The Martial Temple in the Song

ABSTRACT

The Martial Temple during China's Song dynasty (960–1279) was the locus of the government's efforts to define the scope of correct martial activity with the entire empire. Correct martial behaviour was defined by the selection of 72 martial exemplars, generals and strategists from history, as well as men who helped found the dynasty. These exemplars were the counterpoint to the Civil Temple that faced it, where Confucius and his 72 close disciples were worshipped. Although the Civil and Martial Temples were sites for worship by the emperor, there is some evidence that there were branch temples around the empire. While the civil exemplars were historically fixed, the martial exemplars were fluid and the subject of regular debate. The martial exemplars, unlike the civil exemplars, were often men from non-elite backgrounds who were far more accessible to the non-elite population of the Song. As such, they were paradigmatic models of non-elite, male service to the state. The Martial Temple was a ritual site that established universal guidelines for legitimate martial practice. Exemplary figures would receive sacrifices not only from the Song state but also quite possibly from subsequent dynastic governments. Some of the chosen exemplars were later absorbed into popular culture through theatre and novels because of that ritual status. Others proceeded in the opposite direction, raised to prominence in literature, and then moved into the Martial Temple.

KEYWORDS:

• Song dynasty
• Tang dynasty
• Martial Temple
• violence
• confucianism

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 For Buddhist monastic communities in China, see Shahar (2008). For their Japanese counterparts, see Adolphson (2007, 2016).

2 We lack evidence to characterize the day to day place of violence in Song Chinese society, so I cannot contrast licit government force with licit private uses of force, nor distinguish attitudes toward sub-criminal uses of force. Obviously murder, assault or robbery that reached the court system was politically and likely socially unacceptable. But domestic violence, particularly by the senior male in a household toward any and all members of that household that did not result in a legal complaint, may have been widespread. Some traces of the problems of domestic violence are dealt with in Yuan Cai’s advice manual for households. This was obviously specific to elite households. See Yuan Cai (1984).

3 He was also known as Lü Shang 呂尚, Lü Wang 呂望, or Jiang Ziya 姜子牙.

4 The dating in the passage is problematic as it claims to have happened both on the 16th day of the lunar month and the renshen day, which was the 17th day of that month, corresponding the 18th of October.

5 The new entries were: Guan Ying 灌嬰(d. 176), Gěng Chún 耿純(d. 37), Wang Ba 王霸 (d. 59), Zhài Zūn 祭遵 (d. 33), Ban Zhao 班超 (32–102)、Western Jin’s 西晉 Wang Hui王渾 (223–297), Eastern Jin’s 東晉 Zhou Fang周訪 (730–800), Song’s 宋 Shěn Qìngzhī 沈慶之 (386–465), Later Wei’s 後魏 Li Chong 李崇 (455–525), Fù Yǒng 傅永 (434–516), Northern Qi’s 北齊Duàn Sháo 段韶 (d. 571), Later Zhou’s 後周 Lǐ Bì李弼 (494–557), Tang’s 唐Qín Shūbǎo 秦叔寶 (d. 638), Zhāng Gōngjǐn 張公謹 (594–632), Táng Xiūjǐng 唐休璟 (627–712), 渾瑊 (736–799), Hún Jiān 裴度 (736–800), Lǐ Gūangyán 李光顏 (761–826), Lǐ Sù 李愬 (773–821), Zhèng Tián 鄭畋 (825–883), Liang’s 梁 Gé Cóngzhōu 葛從周 (d. 916), Later Tang’s 後唐 Zhōu Déwēi 周德威 (d. 919), Fú Cúnshěn 符存審 (862–924), aka Fu Cun or Li Cunshen. Those recommended to be removed: Wei’s 魏 Wu Qi 吳起, Qi’s 齊 Sun Bin孫臏, 趙廉頗、Han’s 漢 Han Xin 韓信, Peng Yue 彭越, Zhou Yafu 周亞夫 (d. 143 BCE), 段紀明、魏鄧艾、Shu’s蜀Guan Yu 關羽 and Zhang Fei 張飛、Jin’s 晉 Du Yuankai杜元凱、Tao Kan 陶侃, Northern Qi’s 北齊 Murong 慕容紹宗、Liang’s 梁 Wang Sengbian 王僧辯、Chen’s 陳 Wu Mingche吳明徹, Sui’s 隋 Yang Su 楊素, He Ruobi 賀若弼、Shi Wansui 史萬歲, Tang’s 唐 Li Guangbi 李光弼, Wang Xiajie 王孝傑, Zhang Qiqiu 張齊丘, and Guo Yuanzhen郭元振.

6 Song Taizu’s civil accompanying official was Zhao Pu趙普, who the first Ming emperor would specifically reject as a martial exemplar.

7 For the Mongol military system, see Ch‘i-ch‘ing (1978).