Beyond minerals: broadening ‘economies of violence’ in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo

Abstract

This paper expands current understandings on resource wars by arguing for a comprehensive ‘economies of violence’ that considers the wider range of activities that rebel groups are engaged in beyond minerals. Using evidence from fieldwork in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo together with recent scholarship, this paper draws on six secondary economies to construct a broader political economy of Congo's divergent natural-resource wealth. It then considers how the engagement of armed groups in these activities creates opportunities, alternative livelihoods and governance structures, as well as new forms of conflict, and what these processes may hold for the future of the region.

[Au-delà des minéraux : l'extension des ‘économies de violence’ dans l'est de la République Démocratique du Congo]. Cette étude développe les recherches actuelles sur les guerres des ressources en argumentant en faveur d'une prise en compte des 'économies de violence' qui comprennent la plus large gamme d'activités dans lesquelles les groupes de rebelles se sont engagés, au-delà de l'extraction des minéraux. En utilisant les résultats des recherches sur le terrain dans l'est de la RDC et les recherches récentes, cette étude décrit six économies secondaires pour représenter une économie politique plus large de la richesse divergente des ressources minérales du Congo. Cette étude examine ensuite comment l'engagement des groupes armés dans ces activités crée des opportunités, des modes de subsistance alternatifs et des structures de gouvernance, ainsi que de nouvelles formes de conflits et ce que ces processus peuvent impliquer pour l'avenir de la région.

Mots-clés : guerres des ressources ; République Démocratique du Congo ; économies parallèles ; économies de violence ; malédiction des ressources naturelles

Keywords:

• resource wars
• Democratic Republic of Congo
• parallel economies
• violent economies
• resource curse

Acknowledgements

This research is funded by the Harry Frank Guggenheim Foundation. The work reported here also benefited from early support from Utah State University's Vice President of Research, Research Catalyst Seed Grant.

Notes

Interview, Interactive Radio for Justice, 9 November 2010.

Interview, Butembo, October 2010.

Interview, Ruhenena, October 2012.

Interview, Butembo, October 2010.

Observed and noted in several interviews with respondents in Lubero Territory during the autumn of 2009 by the author.

Interview, Lubero, October 2010.

The exact number has yet to be quantified. According to a 2001 UN report, for example, approximately 20,000 to 30,000 Mayi-Mayi were said to be active in the two Kivu provinces.

Personal observations by the author, autumn 2009 and 2012.

Tracasseries is often and widely used as a general term, for example, illegal taxes, fees for entering markets, roadblocks, theft and rape. More generally it relates to harassments and annoyance (Rouw and Willems 2010).