Promoting Women’s Political Participation in Tanzania: Assessing Voluntary Gender Quotas in CCM’s and CHADEMA’s Constitutions

Abstract

In response to the low numbers of women in elected positions of power, Tanzania reserves special seats for women in parliament and local governance structures. Consequently, the special seats system remains one of the main pathways for women’s access to political seats. Despite political parties’ role in nominating women for special seats, concerns linger regarding their internal commitment to advancing women’s political participation. This article inspects the constitutions of Chama cha Mapinduzi (CCM, the Revolutionary Party) and Chama cha Demokrasia na Maendeleo (CHADEMA, Party of Democracy and Development) to assess whether there are voluntary gender quotas for increasing women’s political participation in political parties’ leadership positions and elections. While the two parties’ constitutions include principles of gender equality and non-discrimination, they contain minimal and inconsistent measures for women to attain positions in the party leadership, its decision-making organs and candidate lists. Various constraints, including the competition caused by the First Past the Post electoral system, challenges associated with the implementation of the special seats system, loopholes in the legal framework, weaknesses of women’s political parties’ wings, lack of competition from other political parties, and gendered social norms account for CCM and CHADEMA’s reluctance to adopt voluntary gender quotas.

Keywords:

• women’s political participation
• voluntary gender quotas
• affirmative action
• political parties
• constitutions
• democracy
• CCM
• CHADEMA
• Tanzania

Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank Women in Law and Development in Africa – Tanzania and Tanzania Centre for Democracy (TCD) for assigning her to undertake a gender analysis of political parties’ internal documents. The document review, interviews and validation meetings provided great initial insights and impetus to pursue this article. She would like to thank the Office of the Registrar of Political Parties and leaders of political parties and their respective women’s and youth wings, particularly the staff at CHADEMA and CCM headquarters, for providing invaluable data that backed up key arguments in this article.

Notes

1 M.Y. Yoon, ‘Special Seats for Women in Parliament and Democratization: The Case of Tanzania’, Women’s Studies International Forum, 41, 2 (2013), pp. 143–9.

2 M.L. Krook, ‘Quota Laws for Women in Politics: Implications for Feminist Practice’, Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society, 15, 3 (2008), pp. 345–68.

3 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, 18 December 1979, available at https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b3970.html, retrieved 21 October 2022; African Union, Protocol to the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa, 11 July 2003, available at https://www.refworld.org/docid/3f4b139d4.html, retrieved 21 October 2022; Beijing Declaration and Platform of Action, adopted at the Fourth World Conference on Women, 27 October 1995, available at https://www.refworld.org/docid/3dde04324.html, retrieved 21 October 2022.

4 V.M. Lihiru, ‘Exploring Suitable Electoral Systems for Promotion of Women’s Representation in Tanzania and Rwanda’, African Studies Quarterly, 21, 3 (2022), pp. 61–75.

5 A.B. Makulilo, ‘The Independent Candidate Case by the African Court of Human and Peoples’ Rights Revisited’, International Journal of Human Rights and Constitutional Studies, 5, 2 (2017), pp. 130–43.

6 Yoon, ‘Special Seats for Women in Parliament and Democratization’.

7 Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania, 1977, Cap. 2, Revised Edition (R.E.) 2002.

8 Elections Act 1985, Cap. 343, R.E. 2002.

9 Yoon, ‘Special Seats for Women in Parliament and Democratization’.

10 V.M. Lihiru, ‘The 2020 CHADEMA Special Seats Dispute in Tanzania: Does the National Electoral Commission Comply with the Law?’, Journal of African Elections, 20, 2 (2021), pp. 102–19.

11 In the general election of 1995, the main opposition party was the National Convention for Construction and Reform – Mageuzi, popularly known as NCCR–Mageuzi. In 2000 and 2005, NCCR–Mageuzi was succeeded as main opposition party by the Civic United Front.

12 As an overseer of the implementation of the Political Parties Act, the Assistant Registrar of Political Party, Sisty Nyahoza, was asked about political parties’ compliance with Section 6 A (5) of the Political Parties Amendment Act, 2019, which requires political parties to adopt voluntary gender quotas to promote the principle of ‘gender, youth and social inclusion in the (a) formulation and implementation of its policies; (b) nomination of candidates for elections; and (c) election of its leaders’: interviews with Sisty Nyahoza, 7 March 2022 and 14 April 2023.

13 CCM and CHADEMA leaders, including leaders of their women’s and youth wings, were asked to share internal mechanisms for ensuring that women are in leadership positions and candidate lists. When making these reflections, the guidance given was that political parties should refer to their internal policy documents, particularly their constitutions, and their actual practice. These interviews took place in March 2022 and April 2023.

14 The staff of five prominent organisations working in democracy and gender inclusion were asked to reflect on their work in strengthening the inclusion of women in political parties, the strengths and weaknesses of political parties’ policy documents, and how best to improve them. These organisations included the Legal and Human Rights Centre, Tanzania Media Women’s Association, Women in Law and Development in Africa, Tangible Initiatives for Local Development Tanzania and Tanzania Centre for Democracy. These interviews took place in February 2022 and April 2023.

15 Two academics from the Political Science Department of the University of Dar es Salaam were asked to provide expert opinions on the reluctance of CCM and CHADEMA to include women in leadership positions and candidate lists. These interviews took place in February 2022 and April 2023.

16 A.B. Makulilo, ‘Where There Is Power, Women Are Not: Rethinking Women and Politics in Tanzania’, The African Review: A Journal of African Politics, Development and International Affairs, 46, 2 (2019), pp. 349–65.

17 International IDEA, ‘Women’s Political Participation’, African Barometer (Stockholm, International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, 2021), available at https://www.idea.int/sites/default/files/publications/womens-political-participation-africa-barometer-2021.pdf, retrieved 3 February 2022.

18 A.M. Tripp, I. Casimiro, J. Kwesiga and A. Mungwa, African Women’s Movements: Changing Political Landscapes (New York, Cambridge University Press, 2008).

19 M. Kurki, ‘Democracy and Conceptual Contestability: Reconsidering Conceptions of Democracy in Democracy Promotion’, International Studies Review, 12, 3 (2010), pp. 362–86.

20 R. Meena, M. Rusimbi and C. Israel, ‘Women and Political Leadership: Facilitating Factors in Tanzania’ (Dar Es Salaam, African Leadership for Sustainable Development [UONGOZI] Institute, 2017), available at https://uongozi.or.tz/newsite/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/Women-and-Political-Leadership_online.pdf, retrieved 5 March 2023.

21 UNWOMEN, ‘Women’s Representation in Local Government: A Global Analysis’, Working Paper (New York, UNWOMEN, 2021), available at https://www.unwomen.org/en/digital-library/publications/2022/01/womens-representation-in-local-government, retrieved 4 December 2022.

22 Inter-Parliamentary Union, ‘Global and Regional Averages of Women in National Parliaments’, available at https://data.ipu.org/women-averages?month=4&year=2023&op=Show+averages&form_build_id=form-OcZIFSzv3HZn-J9fau2ont_sn3tpJBLojZtWwFfpDQA&form_id=ipu__women_averages_filter_form, retrieved 13 March 2023.

23 Her Excellency President Samia Suluhu Hassan, President of the United Republic of Tanzania, and Dr Tulia Ackson, Speaker of the National Assembly of Tanzania.

24 The conduct of the 2020 general elections was marred by internet interruptions, arrests and violence by security forces both on the mainland and in Zanzibar: Tanzania Election Watch, ‘Not Free, Not Fair: Final Observation Report on the General Elections Held in Tanzania on October 28, 2020’, available at https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/s3.sourceafrica.net/documents/120910/Tanzania-Elections-Watch-Final-Observation.pdf, retrieved 15 March 2022.

25 Lihiru, ‘The 2020 CHADEMA Special Seats Dispute in Tanzania’.

26 National Electoral Commission, ‘Observers’ Briefing on the Preparedness for Tanzania’s 2020 General Elections’ (unpublished report, 2020).

27 Lihiru, ‘Exploring Suitable Electoral Systems for Promotion of Women’s Representation in Tanzania and Rwanda’.

28 This is according to Article 66 (b) and (e) of the 1977 Constitution (Cap. 2, R.E. 2002).

29 According to records available in the Office of the Registrar of Political Parties, out of the 19 registered political parties, two political parties – Sauti ya Umma and CCM – have female chairpersons. These are Bertha Kango Mpata from Sauti ya Umma and Samia Suluhu Hassan from CCM. UDP and NCCR–Mageuzi have female general secretaries, Saum Rashid and Martha Chiomba, respectively.

30 R. Shayo, ‘Women’s Participation in Party Politics during the Multiparty Era in Africa: The Case of Tanzania’, EISA Occasional Paper no. 34 (Auckland Park, Electoral Institute of Southern Africa, 2005).

31 R. Shayo, ‘“Gender Equality” and “Support for Women and Youth Wings” in Parties and Political Development in Tanzania’, EISA Research Report (Auckland Park, Electoral Institute of Southern Africa, 2005).

32 M. Mmuya and A. Chaligha, Political Parties and Democracy in Tanzania (Dar es Salaam, Dar es Salaam University Press, 1994).

33 C.R. Sulley, ‘Democracy within Parties: Electoral Consequences of Candidate Selection Methods in Tanzania’, Party Politics, 28, 2 (2022), pp. 261–71.

34 Makulilo, ‘Where There Is Power, Women Are Not’.

35 Lihiru, ‘Exploring Suitable Electoral Systems for Promotion of Women’s Representation in Tanzania and Rwanda’.

36 Makulilo, ‘Where There Is Power, Women Are Not’.

37 A. Phillips, Which Equalities Matter? (Cambridge, Polity Press, 1999).

38 Ibid.

39 C. Bih-er, C. Clark, and J. Clark, Women in Taiwan Politics: Overcoming Barriers to Women’s Participation in a Modernizing Society (Boulder, Lynne Rienner, 1990).

40 Krook, ‘Quota Laws for Women in Politics’.

41 E. Varikas, ‘Une répresentation en tant que femme? Réflexions critiques sur la demande de la parité des sexes’, Nouvelles questions féministes, 16, 2 (1995), pp. 81–127.

42 Ibid.

43 L. Young, Feminists and Party Politics (Vancouver, UBC Press, 2000), see chapter ‘Theorizing Feminist Strategy and Party Responsiveness’.

44 Makulilo, ‘Where There Is Power, Women Are Not’.

45 M.Y. Yoon, ‘Explaining Women’s Legislative Representation in Sub-Saharan Africa’, Legislative Studies Quarterly, 29, 3 (2004), pp. 447–68.

46 R. M. Kanter, ‘Some Effects of Proportions on Group Life: Skewed Sex Ratios and Responses to Token Women’, American Journal of Sociology, 82, 5 (1977), pp. 965–90.

47 Inter-Parliamentary Union, ‘Women in Parliament in 2022: The Year in Review’, available at https://www.ipu.org/resources/publications/reports/2023-03/women-in-parliament-2022, retrieved 5 April 2023.

48 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), Article 21. UDHR was passed under United Nations General Assembly Resolution 217 (111) on 10 December 1948. See also Article 25 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Tanzania ratified this 1966 Covenant in 1976: available at https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?chapter=4&clang=_en&mtdsg_no=IV-4&src=IND, retrieved 23 February 2022.

49 United Nations and World Conference on Women, ‘Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action: Beijing +5 Political Declaration and Outcome’, Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing, China, 4–15 September 1995: available at https://www.icsspe.org/system/files/Beijing%20Declaration%20and%20Platform%20for%20Action.pdf, retrieved 23 February 2022.

50 S. Geiger, TANU Women: Gender and Culture in the Making of Tanganyikan Nationalism, 1955–65 (Portsmouth, Heinemann, 1997).

51 Ibid.

52 Preamble of the 1977 CCM constitution, 2022 edition.

53 Yoon, ‘Special Seats for Women in Parliament and Democratization’.

54 Ibid.

55 B. Killian, ‘A Policy of Parliamentary “Special Seats” for Women in Tanzania: Its Effectiveness’, Ufahamu: A Journal of African Studies, 24, 2–3, 1996, pp. 21–31.

56 A.M. Tripp, Joan Wicken: A Lifelong Collaboration with Mwalimu Nyerere (Dar es Salaam, Mkuki na Nyota, 2023).

57 Cap. 2, R.E. 2002.

58 1985, Cap. 343, R.E. 2002.

59 Ibid.

60 Yoon, ‘Special Seats for Women in Parliament and Democratization’.

61 Killian, ‘A Policy of Parliamentary “Special Seats” for Women in Tanzania’.

62 Lihiru, ‘The 2020 CHADEMA Special Seats Dispute in Tanzania’.

63 The Political Parties Act of 1992 was amended in 2019, paving the way for the Political Parties Amendment Act of 2019.

64 Interview with a CCM leader (anonymous), 15 March 2022, Dar es Salaam. The amendments were geared towards strengthening party structures, representation and decentralisation of powers.

65 Amendments were made in 2006, 2011–13, 2016 and 2019.

66 Article 4.3 of the CHADEMA constitution and Articles 4 (1) and 5 (11 and 15) of the CCM constitution.

67 Article 14 of the CCM constitution, Article 5.2.2 of the CHADEMA constitution.

68 Article 6.8.4 of the CHADEMA constitution, Articles 115,116, 117 and 118 of the CCM constitution.

69 The Political Parties (Amendment) Act, 2019, Act Supplement No. 1, 22 February 2019. Available at https://www.osg.go.tz/uploads/publications/sw1570617533-1.%20THE%20POLITICAL%20PARTIES%20(AMENDMENT)%20ACT,%202018%20%204%20FEBRUARI,%202019%20FINAL%2026TH%20FEBRUARY%202019.pdf, retrieved 27 February 2024.

70 Interview with a woman leader from the CHADEMA women’s wing (anonymous), 12 April 2022, Dar es Salaam.

71 BBC News, ‘John Magufuli: Tanzania’s President Dies Aged 61 after Covid Rumours’, available at https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-56437852, retrieved 20 April 2022.

72 Africa News, ‘Samia Suluhu Hassan Sworn in as Tanzania’s First Female President’, available at https://www.africanews.com/2021/03/19/tanzania-s-samia-suluhu-hassan-sworn-in-as-first-female-president//, accessed 20 April 2022.

73 L. Shekighenda, ‘Tanzania: Why CCM Elected Samia as Chairperson’, available at https://allafrica.com/stories/202105030230.html, retrieved 20 April 2022.

74 J. Sisya, ‘New Faces Pop Up in CCM’s Sweeping Changes’, available at https://www.dailynews.co.tz/news/2021-04-30608c084a2f480.aspx, retrieved 20 April 2022.

75 In 2020, April 2022 and December 2022.

76 A man, Anamlingi Macha, replaced Christina Mndeme as deputy general secretary – Mainland after CCM’s 2022 internal elections.

77 Interview with a CCM leader (anonymous), 20 April 2023, Dar es Salaam.

78 Interview with a non-governmental organisation (NGO) leader (anonymous), 26 April 2023, Dar es Salaam.

Interview with NGO leader (anonymous), 7 April 2023, Dar es Salaam.

Ibid.

79 Election rules nos. 100 and 108, CCM Elections Rules, 2022 edition.

80 The other 18 delegates include six members that are voted as delegates of CCM’s Central Committee, three from Zanzibar and three from Tanzania Mainland; one of each group must be a woman. Leaders of the Women’s wing are also represented in CCM’s Central Committee.

81 Forty-seven of the 201 members were women.

82 Eight out of 51 members were women.

83 One out of ten members was a woman.

84 CHADEMA’s national chairperson has the power to appoint six additional members to the Governing Council, two of whom should be women. The Governing Council subsequently has the role of electing six people from Tanzania Mainland (three men and three women, out of which at least one should be a person with a disability) and two people from Zanzibar (one man and one woman) to be part of the Central Committee. BAWACHA’s secretary is represented at the party National Secretariat.

85 100 women out of the 993 members.

86 40 women out of the 464 members.

87 Eight women out of 51 members.

88 One woman out of 10 members.

89 540 women out of the 1921 members.

90 47 women out of the 201 members.

91 Six women out of 24 members.

92 Two women out of 12 members.

93 Article 126 of the CCM constitution.

94 The current chairperson of the CCM board of trustees is a woman, Anna Abdallah.

95 Article 8.3 of the CHADEMA constitution.

96 Article 123 of the CCM constitution.

97 Rabia Abdallah Hamad heads the department of Politics and International Relations. A woman, Sophia Mjema, was briefly (from January to October 2023) head of the Department for Publicity and Ideology, but on 22 October 2023 she was replaced by Paul Makonda, a man. Sophia was the first woman to hold the position. Sophia has now been appointed a gender advisor to the president.

98 Interviews with CHADEMA’s Director of Election Strategy and Organisation, Reginald Munisi, 17 March 2022 and 11 April 2023.

99 Articles 24, 32, 38, 46 and 59B of the CCM constitution.

100 Articles 22 (4) and 28 of the CCM constitution; Rule 48 of CCM Election Rules, 2022 edition.

101 Rule 56 of CCM Election Rules, 2022 edition.

102 Rules 79 and 88 of CCM Election Rules, 2022 edition. Rule 87 (e) of CCM Election Rules, 2022 edition.

103 Articles 40, 53, 66,79 and 92 of the CCM constitution.

104 For example, one representative per ward in Tanzania Mainland and five per ward in Zanzibar attend the district general assembly At the regional level, one delegate for the National Executive Committee for Tanzania Mainland and four for Zanzibar are elected and form part of the regional leadership. Representatives for the regional National Executive Committee include two delegates from each district for Tanzania Mainland and five from each district for Zanzibar: Rules 61, 68 and 90 of CCM Election Rules, 2022 edition.

105 For example, see Article 7.3.3 of the CHADEMA constitution.

106 Article 7, Sections 7.1.3 to 7.6.1 of the CHADEMA constitution.

107 Gimbi Masaba (Serengeti zone) and Aisha Luja (Central zone). The ten zones are Central, Victoria, Serengeti, West, Nyasa, Southern, Coastal, North, Unguja and Pemba: interview with a woman leader (anonymous) from CHADEMA women’s wing, 12 April 2022, Dar es Salaam.

108 Sefa Komba (North zone) and Time Mohamed (Pemba), interview with a woman leader (anonymous) from CHADEMA women’s wing, 12 April 2022, Dar es Salaam.

109 They lead Lindi, Mtwara and Njombe regions: interview with a woman leader (anonymous) from CHADEMA women’s wing, 12 April 2022, Dar es Salaam.

110 Four out of the 32 CCM regional chairpersons are women (Silafi Maufi for Rukwa, Shemsa Seif for Simiyu Mwaka Mrisho Abdallah for Kusini Unguja and Martha Mlata for Singida): interview with CCM women’s wing leader (anonymous), 21 April 2023, Dar es Salaam.

111 V.M. Lihiru, ‘Political Parties Act as a Stumbling Block for Women’s Political Leadership in Tanzania’, The African Review (published online ahead of print 2023), available at https://doi.org/10.1163/1821889x-bja10087, retrieved 26 February 2024

112 Ibid.

113 Interview with CHADEMA party leader (anonymous), 4 April 2023, Dar es Salaam; interview with CCM party leader (anonymous), 12 April 2023, Dar es Salaam.

114 Ibid.

115 Interview with NGO leader (anonymous) on 26 April 2023, Dar es Salaam.

116 Interview with NGO leader (anonymous) on 24 April 2023, Dar es Salaam.

117 Interview with CHADEMA party leader (anonymous), 4 April 2023, Dar es Salaam; Interview with CCM party leader (anonymous), 12 April 2023, Dar es Salaam.

118 Lihiru, ‘Exploring Suitable Electoral Systems for Promotion of Women’s Representation in Tanzania and Rwanda’.

119 Interview with CCM women’s wing leader (anonymous), 21 April 2023, Dar es Salaam.

120 Interview with a woman leader from CHADEMA women’s wing (anonymous), 12 April 2022, Dar es Salaam.

121 Interview with CCM women’s wing leader (anonymous), 3 March 2023, Dar es Salaam.

122 Interview with party leader, CHADEMA, 4 April 2023, Dar es Salaam; interview with party leader, CCM, 12 April 2023, Dar es Salaam.

123 Lihiru, ‘The 2020 CHADEMA Special Seats Dispute in Tanzania’.

124 Interview with party leader, CHADEMA, 4 April 2023, Dar es Salaam; interview with party leader, CCM, 12 April 2023, Dar es Salaam.

125 Interview with CCM women’s wing leader (anonymous), 21 April 2023, Dar es Salaam.

126 Interview with CHADEMA party leader (anonymous), 4 April 2023, Dar es Salaam;. interview with CCM party leader (anonymous), 12 April 2023, Dar es Salaam.

127 Interview with Professor Alexander Makulilo, Department of Political Science, University of Dar es Salaam, 28 April 2023, Dar es Salaam.

128 Interview with NGO leader (anonymous), 26 April 2023, Dar es Salaam.

129 Interview with CCM women’s wing leader (anonymous), 21 April 2023, Dar es Salaam.

130 Killian, ‘A Policy of Parliamentary “Special Seats” for Women in Tanzania’.

131 Lihiru, ‘The 2020 CHADEMA Special Seats Dispute in Tanzania’.

132 Lihiru, ‘Political Parties Act as a Stumbling Block for Women’s Political Leadership in Tanzania’.

133 Ibid.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Victoria Melkisedeck Lihiru

Victoria Melkisedeck Lihiru Department of Public Law, The Open University of Tanzania, Kinondoni, Dar es Salaam, 23409, Tanzania. Email: [email protected] http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2666-5804