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Abstract
After the South African War (1899–1902), state-makers’ efforts to control ‘dagga’ was controversial on several fronts. But ‘dagga’ also proved a moving target for official classification. Was it a species of Leonotis, common around the countryside? Was it ‘Indian hemp’, understood by some as a habit-forming drug that debilitated wage workers and caused insanity? This paper traces dagga as a multiple object and problematic of governance in South Africa during the years before the formation of the Union of South Africa and into the early decades of the Union period. A focus on three contested boundaries of top-down knowledge-making and policy – botanical taxonomies; colonial geographies; and political-economy – demonstrates dagga’s shifting ontologies across time and space. Together, these empirical snapshots combine as a case study, revealing how the legal reification of a substance as a ‘drug’ involved political processes that were local, dispersed and unresolved. We show how uncertainties and ambivalences about cannabis long remained productive for different brokers and gatekeepers who navigated the frontiers of competing interests. This history is important for understanding the changing politics of cannabis in South Africa, as it became legible for regulation as a ‘dangerous drug’ during the first half of the 20th century.
Acknowledgements
Sections of this paper have their origins in earlier respective work by the authors: see T. Waetjen, ‘Dagga Smoking in Colonial Geographies: C.J.G. Bourhill, J.A. Mitchell and South Africa’ (unpublished paper presented at ‘Intoxicating Spaces’ online conference, University of Sheffield, July 2021); and P. Ndandu, ‘Dagga in the Witwatersrand Gold Mines: Tensions of Economy and State, 1925–1956’ (unpublished Honours research essay, History, University of Johannesburg, 2018). We are grateful for a J. Donald Hughes travel grant, awarded to Ndandu, and to South Africa’s National Research Foundation for funding to Waetjen (grant no. 129301), enabling us to co-present an earlier version of the paper at the American Society for Environmental History conference in Boston in March 2023. Warmest thanks to our Boston co-panellists Sarah Brady Siff, Utathya Chattopadhyaya, Chris Duvall and Nandini Bhattacharya; to botanist Dr Sue Milton-Dean; and to two anonymous reviewers for feedback and suggestions.
Notes
1 Alan Paton Centre, Pietermaritzburg, Maré Collection, Transcripts of the KwaZulu Legislative Assembly Debates, volume 10, 1977, p. 102.
2 ‘Parliament Legislative Council’, Cape Times, Cape Town, 28 August 1907.
3 Through Government Notice no. 318 of 1905, dagga was declared a poison under Division II of Schedule B of Act 34 of 1891 (Cape) and amended by Act 7 of 1899 (Cape). Also, Cape Archival Repository (hereafter KAB), List in the Final Government Notice, May 1907, AG 1885 310/11.
4 Whereas dagga had earlier sold for 4s 1d (4 shillings and 1 penny) per pound, cultivators had been compelled in 1906 to sell at 1d per pound.
5 ‘Parliament Legislative Council’, Cape Times, 28 August 1907.
6 Ibid.
7 T. Waetjen, ‘Dagga: How South Africa Made a Dangerous Drug,1902–1928’, in L. Richert and J.H. Mills (eds), Cannabis: Global Histories (Cambridge, MIT Press, 2021), pp. 83–108.
8 U. Chattopadhyaya, ‘Dagga and Prohibition: Markets, Animals, and Imperial Contexts of Knowledge, 1893–1925’, South African Historical Journal, 71, 4 (2019), pp. 587–613.
9 Ibid., p. 590.
10 C.S. Duvall, The African Roots of Marijuana (Durham, Duke University Press, 2019); G. Klantschnig, ‘Histories of Cannabis Use and Control in Nigeria 1927–67’, in G. Klantschnig, N. Carrier and C. Ambler (eds), Drugs in Africa: Histories and Ethnographies of Use, Trade, and Control (New York, Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), pp. 69–88; B.M. Du Toit, ‘Man and Cannabis: A Study of Diffusion’, African Economic History, 1 (1976), pp. 17–35; J. Walton, ‘The Dagga Pipes of Southern Africa’, Navorsinge van die Nationale Museum, 1, Part 4 (Bloemfontein, 1953), pp. 85–113.
11 D. Gordon, ‘From Rituals of Rapture to Dependence: The Political Economy of Khoikhoi Narcotic Consumption, c.1487–1870’, South African Historical Journal, 35, 1 (1996), pp. 62–88; B.M. Du Toit, ‘Dagga: The History and Ethnographic Setting of Cannabis Sativa in South Africa’, in V. Rubin (ed.), Cannabis and Culture (The Hague and Paris, De Gruyter Mouton, 1975), pp. 81–116.
12 Transcripts of the KwaZulu Legislative Assembly (KLA) Debates, 10 (1977), pp. 102–3. The KLA transcript mistakenly gives the year as 1966 rather than 1956. On this raid, see A. Morris, ‘“Weeding Out” the Nature of the Ngoba Dagga Raid Killings of 1956’ (Honours thesis, University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2011).
13 M. Ghiabi, ‘Ontological Journeys: The Lifeworld of Opium across the Afghan-Iranian Border in/out of the Pharmacy’, International Journal of Drug Policy, 89, (2021), no. 103116, pp. 1–9.
14 Ibid., p. 2.
15 Pioneering histories include D.T. Courtwright, Dark Paradise: A History of Opiate Addiction in America (Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1982); V. Berridge, Opium and the People: Opiate Use and Drug Control Policy in Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Century England (London, Free Association Books, 1999); J.H. Mills, Cannabis Britannica: Empire, Trade, and Prohibition, 1800-1928 (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2003).
16 B. Neilson and M. Bamyeh, ‘Drugs in Motion: Towards a Materialist Tracking of Global Mobilities’, Cultural Critique, 71 (2009), p. 1.
17 P. Gootenberg, ‘Talking about the Flow: Drugs, Borders and the Discourse of Drug Control’, Cultural Critique, 71 (2009), pp. 13–46.
18 Chattopadhyaya, ‘Dagga and Prohibition’.
19 On the productive potential of legal ambiguities of drugs in Africa, see N. Carrier and G. Klantschnig, ‘Quasilegality: Khat, Cannabis and Africa’s Drug Laws’, Third World Quarterly, 39, 2 (2018), pp. 350–65.
20 S.B. Siff, ‘Targeted Marijuana Law Enforcement in Los Angeles, 1914–1959’, Fordham Urban Law Journal, 49, 3 (2022), pp. 643–74. As in South Africa, definitions of ‘marijuana’ in Los Angeles were embroiled with ethno-racial ideas about consuming subjects, affecting whom law enforcers targeted.
21 Gordon, ‘Rituals’, pp. 65–6.
22 Ibid., pp. 65–72.
23 Ibid., p. 65.
24 As cited in Gordon, ‘Rituals’, p. 66; Duvall, African Roots, pp. 86–9.
25 M. Hunter, ‘The Labour Question in Colonial Worlds: Mandrax, Heroin, and Xanax in South Africa’s Era of Unemployment’, The Social History of Alcohol and Drugs, 36, 2 (2022), pp. 284–310.
26 With a guttural ‘g’. ‘Dagha’, sometimes spelled ‘dagga’ (pronounced with a hard g), refers to mortars used in local house building.
27 ‘South African Exhibition’, The Port Elizabeth Telegraph and Eastern Province Standard, Port Elizabeth, 17 December 1885.
28 L. Pappe, Florae Capensis Medicae Prodromus; An Enumeration of the South African Plants Used as Remedies, second edn (Cape Town, W. Brittain, 1857, via Google Books), p. 33, original emphasis.
29 ‘South African Exhibition’, The Port Elizabeth Telegraph and Eastern Province Standard, 17 December 1885.
30 Transvaal Argus, 15 May 1866.
31 Letter to the Editor, The Journal, Grahamstown, 10 May 1875.
32 ‘Cure for Red-Water’, The Journal, 29 January 1887. Buthlungu means pain, perhaps here referring to the characteristic burn experienced in the throat when smoking cannabis.
33 ‘The Red-Water Disease in Cattle’, The Port Elizabeth Telegraph and Eastern Province Standard, 3 June 1886.
34 Advertisement, ‘Redwater Specific’, The Journal, 15 March 1894.
35 Letter to the Editor, The Journal, 22 August 1881; Letter to the Editor, The Journal, 8 April 1990.
36 Letter to the Editor, The Journal, 19 April 1887.
37 ‘The Red-Water Disease in Cattle’, The Port Elizabeth Telegraph and Eastern Province Standard, 3 March 1891. Leonotis was said to ‘constitute’ the main ingredient for ‘celebrated preparations’ for snakebite.
38 ‘Dakka for Sheep Dipping’, The Journal, 11 July 1873.
39 Letter to the Editor, The Journal, 11 August 1888.
40 ‘South African Exhibition’, The Port Elizabeth Telegraph and Eastern Province Standard, 17 December 1885.
41 J.M. Watt and M.G. Breyer-Brandwijk, ‘The Forensic and Sociological Aspects of the Dagga Problem in South Africa’, South African Medical Journal, 22 August 1936, pp. 573–9.
42 J.M. Watt and M.G. Breyer-Brandwijk, The Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of Southern and Eastern Africa: Being an Account of Their Medicinal and Other Uses, Chemical Composition, Pharmacological Effects and Toxicology in Man and Animals (Edinburgh, E&S Livingston, 1962 [University of Michigan, Ann Arbor Microfilm Reprint], 1986), see pp. 516–17 and p. 759. Cannabis has since been relocated to Cannabaceae.
43 For example, in Letter to the Editor, The Journal, 10 May 1875. On bioprospecting in South Africa, see for example, W. Beinart and R. Beinart, ‘From Elephant’s Foot … to Cortisone: Boots Pure Drug Company and Dioscorea Sylvatica in South Africa, c. 1950–1963’, South African Historical Journal, 71, 4 (2019), pp. 644–75 and L. Foster, Reinventing Hoodia: Peoples, Plants and Patents (Seattle, University of Washington Press, 2017).
44 ‘South African Exhibition’, The Port Elizabeth Telegraph and Eastern Province Standard, 17 December 1885.
45 Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, The Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of Southern Africa, pp. 157 and 35, respectively. These notes remained in the expanded 1962 edition: see pp. 517–20 and p. 762. A recent popular plant guide cites Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk on both leonotis and cannabis for snakebite. B.-E. van Wyk, B. van Oudtshoorn and N. Gericke, Medicinal Plants of South Africa (Pretoria, Briza, 2009), pp. 188 and 74.
46 ‘South African Exhibition’, The Port Elizabeth Telegraph and Eastern Province Standard, 17 December 1885.
47 ‘Tobaccos that Cause Death: Varieties of the Weed that Prove Fatal to Smokers’, The Cape Daily Telegraph, Port Elizabeth, 17 December 1903.
48 Gordon, ‘Rituals’, fn. 8. Quotation from L. Pappe, Florae Capensis Medicae; or, An Enumeration of South African Plants Used as Remedies by the Colonists of the Cape of Good Hope (Cape Town, 1857), p. 33, accessed via Biodiversity Heritage Library, available at https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/103699, retrieved 25 April 2024. Thanks to Sarah Siff for alerting us to this resource.
49 J.W.C. Gunn, ‘The Action of Leonotis Leonurus’, Archives Internationales de Pharmacodynamie, 35 (1929), pp. 266–8, cited in Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, Medicinal and Poisonous Plants, p. 35.
50 Similar to what T.J. Tallie describes in ‘Sobriety and Settlement: The Politics of Alcohol’, Chapter Two, in Queering Colonial Natal: Indigeneity and the Violence of Belonging in Southern Africa (Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 2019).
51 R. Trimen and H.E.R. Bright (Committee Secretaries), ‘Philadelphia International Exhibition for 1876’, Zuid-Afrikaan Vereenigd Met ons Land, 30 October 1875.
52 ‘The De Beers Natives: Life in the Compound’, The Port Elizabeth Telegraph, 27 October 1894.
53 ‘British and Boer Tobacco’, Natal Witness, Pietermaritzburg, 16 October 1884.
54 ‘Labour Commission: What the Members Recommend’, Cape Times, 19 May 1894.
55 The Port Elizabeth Telegraph, 1 October 1891.
56 ‘Dagga Smoking’, The Port Elizabeth Telegraph and Eastern Province Standard, 19 January 1892. Wikipedia explains that ‘muid’ is a South African measurement equalling about 24 gallons or 3 bushels, a term probably based on a mediaeval French term for a dry measure of seeds sufficient to sow a specific area of land, available at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_African_units_of_measurement, retrieved 15 February 2023.
57 ‘Tobaccos that Cause Death: Varieties of the Weed that Prove Fatal to Smokers’, The Cape Daily Telegraph, Port Elizabeth, 17 December 1903. The article offered an ethno-inventory of various plant substances smoked, with often wildly fantastical claims as to relative harms or ‘wholesomeness’.
58 T. Waetjen, ‘Global Opium Politics in Mozambique and South Africa, c 1880–1930’, South African Historical Journal, 71, 4 (2019), pp. 560–86, especially 577–8.
59 R. Room, ‘Dependence and Society’, British Journal of Addiction, 80, 2 (1985), pp. 133–9.
60 In the original, ‘Eén arbeider, die geen dagga roker is, deed gewoonlik beter werk, of net zo veel, als twee dagga rokers’, Paarl Post, Paarl, 8 August 1912.
61 KAB JUS 141 25726/11, Cape Times, Legislative Council Report, ‘The Smoking of Dagga’, 27 March 1906.
62 KAB AG 1885 310/11, Charles Teitje to Thackray, 19 January 1916: original emphasis.
63 Geneva, League of Nations Archive, R787/12A/36162/36162 Opium Traffic ‘Various correspondence concerning the dagga plant’, 1924: M. Delevingne to A. E. Blanco, 14 May 1924.
64 Geneva, League of Nations Archive, R787/12A/36162/36162 Opium Traffic ‘Various correspondence concerning the dagga plant’, 1924: A.E. Blanco to M. Delevingne, 16 May 1924.
65 Geneva, League of Nations Archive, R787/12A/36162/36162 Opium Traffic ‘Various correspondence concerning the dagga plant’, 1924: ‘Dagga’ (copy), p. 3.
66 J.A. Mitchell, ‘Memorandum on Dagga Smoking and its Evils’ (Pretoria, Government Printer, 1924), p. 7.
67 Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, original 1932 edition of Medicinal and Poisonous Plants, p. 156.
68 Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, ‘Forensic and Sociological Aspects of the Dagga Problem’, pp. 574. They repeated these data in 1962 in Medicinal Plants, p. 766.
69 ‘The Chief Moroko’ [sic], Friend of the Free State and Bloemfontein Gazette, 4 May 1860.
70 C.J.G. Bourhill, ‘The Smoking of Dagga (Indian Hemp) among the Native Races of South Africa and the Resultant Evils’ (MD thesis, University of Edinburgh, 1913).
71 Mitchell, ‘Memorandum on Dagga Smoking and its Evils’.
72 ‘Obituary, C.J.G. Bourhill’, British Medical Journal, 2 (6 June 1970), p. 609.
73 The Edinburgh University Calendar, 1908–1909, Edinburgh Collection, 1908–1909, pp. 119, 615, 618, 620. Available at https://archive.org/details/edcalendar19081909univuoft/mode/2up, retrieved 1 May 2024.
74 National Archives Repository (Public Records of Central Government since 1910) (hereafter SAB) SAB GES 3040 408/34 CJG Bourhill to Secretary, High Commissioner, Union of South Africa, London, 8 December 1911; Copies of Letters of Reference: Arthur H. Biossier and others, Horton Infirmary, Banbury, December 1910; G Lovell Gulland, Royal Infirmary, Edinburgh, 29 July 1910; J.W. Dowden, Royal Infirmary, Edinburgh, 27 July 1910; J.M. Cotterill, Royal Infirmary, Edinburgh, 27 July 1910.
75 C. Plug and J.L. Roos, ‘Weskoppies Hospital, founded 1892 - The Early Years’, South African Medical Journal, 81, 4 (15 February 1992), pp. 218–21.
76 Ibid.
77 SAB GES 3040 408/34 ‘Articles of Agreement’ (of terms of employment, signed but undated).
78 Within his thesis, perhaps to bolster his credibility, Bourhill claims to have worked ‘a year’ at the Pretoria Asylum, an institution treating around 500 patients. His personnel file confirms eight months. His observations for the thesis are also from ‘seven Native mining compounds at Witbank’.
79 SAB GES 3040 408/34 CJG Bourhill to Dr J Dunston, Medical Superintendent, 12 September 1912; Dr J. Dunston, Medical Superintendent to Acting Minister of the Interior, 9 November 1912.
80 In 1916, Bourhill signed up for service in the war, serving as a medic, after which he emigrated to England, settling into a practice in Warrington. He died there in 1970.
81 Bourhill, ‘Smoking of Dagga’, p. 3.
82 Ibid.
83 See N. Carrier and G. Klantschnig, Cannabis Africana: The Age of Prohibition, 1922–2020 (forthcoming), pp. 73–8.
84 Bourhill, ‘Smoking of Dagga’, pp. 5 and 4.
85 Ibid., pp. 5–6.
86 Ibid., pp. 27–8.
87 Ibid., p. 26.
88 M. Mamdani, Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1996).
89 Bourhill, ‘Dagga Smoking’, p. 86.
90 For example, F. Ames, ‘A Clinical and Metabolic Study of Acute Intoxication with Cannabis Sativa and its Role in Model Psychosis’, Journal of Mental Science, 104, 437 (1958), pp. 972–99; A.T. Weil, N.E Zinberg and J.M. Nelson, ‘Clinical and Psychological Effects of Marijuana in Man’, Science, 162, 3859 (13 December 1968), pp. 1234–42.
91 Bourhill, ‘Dagga Smoking’, p. 45.
92 Ibid., p. 59.
93 S. Dubow, Racial Segregation and the Origins of Apartheid in South Africa, 1919-36 (New York, St. Martins Press, 1989), pp. 21–9.
94 Bourhill, ‘Dagga Smoking’, pp. 89–90.
95 Dubow, Racial Segregation, pp. 39–50.
96 ‘Obituary, Dr. J.A. Mitchell’, South African Medical Journal (24 June 1933), pp. 411–12.
97 Mitchell, ‘Memorandum on Dagga Smoking and its Evils’.
98 Geneva, League of Nations Archive, Opium File 12/15529 ‘Various Correspondences regarding dagga, a drug used in South Africa’. Clippings included ‘Drug that leads to Insanity’ Evening Standard, 7 October 1929, and similar write-ups in La Bourse Egyptienne, South African Review and Cape Argus.
99 ‘Drug Peril in Africa’, The Referee, London, 6 October 1929.
100 Mitchell, ‘Memorandum on Dagga Smoking and its Evils’, p. 5.
101 Ibid., p. 3.
102 Mitchell, ‘Memorandum on Dagga Smoking and its Evils’, p. 4.
103 Ibid.
104 As elaborated in C. Paterson, ‘Prohibition and Resistance: A Socio-Political Exploration of the Changing Dynamics of the Southern African Cannabis Trade, c. 1850–The Present’ (MA thesis, Rhodes University, 2009), pp. 31 and 50; and in Waetjen, ‘Dagga’, pp. 87–8. SAB NTS 8194 3/345: see various survey responses of traditional authorities on the question of dagga legislation, July 1909.
105 Du Toit, ‘History and Ethnographic Setting’, p. 105.
106 L. Simon, ‘Dependence-Producing Substances’, De Rebus Procuratoriis (June 1977), pp. 311–14.
107 Quoted in T. Waetjen, ‘Apartheid’s 1971 Drug Law: Between Cannabis and Control in South Africa’, Social History of Alcohol and Drugs, 36, 2 (2022), p. 193.
108 D.T. Moodie, ‘Mine Culture and Miners’ Identity on the South African Gold Mines’, in B. Bozzoli (ed.), Identity on the South African Gold Mines in Towns and Countryside in the Transvaal: Capitalist Penetration and Popular Response (Johannesburg, Ravan Press, 1983), pp. 176–97, see pp. 180; D.T. Moodie, ‘The Moral Economy of the Black Miners’ Strike of 1946’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 13, 1 (1986): p. 2; P. Harries, Work, Culture, and Identity: Migrant Laborers in Mozambique and South Africa, c. 1860–1910 (Johannesburg, Wits University Press, 1994).
109 Waetjen, ‘Dagga’, pp. 89–93.
110 A.H. Jeeves, Migrant Labour in South Africa’s Mining Economy: The Struggle for the Gold Mines’ Labour Supply (Johannesburg, Wits University Press, 1985).
111 A. MacDonald, ‘Forging the Frontiers: Travellers and Documents on the South Africa–Mozambique Border, 1890s–1940s’, Kronos, 40, 1 (2014), pp. 154–77; see also Waetjen, ‘Global Opium Politics’, pp. 583–5.
112 According to the Employment Bureau of Africa (TEBA) archives, fines ranged from 10 or 20 shillings to £2, or before 1931 some were just cautioned.
113 The Employment Bureau of Africa archives (hereafter TEBA), WNLA 53 Pad 1 Transvaal Chambers of Mines (Secretaries) to WNLA District Manager in Lourenço Marques, ‘A further native was arrested at Komatipoort re dagga’, 14 September 1926; and WNLA District Manager to WNLA General Manager ‘Eight natives arrested at Komatipoort for being in possession of dagga’, 16 September 1926.
114 TEBA WNLA 53 Pad 1 WNLA Assistant Secretary to WNLA Chief Accountant, ‘Dagga fines paid by Mr. J.Y. Robinson’, 17 September 1926; WNLA Divisional Agent to WNLA General Manager ‘Four natives brought before the Magistrate for smoking dagga’, 5 March 1926; WNLA Divisional Agent to WNLA General Manager ‘Natives fined by the Magistrate for smoking dagga’, 8 March, 1926.
115 TEBA WNLA 53 Pad 1 the WNLA District Manager to WNLA General Manager, ‘Inquiry to the Union Agent on Dagga Arrests’, 7 September 1927.
116 TEBA WNLA 53 Pad 1 Memorandum, WNLA Chief Accountant to the Assistant Secretary, ‘East-Coast Native, # 6394 Portuguese Pass’, 7 December 1926; The Transvaal Chamber of Mines Secretaries to WNLA District Manager, ‘Natives in Unlawful Possession of Dagga (Komatipoort)’, 5 September 1927.
117 TEBA WNLA 53 Pad 1 WNLA Divisional Agent to WNLA General Manager ‘Natives fined by the Magistrate for smoking dagga’, 8 March 1926.
118 TEBA WNLA 53 Pad 1 Circular – no. 36/31 ‘Deductions from Wages of Fines imposed on Native labourers charged with petty offence’, 16 May 1931, p. 2.
119 Ibid.
120 TEBA WNLA 53 Pad 1 Acting Manager to Rose Deep LMTD to Native Recruiting Corporation [NRC] ‘Native No 1554/751189 Joao Tangalimine Shangaan from P.E.A.’, 26 June 1933.
121 TEBA WNLA 53 Pad 1 Secretary of African Affairs to WNLA General Manager, ‘Indian Hemp’, 25 June 1956.
122 SAB NTS 8194 3/345 the Protector N.A.D. Krugersdorp to the District G.N.L., ‘General Minute No 5/1911’, 18 January 1911.
123 TEBA WNLA 53 Pad 1 Compound Managers and Inspectors to the General Manager of WNLA, ‘Indian Hemp’, 10 July 1956, pp. 1–2.
124 TEBA WNLA 53 Pad 1 WNLA District Manager to WNLA General Manager, ‘Arrests at Komatipoort: Natives in Possession of Dagga’, 22 July 1933; Acting Manager for Rose Deep LMTD Mines to NRC ‘Native No 1554/751189 Joao Tangalimine, a Shangaan from P.E. A’, 26 June 1933; WNLA District Manager to WNLA General Manager, ‘Natives in Possession of Dagga, prohibited migrants’, 26 July 1933.
125 TEBA WNLA 53 Pad 1 Transvaal Chamber of Mines Secretaries to Director of Native Labour, Department of Native Affairs (JHB) ‘Dagga offence probably committed more out of ignorance’, 6 July 1933.
126 TEBA WNLA 53 Pad 1 Transvaal Chamber of Mines to the Commissioner for Immigration and Asiatic Affairs ‘Native to be handed back to the Mines after serving term in Prison’, 7 July 1933.
127 TEBA WNLA 53 Pad 1 WNLA District Manager to WNLA General Manager, ‘Natives in Possession of Dagga’, 11 August 1936.
128 TEBA WNLA 53 Pad 1 Transvaal Chamber of Mines Secretaries to the Commissioner for Immigration and Asiatic Affairs, ‘Portuguese Natives in Possession of Dagga’, 2 September 1933.
129 Ibid.
130 TEBA WNLA 53 Pad 1 Transvaal Chamber of Mines Secretaries to the Commissioner for Immigration and Asiatic Affairs, ‘arrangements to enable Portuguese natives convicted of being is possession of dagga to enter their contract’, 15 November 1933: Commissioner for Immigration and Asiatic Affairs to Transvaal Chamber of Mines Secretaries, ‘Portuguese East Africa convicted re dagga’, 11 November 1933.
131 TEBA WNLA 53 Pad 1 Chamber of Mines Secretaries to the Deputy Commissioner of the Police ‘Portuguese Possession of Dagga’, 1933.
132 TEBA WNLA 53 Pad 1 Commissioner for Immigration and Asiatic Affairs to the Secretaries of the Chamber of Mines, ‘Completion of work contract for a dagga offender’, 11 November 1933.
133 J. Derrida, Dissemination (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2004), pp. 61–122. See H. Keane, ‘Drugs that Work: Pharmaceuticals and Performance Self-Management’, in S. Fraser and D. Moore (eds), The Drug Effect: Health, Crime and Society (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2011), pp. 106–21; A. Persson, ‘Incorporating Pharmakon: HIV, Medicine, and Body Shape Change’ Body & Society, 10, 4 (2004), pp. 45–67; Ghiabi, ‘Ontological Journeys’, pp. 3–4.
134 Waetjen, ‘Apartheid’s 1971 Drug Law’; P.I. Nkosi, R. Devey and T. Waetjen, ‘Cannabis Policing in Mid-Twentieth Century South Africa’, Historia, 65, 1 (2020), pp. 61–86.