1,291
Views
4
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

The Wondrous East in the Renaissance Geographical Imagination: Marco Polo, Fra Mauro and Giovanni Battista Ramusio

Pages 215-234 | Published online: 01 May 2012
 

Abstract

During the Renaissance, readers of accounts about the Far East faced the problem of assessing sources from a range of periods, often produced by writers who were not eyewitnesses. This article considers the responses of mapmakers and geographers to claims about the East by analysing expressions of belief, surprise, doubt and incredulity on maps and in geographical works. By considering examples from the late medieval period to the seventeenth century, it reveals important continuities to the ways in which the East, and Marco Polo, were perceived before and after sustained European contact with the Far East began. Particular attention is paid to Fra Mauro, maker of the most extensively annotated map before the age of oceanic travel to Asia; and to Giovanni Battista Ramusio, editor of the first multi-volume travel compendium.

Acknowledgements

The author thanks Alfred Hiatt, Asa Simon Mittman, Jennifer Spinks and the journal's referees for the helpful comments on this article. I am grateful for the support of the Leverhulme Trust.

Notes

For an overview of perceptions of the wonders of the East, see Daston and Park (Citation1998) and Wittkower (Citation1942: 25–66).

For the genealogy of surviving manuscripts, see Polo (Citation1938: 40–42).

For scholarly responses, see, e.g., Grafton, Shelford, and Siraisi (Citation1992: Ch. 3).

For medieval maps, see Edson (Citation2007). The primary purpose of such works was not a precise relational understanding of topography, but a comparative overview of the earth's parts, history and inhabitants across time as well as space.

Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Département des Manuscrits, Ms Espagnol 30. For a facsimile, see Grosjean (Citation1978).

Larner (1999: 135). For other examples, see Larner (1999: 191–194).

Grosjean (1978: 85), caption K: “açò és molt provada cosa”.

See, e.g. Westrem (Citation2001): caption 53: “quinque milia civitatum et diversissimo gentes monstruoso vultu, ritu, et habitu vario, plus quam credi possit”.

Before this date, there was some knowledge of the Geographia in the Latin West and its diffusion occurred over centuries in many intellectual and cultural settings. See Gautier Dalché (Citation2009: Ch. III) and Gautier Dalché (Citation2007, esp. 287).

One exception is the Castilian embassy, led by Ruy González de Clavijo in 1403, to the court of Timur in 1403–1406; for this, see González de Clavijo (Citation1999).

Venice, Biblioteca Marciana. The dating of the map is a complex problem. The most detailed and persuasive argument posits c. 1448–1454 for the map's geographical information and 1455–1460 for the depiction of Earthly Paradise at one corner (Cattaneo Citation2011: 38–46).

The map is too large to be reproduced here in its entirety so as to make captions and illustrations visible. For a published facsimile, transcription and translation, see Falchetta (Citation2006); this includes a full-size reproduction of the map on CD-Rom. For a printed facsimile and transcription, see Fra Mauro (1956). My translations from this map are based on those in Falchetta's edition; I have made occasional changes. I am grateful to Glyn Davies for his assistance. Unless otherwise stated, all translations in this article are my own.

For Fra Mauro's possible sources and models, see Falchetta (2006: 36–55). For a brief biography and references to the surviving documentary evidence, see Cattaneo (Citation2011: 35–38).

Falchetta (Citation2006: *2834): “Questa opera, fata a contemplation de questa illustrissima signoria”.

For links between emotion and cognition in the apprehension of marvels, see Daston and Park (1998: 180, 187–190); for wonder, pleasure/horror and ethnography in English and French writing from the late sixteenth to eighteenth centuries, see Campbell (Citation1999). Unlike the examples considered by Campbell, the cartographic cases considered here offer limited evidence of horror, and less still of pleasure, among the writers concerned: the mapmakers’ and geographers’ emotions relate more closely to the intellectual implications of particular anecdotes.

For an argument about how Fra Mauro's selections from, and uses of, his sources suggest that he was exposed to humanist ideas, see Cattaneo (2011: 253–258).

Falchetta (2006: *779): “citade, castelli, inumerabel populi uarietà, condition, costumi, gran potentie de signori, gran numero de elephanti, diversità de monstri quasi incredibili e de homeni e de animali … orribel bestie … fructi pretiosi e legni et herbe e radice virtuose e diversità de çoie … e molte altre cosse che qui dir non posso”. Falchetta's commentary lists the texts to which Fra Mauro is referring.

Falchetta (2006: *793): “… sono molti Regni e molte provincie, le qual io non meto per non haver luogo, unde ho convenudo lassar molte cosse de meço e tuor quele me ha parso più note et etiam non ho fato mention de molti fiumi e monti e deserti in diverse parte e maxime verso l'ostro in arabia e verso tramontana in le parte … E similiter ho convenuto lassar de dir de le novità e de costumi e condition de populi magnificentie e potentie de signori e gran diversità de animal e de altre cosse sono infinite.”

Falchetta (2006: *707): “Alguni scriveno che in queste Indie sono molte diversità de monstri sì de monei come de animali, ma perché a queste cosse pochi dano fede qui non ne faço nota, salvo che pur à certo de alguni animali, come sono serpe le qual se dice haver vij teste. Ancora de qui sono formige grandissime e quasi che qui dir non ardisco pareno cani. Questo può esser che'l sia specie de animali che sia simile a le formige.”

For example, he uses this method to cast aspersions on the view that that Alexander the Great had imprisoned Gog and Magog in the Mount Caspian region; see Falchetta (2006: *2403).

For Ctesias, see Campbell (Citation1988: 47–51).

Falchetta (2006: *98): “Perché ad alguni par da nuovo che io parli de questa parte meridional, la qual quasi està incognita a li antichi, perhò io respondo che tuto questo desegno da sayto in suso io l’ò habuto da queli proprij che sono nasudi qui, che sono stà religiosi, i qual cum le suo man me hano desegnato tute queste provincie e citade e fiumi e monti cum li suo nomi.”

For this suggestion, see Falchetta (2006: *149), commentary.

Ibid.

Ibid.: *149: “cusì affermano tuti queli che navegano quel mar e che habitano quele insule”.

Romer (Citation2001: 3.90).

Falchetta (2006: *1043): “Perché sono molti cosmographi e doctissimi homeni i qual scriveno che in questa affrica, maxime ne le mauritanie, esservi molti monstruosi homeni e animali, parme neccessario qui notar el parer mio, non perhò che io vogli contradir a le autorità de tanti, ma per dir la diligentia ho habuta in inquirir tute le novità se à possudo investigar per molti anni de questa affrica, commençando da libia, barbaria e tute le mauritanie … e per tuti queli regni de negri non trovi mai alguno me ne sapesse dar aviso de quelo io trovo scripto da queli; vunde non ne sapiando altro non ne posso testificar, lasso a çercar a queli che sono curiosi de intender tal novitade.”

The scanty evidence on Fra Mauro's life neither supports nor denies this, but one of his collaborators did travel; see Edson (2007: 142).

Falchetta (2006: *220): “e questo io dico a satisfation del testimoniar de molti”.

Ibid.: (*2212): “e se questo se crede se pò ancor creder de lago de andaman”.

Ibid., (*579, *155, and *316, respectively).

Falchetta (2006: *316): “Qui sono serpe longe sete pie”; Falchetta (2006: *707).

Cattaneo (Citation2011: Ch. V and VI). For bibliography on earlier analyses, see Cattaneo (Citation2011: 188–191).

Quoted in Polo (Citation1928), CCX: “istà a Vinegia in sul Rialto apichato cholle chatene ch'onnun el può legere”, translated in Falchetta (Citation2006: 61).

Falchetta (2006: 61).

Ibid.: (*2834): “non è possibile a l'intellecto human senza qualche superna demostration verificar in tuto questa cosmographia over mapamundi, de la qual se può haver qualche noticia più a degustation cha a supplimento del desiderio”.

Ibid.: (*2834): “la vita brieve e l'experimento fallace, resta che'l conciede che cum longença de tempo tal opera se possi meglio descriver over haverne più certa noticia de quel habuto lui”.

Ibid.: (*2834): “io … ho solicitado verificar la scriptura cum la experientia, investigando per molti anni e praticando cum persone degne de fede, le qual hano veduto ad ochio quelo che qui suso fedelmente demostro”.

For these contexts, see Frisch (Citation2004) and Shapiro (Citation2000).

Ravenstein (Citation1908: 84): “Nit ferner hot uns tholomeus die welt beschriben aber ander hat uns Marco Polo und Mandavilla geschriben.” Georg Glockenden illuminated the globe. Larner (Citation1999: 149): Behaim is the first mapmaker to explicitly mention Marco Polo on his work.

(Ravenstein 1908: 88): “Im lezten buch marco polo im 16 capitel findt man geschrieben dass das volckh in diser jnsul angama genant hab hundts haupt augen und zähn gleich wic die hundte und das es vast ungestalt leutt sollen sein und wildt wan sy vast lieber menschen flaisch essen dan ander flaisch.”

The passage appears in Moule at p. 378.

Ravenstein (1908: 63, 88). Moule ed., 44–46: Ramusio based his edition on the Latin translation by the Dominican friar Francesco Pipino, and added elements from the other recensions. Pipino had prepared his translation between 1310 and 1316, from a translation into Venetian of Marco Polo's Divisament; see C. W. Dutschke, “Francesco Pipino and the Manuscripts of Marco Polo's ‘Travels’”, PhD dissertation, UCLA, Citation1993, 512.

The first edition of vol. III appeared in 1556, and was followed in 1559 by the first edition of vol. II.

Subsequent references to Ramusio are from this edition.

Ramusio: VI, 21–22: “Delle qual parti, quella verso mezogiorno i capitani portoghesi a’ tempi nostri prima di tutti hanno scoperta; quella verso tramontana e greco levante il magnifico messer Marco Polo, onorato gentiluomo veneziano, già quasi trecento anni, come piú copiosamente si leggerà nel suo libro … ”

Similarly, for the sixteenth-century travellers Jean de Léry and Sir Walter Ralegh, the marvels described classical authors such as Pliny seemed less unlikely in the light of their own experiences of marvels in America; see Hartog (Citation1988: 308).

Ramusio: VI, 23: “E benché in questo libro siano scritte molte cose che pareno fabulose e incredibili, non si deve però prestargli minor fede nell'altre ch'egli narra, che sono vere … E chi leggerà Strabone, Plinio, Erodoto e altri simili scrittori antichi, vi troverà di molto piú maravigliose e fuor d'ogni credenza. Ma che diremo degli scrittori de’ nostri tempi, che narrano dell'Indie occidentali, trovate per il signor don Cristoforo Colombo? non dipingono monti d'oro e d'argento incredibili? arbori, frutti e animali di forma maravigliosa?

Ibid., VI, 23: “Degli animali, frutti e piante, ogni ora ne vengono copiosamente portate in Italia, e si conosce ch'hanno scritto la verità”.

Ibid., VI, 23: “E molte volte ho fra me stesso pensato, sopra il viaggio fatto per terra da questi nostri gentiluomini veneziani, e quello fatto per mare per il predetto signor don Cristoforo, qual di questi due sia piú maraviglioso.”

These included Martin Waldseemüller, Sebastian Cabot and Pierre Desceliers.

For a facsimile, see Mercator (Citation1961).

Ludovicus Vartomannus lib. 3 Indiae cap. 27”.

ex ore naucleri sui Indi”.

cui Jo. Mandevillanus, autor licet alioqui fabulosus, in situ tamen locorum non contemnendus”.

Ortelius (Citation1567):

Quod vero Samotra hodie non sit peninsula, post Ptolemei tempora a continente oceani aestu avulsam esse verisimile est: praeterea si tibi isthmu[?] quo Samotra[m] Malacae iungas finxeris, optime cum forma Aureae chersoneses a Ptolemeo descriptae quadrabit.

Translations, with minor amendments, are from Schilder (Citation1986: IV, 73, 76–77).

omnibusque insuper … nostram Europam, aliasque mundi partes, longe antecellere videatur, vt merito orbis terrarum paradysus dici possit”.

Scafi (Citation2006: 270–277; for other examples pre-dating Ortelius's map, see Scafi (Citation2006: 291–292).

Varia est Geographorum sententiae de Javae Minoris situ: sunt eum qui ex Marci Pauli Veneti Lib. 3, cap. 13. sub Tropico Capricorni eam locant: alii Sumatram ipsi Paulo Ven. esse Minorem Javam, tum ex locorum distantiis ac situ, tum ex aliis circumstantiis, contendunt: Sunt etiam qui Insulam Cambabam Iavam Minorem dici volunt. Nos etiamnum in re dubia certi hic aliquid affirmare noluimus.” For a facsimile, see Stevenson (Citation1907).

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.