access to community resources, and professional development for physical education teachers. Barriers include: negative perceptions of physical education, marginalization of physical education, limited instruction time in elementary, large class sizes in secondary, lack of attention to policy, limited funding, and lack of a rubric for teacher evaluation.
Conclusions: Colorado is a local-control state, so physical education programs in Colorado schools vary widely. The findings of this study have the potential to act as a reference or guidepost for efforts to improve physical education in Colorado, creating a baseline from which to work. The state, schools, and physical education teachers should consider the PE for All model policy when implementing physical education and should advocate for a quality program.
U.S. PETE Faculty Stress and the Sociopolitics of Higher Education
K. Andrew R. RichardsF, Shelby Ison, University of Illinois; Kim C. GraberF, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign; Amy Mays Woods, Chloe Walsh, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; Wesley J WilsonF, University of Utah
Background/Purpose: Although considerable research has been examined inservice teacher socialization, far less attention has been given to understanding the socialization of physical education teacher education (PETE) faculty members (McEvoy et al., 2015). Importantly, PETE faculty members are positioned to be stewards of the discipline as they advance the field by preparing future teachers, conducting research, and working with local communities (Richards et al., 2017). Some experience tension navigating their teaching, research, and service roles; they may also struggle to manage their personal and professional lives (Graber et al., 2020). These factors, accompanied by the need to navigate challenging sociopolitical department environments (Richards & Fletcher, 2019), may contribute to burnout (Padilla & Thompson, 2016). Drawing from occupational socialization theory, the purpose of this study was to understand U.S. PETE faculty members’ experiences navigating the stress of their work in department and university environments.
Method: This study included physical education teacher educators who were a sub-set of participants from among those who had completed a previous survey as part of a broader investigation (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The 36 participants (20 female, 16 male) primarily identified as White (n = 34; 94.44%) and were on average 48.75 years of age (SD = 10.91). All participants had earned terminal degrees (e.g., PhD, EdD) and were employed at doctoral universities (n = 17; 47.22%), master’s institutions (n = 15; 41.66%), and bachelor’s institutions (n = 4; 11.11%). Data were collected through in-depth, qualitative interviews with each participant that were conducted over the phone of videoconference and lasted 45-60 minutes.
Analysis/Results: A three-person team analyzed the data using a multiphase approach following recommendations for conducting inductive and deductive analyses (Patton, 2015; Richards & Hemphill, 2018). Four themes were developed to summarize the PETE faculty members experiences. Participants perceived and self-imposed ambiguous and high expectations for role performance that contribute to role stress. On the one hand, some participants recognized that department cultures can challenge and marginalize physical education and impose additional stressors. On the other hand, faculty members communicated that identifying personal and professional boundaries can reduce role stress. Further, internal and external networks of support assist in faculty development and help participants persist through stress.
Conclusions: These findings highlight the challenges that PETE faculty members encounter while navigating the sociopolitical environments in which they work. Based on the positionality of PETE and the stressors that faculty experience, PETE faculty who mentor doctoral candidates should consider intentional discussions with mentees related to the successful navigation of university sociopolitics (Richards et al., 2019). New faculty often feel underprepared for the power dynamics of higher education, and this may result in the belief that higher education is less collegial than anticipated (Tierney & Rhoads, 1994), particularly when this topic is not addressed during the doctoral socialization process (Richards & Fletcher, 2019). Finally, self-care and self-advocacy strategies should be included in both doctoral education and continuing faculty development programs because they are critical for developing workplace satisfaction.
Utilizing Personal Biographies to Promote Social and Emotional Learning
Donal Howley, University of North Carolina Greensboro; Caitlin Olive, University of Georgia; Seunghyun Baek, University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Background/Purpose: Increased focus in Physical Education (PE) has been given to how Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) theory and practices are understood and implemented by teachers and students. Drawing on The Collaborative for Academic and Social and Emotional Learning’s (CASEL) Framework for Systemic SEL and social constructivist learning theory, this research reports on the methods and findings of two studies concerned with pre- service teachers and students’ respective utilization of personal biographies to promote SEL in PE in teacher-education and school settings.
Method: Two qualitative case studies were completed with preservice teachers and students respectively. The first study explored how one class of 16 9th grade students (eight girls/eight boys, aged 14-15) utilized personal biographies in an alternative education setting. Each student completed a personal biography and then shared what they had written in PE class to their peers through group processing. They then later reflected on this experience in focus group interviews. For the second study, five preservice teachers completed personal biographies in a Classroom and Behavior Management in Physical Education module. Personal biographies were shared in an open-discussion format in class and the responses and conversation were used to help preservice teachers explore their preconceptions of classroom and behavior management. The Miles, Huberman and Saldana Framework for Qualitative Data Analysis involving data condensation, data display, and drawing and verifying conclusions was implemented in both studies, involving deductive and inductive combinations of comparative and thematic analysis.
Analysis/Results: Findings demonstrate how the utilization of personal biographies allowed teachers and students to draw on and consider prior existing knowledge and experiences to engage in critical self-reflection for present and future learning within and beyond their PE experiences. Taking time to reflect on questions related to their backgrounds helped teachers and students gain further insight into how their personal and social identities and experiences shaped not just their experiences of PE and physical activity, but their broader experiences as people. In doing so, participants developed a deeper sense of self and social awareness through identifying and understanding their own emotions, thoughts, and values and how they have influenced physical activity behavior across contexts, while also learning to understand the perspectives of and empathize with others. Doing so then facilitated teachers and students in making more responsible decisions around appropriate content and behaviors when participating in present and future PE and physical activity experiences.
Conclusions: These two studies highlight the significance of utilizing personal biographies to promote SEL competencies and skills in PE in both teacher education and school settings. In particular, findings emphasize the need to better draw on prior and current knowledge and experience of teachers and students beyond their relationship with PE and physical activity, and to do so in a critically reflective manner that informs, influences, and enhances current and future learning. In particular, there is a need for teachers and students to complete such work together and not in silos to promote intergenerational learning. We recommend further embedding and utilization of personal biographies into teacher-education, continued professional development, and PE settings.
What Is Known About Bullying and Physical Education? A Scoping Review
Mengyi Wei, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; Kim C. GraberF, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign
Background/Purpose: Bullying has been associated with poor academic performance, negative health-related outcomes, and a high likelihood of leaving school early in school-aged children (Juvonen et al., 2011; Kowalski & Limber, 2013). Evidence suggests that children experienced greater bullying behavior in physical education than in the classroom (Stockdale MS et al., 2002). While the majority of research has predominately focused on investigating bullying behaviors in classrooms, less is known in physical education. To our knowledge, only one systematic review has been recently conducted by Jiménez-Barbero et al. (2020). It applied a narrower approach to evaluate the associations between physical education (PE) and school bullying and included 16 peer-reviewed research studies. The current scoping review aimed to generate a more comprehensive overview of physical education studies related to bullying.
Method: This scoping review was outlined and guided by Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews Extension for Scoping Reviews Checklist (PRISMA-Sc; Tricco et al., 2018). Six electronic databases were searched to identify peer-reviewed literature that met the inclusion criteria and were published through July 15, 2021. All English-language articles published in peer-reviewed journals that focused on bullying and physical education were included.
Analysis/Results: In total, 39 articles conducted in 12 countries were included in this scoping review. Among all selected studies, 30 were research articles, and nine were practical and commentary articles. In terms of the measurement of bullying in PE, 15 different self-reported surveys/questionnaires were used to identify forms of bullying (e.g., physical, verbal, social) in PE. In addition, observations and individual interviews were conducted to investigate participants’ feelings and perceptions towards bullying and anti-bullying interventions. Importantly, results from the current scoping review identified individual-, school-, and family-level factors that trigger bullying in physical education. The impacts of bullying in physical education, such as decreased physical activity participation, less desire and enjoyment of physical activity, and a high risk of dropping out, have also been discussed. Lastly, cooperative games and interventions that promote students’ social emotional skills (e.g., empathy, decision making, social competence) and assist PE teachers in creating a caring climate seem to have effectiveness in reducing and preventing bullying in PE.
Conclusions: The current study comprehensively reviewed existing research, commentary, and practical studies on physical education and bullying. Results from the study highlighted the importance of adopting social ecological perspectives in addressing bullying behavior and guiding anti-bullying interventions in PE. Physical activities that can potentially promote children’s social and emotional learning are also needed to reduce and prevent bullying in PE. More evidence towards effective anti-bullying interventions for physical activity settings, such as PE, is required.
Workplace Experiences of Physical Educators With and Without National Board Certification
Jeongkyu Kim, Mengyi Wei, Amelia Mays Woods, K. Andrew R. RichardsF, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Background/Purpose: Given that physical educators tend to be perceived as “specials” teachers, responsible for a non-core subject (Cruickshank et al., 2020), they often contend with marginalization (Laureano et al., 2014). In previous research, physical education National Board Certified Teachers (NBCTs) reported enhanced self-efficacy and confidence in their teaching with reduced feelings of marginality (Gaudreault & Woods, 2012a, 2012b; Woods & Rhoades, 2013). Nevertheless, direct comparisons between the perceived workplace experiences of physical education NBCTs and non-NBCTs have not yet been made. Through the lens of role socialization theory (Richards, 2015), factors linked to socialization that influence teachers’ perceived workplace experience include marginalization, isolation, role ambiguity, role conflict, role overload, resilience, and emotional exhaustion. The current investigation adopted role socialization theory to examine the workplace experiences of physical education NBCTs and non-NBCTs while accounting for teaching level (elementary vs. secondary).
Method: The current, cross-sectional and exploratory investigation used a matched case-control design with one-to-one matching (Schultz & Grimes, 2002; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013). Accordingly, NBCTs were matched with non-NBCTs based on (a) gender, (b) highest degree earned, (c) teaching level, and (d) years of teaching experience. A recruitment email was sent to 500 physical education NBCTs and 420 physical education Non-NBCTs. In total, data from 148 inservice physical education teachers from the U.S. were included in this study. Using a case-control design, 74 NBCTs were identified and matched with 74 non-NBCTs. Marginalization, isolation, PE matters, teacher matters, role ambiguity, role conflict, role overload, resilience, and emotional exhaustion were measured as the dependent variables using five previously validated instruments. Years of teaching experiences, which has shown to influence teachers’ workplace experiences (Baldwin, 2015), was included as a covariate in the models.
Analysis/Results: A 2x2 (NBCT Status x Teaching Level) Factorial MANCOVA revealed that, while the main effect for teaching level was not significant, there was a significant main effect for NBCT status and a significant teaching level x NBCT status interaction effect. Next, a series of follow-up univariate tests were conducted using 2 x 2 (NBCT Status x Teaching Level) Factorial ANCOVAs. Results indicated that NBCTs felt less isolated than their non-NBCTs counterparts. NBCTs generally perceived that they mattered more than non-NBCTs, especially at the secondary level. Additionally, teachers with NBCT certification reported higher levels of role conflict and role overload than those participants without NBCT status. However, the ANCOVA models for marginalization, role ambiguity, resilience, and emotional exhaustion revealed that the main effects for NBCT status and teaching level, as well as the associated interaction terms, were not significant.
Conclusions: This study highlights important connections between NBCT status and teachers’ workplace experiences that both relate to and extend previous research. In the future, scholars should examine the mechanisms that underlie reported differences between NBCTs and non-NBCTs. Such work could adopt both qualitative and quantitative methods. Longitudinal studies that track inservice teachers through the NBCT process would be particularly valuable in understanding how the process leads to changes in the way physical educators both teach and experience their workplaces over time.