Social difference and the politics of schooling in Africa: a Ghanaian case study

Abstract

This paper examines the implications of ‘social difference’ for schooling in African contexts. It highlights theoretical and philosophical engagements with ‘difference’ that could help explore and search for viable educational options in Africa. The paper engages voices of university students interviewed in a longitudinal ethnographic research study on schooling done in Ghana. Issues and questions about knowledge production, identity development and representation in pluralistic schooling contexts are raised. Insights about local knowledges, individual agency and resistance as they relate to possibilities for rethinking schooling and education in Africa are also explored. The students' narratives reveal how dialogues about school and educators' practices about difference and diversity are [not] addressed with respect to the students' schooling. Lessons on the possibilities of inclusive schooling environments are offered.

Keywords:

• Social difference
• Diversity
• Ethnicity
• Class
• Gender
• Religion
• Language
• Schooling reforms
• Ghana

Acknowledgements

This study was funded by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC). I would particularly like to mention Evelyn Oduro of the Ministry of Education, Accra, Ghana. I am grateful to Dr Leeno Karumanchery, Meredith Lordan, John Okumu and Bathseba Opini from the Department of Sociology and Equity Studies in Education, part of the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education at the University of Toronto (OISE/UT), for reading and commenting on working copies of the paper. Cheryl Williams of OISE/UT provided editorial assistance and Dr Margarida Aguiar assisted with transcribing tapes and data analysis. Thanks to Alireza Asgharzadeh, Lems Crooks, Bijoy Barua, and Gulnara Medebeukova all of OISE/UT who worked as graduate researchers with me in Ghana. Paul Akom, Dean of Students at the University College of Education at Winneba, Ghana provided invaluable assistance in this research project. Dickson K. Darko, Martin Duodo, Esther Danso, Paul Banahene Adjei, and Mrs Ntow of Ghana, served as local research assistants during my fieldwork. My sincerest appreciation goes to the many Ghanaian educators, students and parents who gave their time for the interviews during my fieldwork. Finally, I am grateful to the anonymous readers of the journal for their constructive comments.

Notes

1. The study has three learning objectives: (i) To obtain in‐depth, site‐specific ethnographic information on exemplary practices that promote educational equity and academic excellence for all students. (ii) To conduct a critical examination of innovative practices of inclusive education that address, specifically, the educational needs of ethnic, cultural, linguistic, religious and working‐class minorities and women. (iii) To research knowledge that is useful in evaluating different models of minority education in pluralistic contexts.

2. All names used in the text are pseudonyms.

3. In 2001, the incidental fee for SSS1 day students was ¢889,000 (cedis) per academic year. In 2003, the fee increased to ¢1,085,000. SSS3 students paid ¢317,000 and ¢684,000 in 2001 and 2003 respectively. The boarding fee for SSS1 was ¢1.6 million in 2001 and ¢2.3 million in 2003. The corresponding fees for SSS3 were ¢892,000 in 2001 and ¢1.5 million in 2003. At the primary level, the parents paid around ¢68,000 per pupil in 2001 and ¢84,000 in 2003. The JSS fee ranged from ¢53,000 per child in 2001 to ¢73,000 in 2003. At university levels, residential fees for the year 2002‐1 were ¢168,500 while the academic fee was ¢688,000. Corresponding fees for the year 2002‐3 were ¢220,000 and ¢683,000 respectively. On average, a university spends a minimum of ¢10,000–12,000 on food, daily. Putting these figures in context, the minimum wage in 2001 and 2003 were ¢5500 and ¢9200 respectively. Unemployed Ghanaians do not receive any social security benefit. At the time of the research one US dollar was equivalent to ¢5000 at the local Forex bureau. In 2003, one US dollar was worth over ¢8500.