‘The Weary Titan Staggers under the Too Vast Orb of its Fate’. Post-Federation Australia and the Problem of Imperial Defence

ABSTRACT

This article investigates an under-studied aspect of the British/Australian defence relationship in the immediate post-Boer War period. The essential nature of the Australian Imperial Force was not an accident of 1914. Rather, as this article will show, the form, style and structure of the force that fought at Gallipoli was set in stone more than a decade before that famous name entered the popular Australian lexicon.

KEYWORDS:

• imperial defence
• British army
• late Victorian
• colonial defence

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Notes

1. Horne, Source Records of the Great War, 404.

2. Thompson, ‘The Language of Imperialism’, 152.

3. Gillon, ‘Triumph of Pragmatic Imperialism’, 12–13; Hyam, Britain’s Imperial Century, 190–210.

4. Thompson, ‘The Language of Imperialism’, 170.

5. Tennyson to Chamberlain, 17 April 1900, MS 479, National Library of Australia (hereafter NLA).

6. Ibid (emphasis in original).

7. Quoted in Wilde, ‘Chamberlain’s Proposal’, 227; Lehane, ‘Lieutenant-general Edward Hutton’, 191.

8. Quoted in Durrans, ‘Imperial Defence’, 113.

9. Ibid., 114.

10. Harries-Jenkins, The Army in Victorian Society, 272.

11. Gordon, The Dominion Partnership, 145.

12. Wilde, ‘The Boxer Affair’, 56.

13. Ibid., 54.

14. Gordon, ‘The Colonial Defence Committee’, 535.

15. Quoted in Wilde, ‘Joseph Chamberlain’s Proposal’, 242.

16. The Times, 13 March 1900, 9.

17. The Times, 22 March 1900, 9.

18. Ibid.

19. The Times, 20 April 1900, 8.

20. Seddon to Hutton, 29 Aug.1900, microfilm reel A-4, Hutton Papers (hereafter HP), University of New South Wales Library.

21. Wilde, ‘The Boxer Affair’, 60.

22. Sanford Evans, The Canadian Contingents, 269–70.

23. Hutton to Minto, 10 Jan. 1901, reel A-1, HP; Wilde, ‘Chamberlain’s Proposal’, 241; Lehane, ‘Lieutenant-general Edward Hutton’, 192.

24. Gordon, ‘The Colonial Defence Committee’, 535; Mowbray, ‘Militiaman’, 139.

25. Thompson, ‘The Language of Imperialism’, 155.

26. Parkin to Hutton, 4 Oct. 1900, reel A-3, HP.

27. Quoted in Lascelles, ‘The Colonies and Imperial Defence’, 858–59.

28. Parkin to Hutton, 30 Nov. 1900, reel A-3, HP.

29. Knaplund, ‘Britain’s Defence Question’, 140.

30. Gordon, ‘The Colonial Defence Committee’, 536.

31. Ibid., 536–37.

32. As Ian Beckett has shown, opinion in Britain about the military lessons of South Africa was split. It was quite reasonably argued, by Brodrick and others, that the war was hardly reflective of a large-scale conflict in Europe, especially after its first year. In any case, the lessons of the veldt were soon overturned by those of the Russo-Japanese War. The point is that policy-makers in Australia and Canada took what they wished from South Africa, often with a mind for economy rather than military efficiency. Beckett, ‘The South African War’; Dennis and Grey, The Boer War, 35.

33. Minto to Lansdowne, 12 April 1900, MG 27, II-B-I, vol. 12, reel C-3114, HP; Miller, ‘The Crucible of War’; Dennis and Grey, The Boer War, 97–98; Jebb, Studies in Colonial Nationalism, 127 (quoted in Gordon, The Dominion Partnership, 152); Miller, Painting the Map Red, 439.

34. Quoted in Lascelles, ‘The Colonies and Imperial Defence’, 859.

35. Johnson, Volunteers at Heart, 183. The quote originally pertained to Hutton’s appointment to New South Wales in 1893.

36. Mordike, An Army for a Nation, 118.

37. Ibid., 104.

38. See also Penlington, Canada and Imperialism; Clarke, ‘Marching to their Own Drum’.

39. Cole, ‘Problem of “Nationalism” and “Imperialism”’; Eddy and Schreuder, The Rise of Colonial Nationalism.

40. For more of a discussion of this issue, see Buckner, “Whatever Happened to the British Empire’, 3–32; Meaney, ‘Britishness and Australia’, 121–35.

41. Minute, Hutton to Collins, 11 Aug. 1902, 6 Aug. 1902, Item 1902/2688, Series B168, National Archives of Australia (hereafter NAA).

42. Mordike, ‘Control by Committee’, 3.

43. Lehane, ‘Lieutenant-general Edward Hutton’, 23.

44. Clarke, ‘Marching to their Own Drum’, xix.

45. Wilcox, ‘Relinquishing the Past’, 57.

46. ‘Notes of an Interview between Rt. Hon. Joseph Chamberlain—Secretary of State for the Colonies and Major General Sir Edward Hutton’, 19 Dec. 1901, reel A-2, HP.

47. Hutton to Roberts, 22 July 1902, reel A-4, HP.

48. Hutton to Broderick, 24 Feb. 1902, reel A-4, HP.

49. Hutton to Broderick, 7 April 1902, reel A-4, HP.

50. Hutton to Ommanney, 23 Dec. 1902, reel A-2, HP.

51. Hutton to Tennyson, 23 Feb. 1903, reel A-3, HP.

52. Hutton to Ommanney, 19 Aug. 1903, reel A-2, HP; Bridge to Hutton, 31 Aug. 1903, reel C-3, HP.

53. Otte, ‘Foreign Office and Defence of Empire’, 19–20.

54. ‘Major-General French’s Defence Scheme—Australia’s Mounted Men’, 8 May 1900, reel A-4, HP.

55. Ibid.; ‘Major General French’s Defence Scheme’, WO 32/6365, The National Archives , Kew (hereafter TNA).

56. ‘Defences of the Colony’, 20 July 1900, reel A-4, HP.

57. Gordon, The Dominion Partnership, 158.

58. McGibbon, The Path to Gallipoli, 131.

59. ‘Colonial Co-operation in Imperial defence, No. 271M’, 2 Aug. 1901, CAB 8/1, TNA; Wilde, ‘The Boxer Affair’, 52; McGibbon, The Path to Gallipoli, 132.

60. Wilde, ‘The Boxer Affair’, 61–62.

61. ‘Colonial Co-operation in Imperial defence, No. 271M’, 2 Aug. 1901, CAB 8/1, TNA.

62. M. Nathan, ‘Colonial Co-operation in Imperial Defence’, 16 Aug.1900, Bundle 3/A8, CP103/12, NAA; Gordon, The Dominion Partnership, 148–50.

63. Minute, Altham to Ardagh, 20 Oct. 1900, WO 32/6365, TNA.

64. Ibid.

65. Ibid.

66. Ibid.

67. Chamberlain to Ranfurly, 6. Sept.1901, 972, A6661, NAA.

68. E. A. Altham, ‘The Organization of Colonial Troops for Imperial Service’, 25 Nov. 1901, reel A-3, HP.

69. Ibid.

70. Ibid.

71. ‘The Organisation of Colonial Troops for Imperial Service’, CO 537/300, TNA.

72. Ibid.

73. Ibid.

74. Covering notes on ‘The Organisation of Colonial Troops for Imperial Service’, CO 537/300, TNA.

75. Minute, Wilson to Onslow, 19 Feb. 1902, CO 537/300, TNA; Minute, ‘Organisation of Colonial Troops for Imperial service’, 19 Feb. 1902, CO 537/300, TNA.

76. ‘Colonial Troops for Imperial Service in War’, No. 293M, 13 June 1902, Bundle 3/A8 /, CP103/12, NAA, and CA 8/1, TNA.

77. Ibid.

78. Ibid.

79. ‘A study in British Commonwealth Co-operation: Australian defence policy to 1938’, 784/2, A5954, NAA.

80. Minto to Chamberlain, 3 Feb. 1902, C-1171, MG26-G, Laurier Fonds, Libraries and Archives Canada.

81. Gordon, The Dominion Partnership, 155.

82. ‘Colonial Conference, 1902’, Commonwealth Parliamentary Papers, 1903, vol. 2, 1010 (2 of proceedings).

83. Ibid.

84. Ibid.

85. ‘A study in British Commonwealth Co-operation. Australian defence policy to 1938’, 784/2, A5954, NAA.

86. ‘Colonial Conference, 1902’, Commonwealth Parliamentary Papers, 1903, vol. 2, 1012 (4 of proceedings).

87. Ibid.

88. ‘A study in British Commonwealth Co-operation: Australian defence policy to 1938’, 784/2, A5954, NAA; Durrans, ‘Imperial Defence’, 145–47.

89. ‘A study in British Commonwealth Co-operation. Australian defence policy to 1938’, 784/2, A5954, NAA.

90. Ibid.

91. Mordike, An Army for a Nation, 113.

92. ‘A study in British Commonwealth Co-operation: Australian defence policy to 1938’, 784/2, A5954, NAA.

93. Ibid.

94. Telegram, Deakin to Barton, 6 July 1902, MS479/6/2, Tennyson Papers, NLA; Telegram, Barton to Deakin, 26 July 1902, MS479/6/2, Tennyson Papers, NLA; Wilde, ‘The Boxer Affair’, 64; Lehane, ‘Lieutenant-general Edward Hutton’, 243.

95. See the discussions, pp. 19–21.

96. McGibbon, The Path to Gallipoli, 133.

97. Telegram, Barton to Deakin, 6 July 1902, MS479/6/2, Tennyson Papers, NLA; Mordike, An Army for a Nation, 113; ‘A study in British Commonwealth Co-operation. Australian defence policy to 1938’, 784/2, A5954, NAA. Disappointed with the conference, Seddon pressed Brodrick again in September 1902 over the ‘imperial reserve’ idea. It was almost two years before he got a discouraging response. In December 1903 Brodrick’s successor, Arnold Foster, called the scheme a ‘certain liability’ with an ‘uncertain benefit’ and suggested New Zealand maintain its own force of high-quality mounted troops to serve as volunteers for imperial service if required, or else raise a permanent regiment to serve with British Army. ‘Imperial Reserve, New Zealand’, 27 Aug.1904, CAB 5/1 (13), TNA. McGibbon, The Path to Gallipoli, 133–34; Gordon, The Dominion Partnership, 162–63.

98. Durrans, ‘Imperial Defence’, 149.

99. Roberts to Hutton, 3 Oct. 1902, reel A-4, HP.

100. Quoted in Lascelles, ‘The Colonies and Imperial Defence’, 884.

101. Durrans, ‘Imperial Defence’, 84–86; Knaplund, ‘Britain’s Defence Question’, 141.

102. Otte, ‘The Foreign Office and Defence of Empire’, 9.

103. Wood, Chiefs of the Australian Army, xix.

104. Nicholson to Hutton, 22 Nov. 1901, reel A-4, HP.

105. Hutton to Minto, 29 Aug. 1902, reel A-1, HP.

106. Hutton to Nicholson, 10 March 1903, reel A-5, HP.

107. Hutton to Minto, 29 Aug.1902, reel A-1, HP.

108. Ibid.

109. Hutton to Kelly-Kenny, 4 Aug. 1902, reel A-3, HP.

110. Hutton to Duke of Connaught, 4 Aug. 1902, reel A-2, HP.

111. Hutton to Nicholson, 10 March 1903, reel A-5, HP.

112. Hutton to Tennyson, 23 Feb. 1903, reel A-3, HP; Hutton to Darley, 20 Jan. 1903, reel A-3, HP.

113. Hutton to Brodrick, Nov. 1902, reel A-4, HP.

114. Ommanney to Hutton, 20 Nov. 1902, reel A-2, HP.

115. Memo, ‘Minute upon Defence by General Officer Commanding the Military Forces: Remarks by the Colonial Defence Committee’, 22 Oct.1902, reel A-3, HP.

116. ‘Minute upon Defence by General Officer Commanding the Military Forces: Remarks by the Colonial Defence Committee’, CDC 301R, 22 Oct. 1902, 1718/21, CAB 9/8, TNA, and A5954, NAA.

117. Ibid.

118. Ibid.

119. Clarke to Tennyson, 3 March 1903, MS479/2/279, Tennyson Papers, NLA.

120. Telegram. Tennyson to Chamberlain, 11 March 1903, MS479/2/279, Tennyson Papers, NLA.

121. Ibid.

122. Ibid.

123. Hutton to Ommanney, 1 April 1903, reel A-2, HP.

124. Nicholson to Hutton, 10 Feb. 1903, reel A-4, HP; Hutton to Tennyson, 9 March 1903, reel A-3, HP.

125. Lehane, ‘Lieutenant-general Edward Hutton’, 246–48.

126. Minute, Hutton to Forrest, 9 May 1903, 1902/2688, B168, NAA; Minute, Forrest to Collins, July 1903, 1902/2688, B168, NAA.

127. Hutton to Tennyson, 9 March 1903, reel A-3, HP.

128. Hutton to Nicholson, 10 March 1903, reel A-5, HP.

129. Ibid.

130. Ibid.

131. Hutton to Nicholson, 17 March 1903, reel A-5, HP.

132. Ibid.

133. Nicholson to Hutton, 24 June 1903, reel A-5, HP.

134. Hutton to Brodrick, 18 Aug. 1903, reel A-4, HP.

135. Ibid.

136. Brodrick to Hutton, 3 Nov. 1903, reel A-4, HP.

137. Roberts to Hutton, 5 June 1903, reel A-4, HP.

138. Hamilton to Hutton, 23 Dec.1903, 7 April 1899, reel A-5, HP; Hamilton to Otter, 23 Dec. 1903, Item 102.32, 58 A1 (William Dillon Otter Papers), Canadian War Museum (hereafter CWM).

139. Clauson to Hutton, 4 June 1903, 6 Aug. 1903, reel A-5, HP; Minute, CDC to Anon., 12 July 1904, reel C-4, HP; Clarke to Deakin, 1 June 1906, 15/3588-9, Deakin Papers, NLA.

140. Hutton to Clarke, 7 Oct. 1906, reel A-3, HP.

141. E. T. H. Hutton, ‘Correspondence in regard to the policy of Australian defence’, Sept. 1915, reel A-5, HP.

142. Speech by the prime minister for Australia, 20 April 1907, ‘Colonial Conference, 1907: Minutes and Proceedings’, 103–07, Commonwealth Parliamentary Papers, 1907–8, vol. 3.

143. Meaney, ‘Britishness and Australian Identity’, 79.

144. Imperial fervour was common across the community, though it did to some extent reflect class. Middle-class enthusiasm was generally the highest, while the working classes were more cynical. Souter, Lion and Kangaroo, 109.

145. Macintyre, A Concise History of Australia, 150.

146. Cole, ‘Problem of “Nationalism” and “Imperialism”’, 177.

147. Souter, Lion and Kangaroo, 21.

148. Quoted in Andrews, The Anzac Illusion, 31.

149. ‘Defence as an Impetus to Federation’, 794/2, 5954, NAA.

150. Brisbane Courier, 28 July 1902, 4.

151. Quoted in Lehane, ‘Lieutenant-general Edward Hutton’, 244.

152. ‘Colonial Conference, 1902’, Commonwealth Parliamentary Papers, 1903, vol. 2,1038–9.

153. Quoted in Wilde, ‘The Boxer Affair’, 64–65.

154. ‘Minute: Minister for Defence for the Prime Minister, 15 March 1902’, Commonwealth Parliamentary Papers, 1903 vol. 2, 1021.

155. Minute, Forrest to Barton, 15 March 1902, reel A-4, HP.

156. ‘Minute: Minister for Defence for the Prime Minister, 15 March 1902’, Commonwealth Parliamentary Papers, 1903 vol. 2, 1021.

157. Speech by Mr Andrew Fisher, 5 Aug.1903, Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, vol. 15, 1903, 3105.

158. Speech by Mr G. H. Reid, 22 July 1903, Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, vol. 14, 1903, 2455.

159. Sydney Morning Herald, 28 July 1902, 6.

160. Hutton to Tennyson, 9 March 1903, reel A-3, HP.

161. Hutton to Darley, 20 Jan. 1903, MS479/6/2, Tennyson Papers, NLA.

162. Hutton to Tennyson, 23 Feb.1903, reel A-3, HP; Hutton to Ommanney, 15 Dec.1903, reel A-2, HP; Lehane, ‘Lieutenant-general Edward Hutton’, 235, 244.

163. ‘A study in British Commonwealth Co-operation. Australian defence policy to 1938’, 784/2, A5954, NAA.

164. Mowbray, ‘Militiaman’, 128–29.

165. Hutton to Ommanney, 20 June 1904, reel A-2, HP.

166. Gordon, The Dominion Partnership, 72 (quoted from Robinson, Gallagher and Denny, Africa and the Victorians, 9).

167. Wilcox, ‘Relinquishing the Past’, 58–59.

168. ‘Papers before the Conference: Naval and Military Defence’, Bundle 3A2, CP103/2, NAA.